CRIM MIDTERM #1

cofounding chronically hindered connecting officer features and risk

"overrepresentation of minority officers among police shooters closely assoc w racially varying pattern of assignment, socialization, and residence" "black officers are not prominent in units of police dept which see most shooting action" "blacks were posted to high-risk assignments far more than whites" age/shooting risk relationship is "an artifact of age-related variations in assignment and in exposure to potential shooting situations" "if, for ex, black officers draw more complaints, is that because they act more aggressively or bc they are assigned to tougher beats..." "it is quite possible that other factors, such as extent to which college-educated officers vs non-college-educated officers encounter resistant suspects, may account for why education appears to matter"

Terry v. Ohio (1968)

"terry" stop reasonable suspicion needed to "stop and frisk" facts of event and officers' experience must give reasonable suspicion that crimes may be occurring, and that suspects may be armed

Kansas City Patrol Experiment

-site of largest, impactful experiments -1972 KC police chief Kelley (chief for 10 years, unusually long term) -patrol strategies based on unproven assumptions -1.visible police presence prevents crime by deterring potential offenders -2.fear of crime is diminished by such police presence -three controlled levels of routine preventive patrol used -Reactive - area received no preventive patrol; officers entered area only in response to calls -Proactive - area increased 2-3 times its usual level -Control - area maintained normal level of patrol -experimental condition did not affect police activities

how often do police shoot their intended target? (NYPD hit rate data)

0-2 yards: 38% 3-7 yards: 17% 8-15 yards: 9% 16-25 yards: 8% 25+ yards: 4% police officers have a hard time shooting people shot by police are unlucky..most shots police fire miss

Attrition

1,007 assigned to treatment, 1,006 assigned to control --> only 412 of 1,007 actually received treatment

3 transparent methods for assessing racially biased policing

1. VoD natural experiments 2. internal benchmarking 3. comparisons of similarly situated drivers

ability to see driver influence which drivers stopped?

1. ability to discriminate requires officers to identify race in advance 2. ability to identify race in advance of stop decreases as it becomes dark

compare shooting and nonshooting officers on same scene

1. multiple officers on same scene 2. they all share same environment features 3. test whether officers with certain features are more likely to be the shooter

dimensions of community policing

1. philosophical 2. strategic 3. tactical/programmatic 4. organizational

3 police actions involving due process

1. search and seizure of evidence 2. arrest 3. interrogation

Peelian Principles

1. to prevent crime and disorder 2. police power depend on public approval 3. securing the willing co-operation of the public in the task of securing observance of laws 4. co-operation of public diminishes use of physical force for achieving police objectives 5. demonstrate impartial service to law 6. use physical force, and only to the minimum degree, to achieve a police objective 7. the police are the public and the public are police 8. refrain from assuming the powers of the judiciary 9. the test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, not the visible evidence of police action in dealing with them

Assessing disparities in decision to stop

1.6 disparity b/w racial distributions may result from: A race bias effect (i.e. Latinos most likely to wear seatbelts) Driving behavior: car ownership, time on the road, and care Exposure to police by area of city, neighborhood characteristics, etc. external benchmarks used to estab evidence of racial profiling -compare benchmark to the observed racial distribution of stopped citizens --CENSUS FIGURES ----provides only racial distribution of residents and not how these numbers vary by: time of day, business attractors such as shopping centers, daily traffic patterns involving commuters ----easy to exaggerate estimates in favor or against evidence of racial profiling --RACE DISTRIB. OF LICENSED DRIVERS ON THE ROAD ----does not account for out-of-jurisdiction drivers or potential racial differences in travel patterns, driving behavior, or exposure to police ----minorities more likely to take public transit --NON-AT-FAULT TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ----does not account for potential racial differences in driving behavior that may be important sources for police decision-making: speeding, weaving through traffic, driving slower than usual --RED LIGHT CAMERAS ----truly race blind; measure some traffic violation -----maybe don't capture race diffs in aspects of stop risk like seatbelt usage and other cues police use --SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONS ----only effective if everyone is at equal risk (eg. highway traffic stops for speeding) ----exposure to police varies across diff geographic segments of city --arrest rates --instrumental variables -crude approximations of the population at risk can hide evidence or racial bias or lead to exaggerated estimate of racial bias

Sensitive questions are not likely to get honest answers

103 male college students surveyed about their likelihood of a date rape averaged -2.4 (-3 was extremely unlikely to +3 extremely unlikely) broadly signals low propensity to date rape

Mapp v US (1961)

1957 Mapp found guilty of possessing porn, although police had no warrant Supreme Court ruled: -"all evidence obtained by searches and seizure in violation of Constitution is... inadmissible in state court" -"the exclusionary rule is essential part of both the 4th and 14th amendment" exclusionary rule: evidence collected in a way that violates defendant's rights cannot be used against them

Era of Community Policing

1980s - new innovations to build community partnerships and increase focus on preventing crime 1990s - decade of community policing initially, predominantly large agencies violent crime control and law enforce act (1994) office of community oriented policing services (COPS) -US Dept of Justice -COPS estab. throught 1994 Act -Has provided (since '94) billions of $ in assistance to state and local police depts -Technical assistance, training, research funding -Smaller agencies

before community policing

19th/early 20th century - emergence of municipal police departments 1930s-1940s - professionalization of police departments -early 20th century, police depts had community relations depts

Bow Street runners

1st examples of paid police 1750, Fielding became magistrate of London's Bow street region sought to clean up thief taking legitimized and organized paid police -established relations w pawn brokers and provided them a list of stolen property -asked victims to report crimes to his house in Bow Street region aimed to deter criminals by increasing the certainty of detections and prosecution laid foundation for first modern police force

police use of lethal force sparks unrest

2001 Cincinnati PD shooting og Timothy Thomas resulted in 4 days of riots and $3.6M in damage 2006 NYPD shooting of Sean Bell, 50 shots fired; officers found not guilty at trail, but fired or resigned 2014 Chicago PD shooting of Laquan McDonald; multiple officers on scene; only 1 shoots

since 1970s, police shooting are way down in NYC

2018 - about 20 total, 10 fatal

over last 5 years, fatal shootings by race of victim

2x as many whites shot as blacks, 3x as many hispanics 10% of US shootings are black

did Garner decision change police shootings?

Assumption -incidents of deadly force should go down if legal basis for shooting is more restrictive Should observe changes in -ratio of police homicides to criminal homicides -trend in states affected by decision vs those not affected (some states did not have unconstitutional deadly force statutes)

Peel

Britain's Home Secretary 1822-1830 1829 Metropolitan Police Act establishing the first professional police force

paradigm shift toward proactive policing and zero-tolerance occurred in 1990s

Broken Windows Theory (Wilson and Kelling) -public incivilities are linked to predatory crime Research suggests proactive policing has crime control benefits -crackdowns, aggressive arrest policies, hot spot policing Questions about its impact on community trust

U.S. v. Leon (1984)

Burbank police through surveillance and informants learned of drug-trafficking operation run by Armando and Patsy Officer Rombach applied for search warrant on 3 houses and several cars after review by state judge, received warrant search produced extremely large amount of drugs later review, court decided state judge should not have authorized search warrant -Rombach's app did not have adequate info about reliability of informants

force and seizure are still debated

Chicago PD document dept does not consider pointing a firearm to detain a resident a use off force but rather a seizure, as such, no additional assoc report is required under the dept pointing directive. Negotiated provisions of Consent decree reflect parties agreement on form and nature of "reporting" of a pointing of a firearm

when do officers not need a warrant?

Exceptions: stop and frisk --> Terry v Ohio 1968, pat down to check for weapons, not for searching in pockets automobile exception --> don't need warrant if fruits of crime or evidence concealed there; need probable cause applied to boat (mobile means moving evidence out of jurisdiction where crime occurred) exigent circumstances --> hear screaming and run into house, see illegal weapons, it can be seized hot pursuit rule --> may enter home in trying to catch criminal, and take any contraband they see

Foundation of Modern Policing "founding fathers"

Fielding, Colquhoun, Peel

Kansas v. Glover (2020?)

Glover's license revoked 2016 sheriff deputy ran plates, learned owner did not have a valid license, and stopped vehicle on assumption driver was the owner Glover argues search was illegal...any driver could be stopped for driving a legally registered car Kansas argued deputy could reasonably suspect the driver was the unlicensed owner

Racial profilling

I-95 turnpike studies in mid 1990s raised public concern about racial profiling public concern has led to state and local-level action events periodically renew interest -questionable police shootings -arrest of Henry Louis Gates and "beer summit" of July 2009 (professor gates "breaking in" to own home; arrested for making a scene after brought into front yard for "disorderly conduct"; talks later with Pres. Obama about racial profiling) racial collection of those going over 60 mph; question if what is benchmark? over 75 mph or more, pic was taken and analyzed

Katz v. US (1967)

Katz used payphones along Sunset Blvd to accept interstate bets -FBI bugged phone, recording Katz accept bets Supreme Court overturned Olmstead 7-1 -4th amend "protects people, not places" "What he seeks to preserve as private, even in an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected" Harlan's test for 4th amen violation: 1. person exhibited actual expectation of privacy 2. expectation is one society recognizes as "reasonable" otherwise, such searches require a warrant

Officer Van Dyke Fired 16 rounds officer walsh holstered his firearm

McDonald shooting van dyke -- sent to prison walsh -- surprised as shooting and puts weapon away

Methods

New Haven Survey (2017) 1. contact registered voters in unrelated survey 2. next random assign of treatment and control groups 3. 2 follow up surveys (3 days and 21 days) -surveys assessed civilian attitudes toward police (legitimacy, perceived effectiveness, cooperation, and compliance) -also assessed judgements about "police as a group"

fatal police shootings of Edward Garner

October 3, 1974 10:45pm in Memphis -- officers dispatched to answer "prowler inside call" woman says "someone" breaking in next door and officer investigated see Garner (15) stopped at 6ft chain link fence at edge of yard sees Garner's face and hands, sees no sign of a weapon, and is "reasonably sure" Garner was unarmed, but believes to be felon officer called out "police, halt" but Garner begins to climb over fence convinced he would escape, officer shoots Garner, striking him in the head $10 and a purse taken from house found on his body *officer was black was this legal? officer followed state law and Memphis PD policy Tenn statute: "if, after notice of intention to arrest defendant, he either flee or forcibly arrest, officer may use all necessary means to effect arrest" dept policy slightly more restrictive, but still allowed deadly force in cases of burglary Memphis firearm's review board and grand jury reviewed incident; no action taken

Collins v. Virginia (2018)

Officer observed distinctive motorcycle underneath tarp in Collins' driveway officer found photos of motorcycle on Collins' FB officer entered driveway, lifted tarp, took photos, read license plate, confirmed motorcycle stolen collins arrested when returned home ruled could not be used as evidence --> without search warrant can't be going in driveway to lift tarp

Ruth Moyer -- Community Policing

Philosophy and strategy of policing through which police and community work as partners to address problems specific to neighborhoods

4th amendment

Protects from unreasonable search and seizure

research designs to answer social science questions?

Randomized Controlled Trials (True Experiments, RCTs) -ex. KC Patrol Experiment and Philly Foot Patrol Experiment Quasi-Experiments -estimate causal impact of intervention w/o random assingment

Internal benchmarking and early warning systems

Stop characteristics and example officer % and internal benchmark %

3 Eras of American Policing

The Political Era (1840 - 1930) The Reform Era (1930 - 1980) The Community Era (1980-present)

Heien v. North Carolina (2014)

Vasquez and Heien driving on I-77 with single broken brake light Sergeant stopped car for broken brake light Serg. asked to search car, Heien agree, Serg. found cocaine Not a violation of NC traffic law to have single brake light out ruled could use cocaine since permission given for search

Changing legal climate: US supreme court

Warren Court (1953-1969) clarified individual rights in the face of criminal prosecution considered "activist" Burger(1969-1986) and Rehnquist Courts (1986-2005) a more constructionist court - focus on legal text "reversed" some of Warren-era decision defendants should bear most of responsibility in showing police went beyond law

Whren v. US (1996)

Whren and Brown drive in "high drug area" DC police suspicious of car and follow it car turns at "unreasonable: speed without using turn signal police stop car in school zone for traffic violation, finding 50g of crack cocaine -school zone enhances sentencing for having drugs ruled could use traffic infractions to search for criminal activity

evidence-based research effects case law

Wiley v. Memphis (1978): shootings deter crime, protect police social science evidence suggested that police shootings don't protect police or effect crime rates

difficulties implementing community-oriented policing

a lack of centralized authority measuring accomplishments preventing promotion of successful officers from becoming detectives turf battles with other city agencies (e.g. cleaning of garbage and condemned buildings) controlling corruption

english roots of american policing

american policing origins in British model (1200) -all able-bodied men responded to cries for help (kin police) -posses were either led by shire reeve (county leader) or one of comites stabuli (mounted officers)

policing in southern states first developed slave patrols

antebellum era -apprehend runaway slaves -deter slave revolts -maintain a form of discipline for slave-workers who were subject to summary justic post-civil war -control of freed slaves who were now laborers -enforce "Jim Crow" segregation laws, deny freed slaves equal rights and access to the political sys policing has been substantially professionalized since 1960s

Shire Reeve

appointed by leader of a geographic region (i.e. county) -appointed by king -pursued and apprehend criminals -collected taxes for the king -american county chief law enforcement officer : sherriff

Offender Self Report surveys

ask individuals to report their own offending behavior info about the offender: personality, attitudes, beliefs a mechanism to capture "dark figure" of crime a viable way to capture amount of substance abuse (typically under-reported by official measures)

A typical day for police

assemble uniform and equipment shift begins with "roll call" -assignments of beats and patrol sectors -"BOLOs" officer reports to dispatcher that s/he is "in service" responding to calls for service -traffic accidents -noise complaints -domestic disputes -crimes in progress otherwise routine patrol -stopping cars for traffic violation -interviewing suspicious persons -investigating places with signs of criminal activity -maintaining visibility

what empirical evidence says about community policing?

assoc w increased citizen satisfaction and trust in police assoc w/ significant reduction in citizens' perceptions of disorder no effects on crime no effects on fear of crime challenges for empirical assessment -broad interpretation of scope -heterogeneity in types of strategies that are classified as community policing -no accepted structure for implementation

shooters and nonshooters work in different environments

black NYPD officers 2x as likely as white officers to have shot at citizens --black officers more likely in "high experience precincts" --less likely in managerial ranks Riverside county --shooters more likely to be male, Hispanic, no college, younger, and in lower ranks white officers and officers favoring gun rights are more likely to have fired their gun hard to tell who is more likely to shoot; want to know factors not indicators of where they work

fatal police shooting rate (by race of victim/per million ppl)

blacks most hispanics next than whites

Earliest US police agencies (replaced night watch sys)

boston 1838 NY 1844 Chicago 1851 New Orleans 1853 Philly 1855 Baltimore 1857

black drivers bear the burden of searches...

but most searches are low-discretion ones searches by race: nonblack 25% black 75% 75% = pat 8% consent 8% --focus on these 2 probable cause 10% probation/parole 34% inventory 13% incident to arrest 27%

development of community policing

by mid-20th century, recognition that police needed to be more responsive to communities Civil Rights Era (1960s) -unrest (Detroit, Chicago, Newark, LA) President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967) Concept of police-community partnership gained traction in 1970s -foot patrols --> increase police-community contacts

London Metropolitan Police

centralized agency responsible for preventing crime and apprehending criminals 1,000 members commanded by 2 magistrates organized hierarchically like military officers became known as "peelers" or "bobbies" by 1856 all of England was required to form its own police force

The Statue of Winchester (1285)

codified modern police practices established: -watch and ward system -draft of men to as watchmen -formal hue and cry system - citizens that did not respond and assist could be punished -mandated that all homes contain a weapon for use in responding to cries for help

court conclusion: common law fleeing felon rule is outdated

common law rule developed at a time when virtually all felonies were punishable by death "killing of a resisting or fleeing felon resulted in no greater consequences than those authorized for punishment of felony of which individual was charged or suspected" no longer true in 1985

modern social science research, modern policing effective

community police officers produce crime reductions foot patrols reduce crime, but also increase stops and arrests dedicated detectives with low caseloads and access to resource can solve cases

colonial american policing

county sheriff - primary law enforcement agent -keep peace -collect taxes -supervise elections -manage court business reactive, respond to citizen complaints salary was based on fee system -fixed amount for every arrest, tax collected, summons served -crime prevention was not as lucrative as tax-collection... NOT a primary concern 1600s and 1700s position changed to elected position (rather than appointed one) 19th century local laws enforced by victims of community crime was a private matter when police existed they were "reactive" fears of executive tyranny dominated Anglo-American thought since 17th century

Reaction to RAND study

criticized for "telling us what we already know" chiefs hostile bc city officials using report to cut police budgets departments not involved in study assumed results didn't apply to them conclusions replicated in Rochester (NY), NYC and Washington DC

court conclusion

deadly force is reasonable when: officer has probable cause to believe that the suspect poses a threat of serious physical harm suspect threatens officer w/ a weapon probable cause to believe the suspect has committed a crime inflicting serious physical harm ...especially when some warning has been given

court conclusion: deadly force is unreasonable to prevent escape

deadly force to prevent escape of all felony suspects is constitutionally unreasonable not better that all felony suspects die than that they escape --where the suspect poses no immediate threat to the officer or others unfortunate when suspect escapes, but police arriving late does not justify killing the suspect police officer may not seize an unarmed, non-dangerous suspect by shooting him dead Tenn statute is unconstitutional

benefits of community policing

decrease community tensions better use of police resources increased quality of police service increased effectiveness of dealing with community problems increased job satisfaction for the police increased accountability to the community

politics central in US not England

democratic nature of US led to undemocratic practices -justice by geography and ethnic groups undemocratic (bureaucratic) nature of policing in England led to professional model of policing that (arguably) treated individuals more equally

Minnesota v. Dickerson (1993)

dickerson exited known crack house officer --> terry stop --> frisking for weapon officer felt lump in jacket pocket, reached in and recovered crack cocaine supreme court rules that cocaine could not be used as evidence since outside of frisk protocol

Results

difference b/w ATT and ITT -ITT based on initial treatment assignment; avoids various misleading artifacts that can arise in intervention research such as non-random attrition of participants from the study -ATT is average treatment effect on treated it had positive effects across all 4 primary outcome measures

Community Policing RCT

do positive, non-enforcement interactions w/ uniformed patrol officers actually improve public attitudes toward police?

Fielding

established the Bow Street Runners collected data on stolen property encouraged victims to report crimes

Boston shooting story

fatal and nonfatal gun assaults are similar -1 in 6 victims die in gun assaults -often random whether a vital organ is hit or whether the victim makes it to the hospital -intrinsic difficulty of the case is randomized b/w fatal and nonfatal

Olmstead v. US (1928)

federal investigators wiretapped Olmstead, bootlegger 5-4 majority led by Chief Justice Taft ruled wiretaps permissible private telephone comm no diff than conversations heard in public place wiretaps involved no physical intrusion or seizure of private property 4th amendment didn't apply

Sean Bell shooting

five officer, discharged 50 rounds, killing sean bell in 2006 detective oliver, 35, white, 31 rounds (reloaded) detective isnora, 28, black, 11 rounds detective cooper, 39, black, 4 rounds officer carey, 26, white, 3 rounds detective headley, 35, 1 round shot at car, most rounds missed car and occupants, all but 1 round missed Sean Bell

Wilson, Vollmer's student

focused on use of tech and command-and-control -proponent of motorized patrol -radio comm -rapid response for crime fighting -solo officer patrols optimized manpower -encouraged rotating beat assignments

utilized data on a review of 3 years of OIS records

gathered data on all officer-involved shootings adjudicated in 2004,2005, and 2006 for each shooting I recorded --dept ID 106 incidents involving 150 shooting officers and 141 non-shooting officers supervisors and management ranks less likely to shoot men and women equally likely to shoot black officers more likely to shoot officers who accumulated negative marks in file are more likely to shoot

Advantages of Self Report Surveys

gets at "dark figure" of crime -particularly drug and substance abuse demographic info on offender examines etiology of crime -why people commit crime -popular for theory testing examines amount of crime committed in the population - not just those arrested

gin epidemic and urban riots 1700s and 1800s fueled the creation of modern police

gin potent, inexpensive, and readily available --> rioting and crime ethnic rivalries and political unrest led to major riots British government needed to come up with a better system of policing that could keep public order

1994 Crime Bill

greatly expanded community policing violent crime control and law enforcement act of 1994 -Sen Joe Biden of Delaware -created community oriented policing services (COPS office) funding 100,000 new police officers -$30 billion in grants to hire community policing officers

social factors led to establishment of modern state-funded police

growing discontent with riots in a democracy increasing urbanization and ethnic rivalries push towards Progressive reform and "good government" model during 1800s

organizaitonal

how should police depts be organized to effectuate community policing? decentralization increased use of teams civilian employees police managers tend to adopt mentoring and coaching roles, providing subordinates with increased autonomy and encouraging innovation

homicide cases get greater detective resources

if victim dies, investigated by homicide squad w/ access to police units and forensic services if victim survives, goes to district investigators with heavy caseloads that includes a variety of cases nonfatal shooting unsolved in 1st week, unlikely to be solved

NCVS Criticsims

inaccurate reporting response bias interviewer effect sample attrition (moving) series victimizations missing populations expensive!

Reform Era

international assoc of chiefs of police encourages increasing police professionalism recommendations: -officers were to be experts -police departments to be autonomous from politics -administratively efficient -record keeping and tracking crime data -create specialized units

Quality of the Analysis using collected data is weak

large # of studies claim racial profiling -Texas: concluded that "75% of agencies stop more black and Latino drivers than white drivers" --but Texas = majority blacks and latinos; whites are minority some studies hastily conclude no profiling -Sacramento: % of black drivers stopped matched % of blacks among crime suspect descriptions --but drivers stopped for non-criminal activity; just traffic violations like speeding or no turn signal or turning corner at unreasonable speed

professional reform movement and August Vollmer

leading advocate for professionalism developed college-level police edu (school of crim, UC Berkeley) advocated for bike and motor patrols belief in science for helping law enforcement (i.e. forensic science)

randomized response design encourages honesty

mom born in Oct, Nov, or Dec i actually did the crime i was arrested for a. 1 of above is true b. 0 or 2 of above is true -linear relationship b/w percent guilt and percent answering a

strategic

more emphasis on foot patrols, door-to-door policing, and other strategies that emphasize police-citizen interactions focus on substantive problems in community -ex: arrests might not be only reasonable or acceptable outcome for fight b/w neighbors emphasis on geography (eg neighborhood)

Early reform - Progressive Reform Movement

moved by the upper-middle class, educated Americans wanted to eliminate political facets of social services recommended changes: -centralized police departments -upgrade personnel -police function should be narrowed

police functions fitting community policing?

naloxone scoop and run gun buy-back events community meetings police-community relations -social media by PD?

how to define community policing

no specific program or style of policing not exclusive of other police focuses (e.g. problem-oriented policing)

Criticisms of Self Report Surveys

no standard measure -each researcher collects own info -offenses vary across studies trivial and status offenses -focus on minor offending behaviors (ex. truancy, theft) -results can't be compared with national samples biased samples (students) -non-responses -unreachable subjects -interviewer effect inaccurate reporting -honesty, recall cost

officer called for service

officer responds -secures the scene -interviews citizen, victim, and/or witness -make arrest if applicable -secure evidence and maintain chain of custody -transport arrestee to station house or local jail -files report (either in the field or in the station)

philosophical

open access to/input from citizens norms and values of community minor offenses - discretion broad view of police roles - more than traditional focus on crime fighting and law enforcement - order maintenance, social service, and general assistance functions

how officers spend time

patrol - 33% non-crime calls for service - 20% crime calls for service - 17% admin matters - 13% personal time - 9% providing general assistance to public - 7%

overall study findings (Tannenbaum)

police homicides per month decreased on avg by 16% following Court's decision in Garner ratio of police homicides to criminal homicides per month decreased by 13.5% states influenced by ruling = 24% reduction states not influenced by ruling = 13% reduction difference this big would expect by chance less than 1 in 1,000 (<.001)

court conclusion

police shootings not productive method to encourage peaceful submission Tenn argued violence will be reduced by encouraging peaceful submission of suspects who know will be shot if flee court "not convinced use of deadly force is sufficiently productive means of accomplishing [peaceful submission] to justify killing nonviolent suspects current evidence doesn't support threat of deadly force would lead to more arrests

The political era

politics dominated police agencies primary function was to serve political leaders police were considered corrupt, brutal, and inefficient pay was better than for most laborers but had no job security long standing conflicts exist between police and public

community-oriented policing

popular bc it urges non-authoritarian and equal relations highly unlikely that this relationship between police and community ever existed in the past and won't in the future -worthwile goal change to required to truly implement community policing -structural and legal -dispute resolution -organizational structure -performance evaluation -reward structures

assessing disparities in post-stop outcomes

post stop outcomes provide an opportunity to assess racial bias -auditing police-citizen interactions --video taped analysis -hit rates --comparing yields from contraband searches -matching on characteristics of stopped citizens --comparing race groups who are similarly situated --use the same methodology for matching officers' stops

Goldstein promoted Problem-oriented policing

prevention-oriented approach to policing -study of discrete problems -identify root causes -engage with communities -design specialized solutions

Colquhoun

proposed a science of preventive police proposed a unified london police force --> rejected established Marine police in 1798 to protect shipping cargo -50 men policing 30,000 workers -funded by West India Planters Committees and West Indian merchants -used a cost-benefit analysis to obtain support from businesses inspired new port police in NY and other major cities

due process

protected under 4th, 5th, 6th, and 14th Amendments

end racial profiling act of 2019

racial profiling - practice of a law enforce agent relying on race in selecting which individual to subject to investigatory activities, except when info links a person w/ a particular characteristic to a criminal incident requires fed, state, and local police agencies to 1. maintain adequate policies and procedure for eliminating racial profiling 2. cease existing practices that permit racial profiling 3. establish an administrative complaint procedure and independent auditor program for addressing complaints of racial profiling requires attorney general to 1. carry out 2year demo project to collect data on hit rates for stops and searches by law enforce agents 2. make grants to develop and implement best practices devices and systems to eliminate racial profiling 3. issue regulations for data collection and make reports on racial profiling

Peel's London Model

realized police needed to be accepted by public 1. selected men who were even-tempered and reserved 2. chose an unassuming uniform (color = navy) 3. officers needed to be restrained and polite 4. officers would need to be appropriately disciplined 5. police officers were NOT allowed to carry guns

why is community policing relevant today?

recent crisis of police legitimacy consequences for criminal justice system and public health does community policing really improve individual-level attitudes toward police? Study uses RCT to answer

Early reform efforts

reform efforts often failed: 1. political ties were too strong -politicians could count on supporters to undermine the reform effort 2. police resented Progressives -viewed them a individs who knew little/nothing about police work 3. Politics were interconnecting police department functions -police told what laws to enforce, which public interest to serve, whose peace to keep

The Community Era

research did not support fully the professional model 1. increasing patrol officers had little effect on crime 2. rapid response did not increase likelihood of arrest 3. difficult to improve rates of solving crimes 4. 1970s crime was on the rise despite professionalism findings disputed the role of crime-fighter and undermined its acceptance

how investigators spend time

reviewing reports documenting casework attempting to locate/interview victims half of detective's time is spent of admin and general surveillance, not directly related to crime solving for solved cases, more time spent in post-arrest processing than solving the case half of felony prosecutions are unsuccessful for lack of cooperating witnesses, weak physical evidence

riots and limitations of colonial era model

riots in 1800s often political -doctors riot 1788 - medical school dissecting exhumed corpses for study, angering families -police riots 1857 - disbanded municipal police fought the newly established (state) Metropolitan Police -dead rabbits riot 1857 - started with a small gang conflict -draft riots 1863- white working-class protested civil war draft, also attacking blacks and Protestants mass immigration led to ethnic tensions -only available police force is state militias which are tied to ethnic rivalries -municipalities looks for autonomous police to keep the peace

Philadelphia foot patrol experiment

showed police effective -120 most problematic locations randomized to foot patrol or business-as-usual -foot patrol -2 pairs of officers assigned to each foot patrol -tues-sat in 2 shifts during summer '09 -after 3 months, in foot patrol areas -violent crime decreased 23% -drug related detections increased 15% -pedestrian stops increased 64% -vehicle stops increased 7% -arrests increased 13%

"Veil of Darkness"

shows no evidence of racial bias in decision to stop San Diego PD -assumes: fair that around 5pm everyone coming home from work -officer can tell skin color better when the sun is up no difference in rate that black drivers are stopped

comites stabuli

simply called "constable" appointed by local nobleman first police officer

tactical/ programmic

specific programs that further community policing philosophy and strategy foot patrols and bike patrols, police-community meetings, problem-solving approaches to crime and disorder programs reorient police to focus on specific problems in neighborhoods

strategy, tactics, and goals of community policing differ from professional model

strategy -enlist the community's help in addressing crime tactics -foot patrols -permanent geographic assignments -more interaction with the community goals -decrease crime -increase cooperation with the police -reduce fear -improve public satisfaction with police services

1973 RAND detective study

study assessed value of investigations -focused on serious crimes -surveyed large police agencies -interviews and observations in 25 departments -analysis of UCR data -samples of completed cases -workload analysis of KC detectives detectives do not solve crime -patrol officers produced 30% of all arrests -victims and witnesses identified the perp in another 50% of arrests -leaves 20% of cases for detectives to solve...most later solved by -patrol arrests -general public reporting info -routine clerical investigation (eg. checking licenses) -special investigation produced 3% of arrests

Wilson and Kelling "Making Neighborhoods Safe"

suggest importance of community-oriented policing strategies given assumptions of "Broken Windows" theory "Broken Windows" - signs of disorder if unabated become cues that a neighborhood co longer cares -results in escalation in disorder and creates a "crime friendly" environment -decent people become hostages in their neighborhoods

case of deadly force - Tennessee v. Garner (1985)

supreme court treated this as procedural issue addressing 4th amendment and issue of reason seizures can police use deadly force to prevent escape of fleeing felon? prior to Tennessee v Garner (1985), fleeing felon rule (common law) guided deadly force decision making in most US jurisdictions

date rape pt 2

surveying 112 male students using randomized response question, respondent avg = -1.3 -only modestly unwilling to commit date rape

suspicion-less searches are permissible to ensure public safety

sweeps of people on busses, trains, planes, and city streets are permissible if: -police ask permission -police do not coerce people to consent -police do not convey the message the compliance is required

Terrorism threat levels

terror alert levels "randomized" police presence -after 9/11 newly formed Homeland security launched Homeland Security Advisory sys "terror alert level" -color coded alerts to signal risk of terror to police DC Metro PD responded to terror alert level by increasing or decreasing presence in downtown Washington -alerts random, replicating Kansas City experiment -crime 7% lower on high-alert days 1.severe 2.high 3.elevated --> sig. risk 4.guarded --> general risk 5.low

rising rates of crime prompted creation of "monied police"

thief takers: citizens paid by Crown on a piecework basis for apprehension of criminals earned living by capturing wanted felons and collecting rewards for their capture corruption was a major issue became notorious for violence could incarcerate criminals and charge them for room and board

Broken Windows Theory

those that can move quickly do - to suburbs trend was not possible before suburbanization in past residents would reclaim neighborhoods by reinvigorating informal social control mechanisms in past police spent more time acting as guardians of community disorder and less on "crime fighting" most crimes occur bc of opportunity police can't focus on underlying social and psychological causes of crime police and neigh. can affect opportunity structure of area to make it less vulnerable to crime Routine Activities Theory -guardianship, target suitability, motivated offenders

*USE CHART FROM 04 LAST PAGE*

various forms of policing comparisons

NCVS advantages

victim demographics national probability sample dark figure of crime vehicle for collecting additional info -defensive gun use -reasons for (not) calling police

COPS and Crime Study

violent crime control and law enforce act of 1994 abruptly changed the number of officers -provided $9 billion through COPS hiring grants to add 100,000 new police officers -90% of police agencies serving populations of at least 10,000 received grants -number of new officers funded was correlated to the current size of police department and the current crime rate -communities with similarly sized police forces and similar crime rates, number of officers funded and hired was uneven

chicago police union concerned about safety implications

want to protect officers, don't want them to think they will be second-guesses on decisions are we judging one office against another? and hasn't been explained to them officers fear info gathered will be used against them and until more is explained they may be hesitant to draw their weapons

Night Watch

watch for fires and thieves alert the public or town constable if a problem was spotted affiliated with the local church