Criminology Final (needs to be finished)
Studies of behavioral genetics regarding criminality or antisocial behaviors consistently show that heritability/genetic factors explain about ____ of the variance in antisocial behavior.
50%
When was the concept of human decision-making and natural culpability acknowledged?
Age of Enlightenment
Which scholar is considered the Father of Criminal Justice?
Cesare Beccaria
__________ is used as the basis for United States policies on punishment for criminal activity because it focuses on individual responsibility.
Classical School
___________ proposed a framework that began with the assumption that certain neighborhoods in all cities have more crime than other parts of the city.
Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay
Who is credited with being the most influential theorist in modern structural perspectives of criminality?
Emile Durkheim
The _________ has been used to collect information annually on the use of illegal drugs by individuals in the United States and is one of the largest surveys of drug use ever conducted in the United States.
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
The term criminology was first coined by ___________.
Raffaele Garafalo
______ assumes that individuals are rational and weigh the potential benefits against the potential costs of engaging in a criminal act.
Rational choice theory
___________ claimed that much of human behavior, especially the way cities grow, follows the basic principles of ecology that have been documented and applied to wildlife for many years at that point.
Robert E. Park
______ is an explanation of crime that assumes crime and victimization are highest in places where three factors come together in time and place: motivated offenders, suitable or attractive targets, and absence of a guardian.
Routine activities theory
_________ developed the concept of psychoanalysis, founded on the perception of resistance used by individuals when therapists attempt to make them conscious of their unconscious.
Sigmund Freud
All of the following are considered federal law enforcement agencies EXCEPT:
Special Weapons and Tactics Teams
The normal chromosomal makeup for a woman is ________.
XX
After the twin studies of the mid-1900s were heavily criticized, researchers moved on to which other methodological approach to examine the nature versus nurture debate?
adoption studies
_____ is considered a warning of looming danger or a painful experience.
anxiety
Courts of ____________ jurisdiction are limited in their jurisdiction decisions on matters of appeal from lower courts and trial courts.
appellate
Virtually all studies on the life-course/developmental perspective show that most individual who get arrested:
are never arrested again
According to the text, most adults in the lower class attempt to socialize their children to believe in conventional values, such as all of the following EXCEPT:
autonomy
The integrated structural-Marxist theory incorporates all of the following theories EXCEPT:
biological theory
The word _______ implies that some part of criminality may be due, categorically and permanently, to assigned constitutional factors (genetics).
born
When an individual has ___________ they are thought to be oblivious to many of the risks that may result from their behavior.
bounded rationality
Social science is a difficult field in terms of establishing _________ in relation to postulated theories.
causality
The characteristic of punishment postulated by Beccaria that he believed to be the most important was _____________.
certainty
All of the following are considered factors that explain street crime through human nature and evolution EXCEPT:
changes in conceptual analysis
The general purpose of the criminal justice system includes all of the following EXCEPT:
community support
The vital deterrent characteristics of punishment postulated by Beccaria are all of the following EXCEPT:
conforming
The four constructs of social bonding theory is made up of all of the following EXCEPT:
conformity
According to conflict perspective, conflict is often resolved when the group in power achieves _________.
control
____________ assumes that all people would naturally commit crimes if not for restraints on the selfish tendencies that exist in every individual.
control theory
Group conflict theory focuses only on those situations in which criminal behavior is a result of conflicting group interests, which includes all of the following types of crimes EXCEPT:
crimes arising from robbery
Restorative justice emphasizes all of the following EXCEPT:
criminal justice system
________ represents a distinct, separate set of norms and values among an identifiable group of people that are summarily different from that of the dominant culture.
culture
Studies have shown a link between childhood exposure to domestic violence and violent offending at older ages. This is called:
cycle of violence
All of the following are considered conventional means of success EXCEPT:
dealing drugs
According to Cohen, youths begin to value destruction of property and skipping school because these behaviors _________.
defy conventional order
The ______________ is a type of lower-class male youth who responds to strains and status frustration by joining with similar others in a group to commit crime.
delinquent boy
As social constructs change, some acts move from being deemed ________ to being declared _________, such as cell phone use while driving.
deviant; illegal
The text states that it is arguable that ____________ may have the most empirical validity of any contemporary (nonintegrated) model of criminal offending.
differential reinforcement theory
Most illicit drug use brings forth pleasurable sensations though enhancing the levels of _________ in an individual's system.
dopamine
__________ attachments are enduring and persistent. These attachments can sometimes last throughout a person's life.
duration
Quetelet stated that individuals who were more likely to commit crime than their counterparts had all of the following characteristics EXCEPT:
educated
All of the following are considered personality traits within low self-control EXCEPT:
empathy
People with low IQ scores are somewhat destined to be all of the following EXCEPT:
employed
All of the following are considered part of the six (6) focal concerns proposed by Miller EXCEPT:
engagement
Classical School theories emphasize individual decision making regardless of _________.
extraneous influences
All of the following are considered categories of strain within the general strain theory proposed by Agnew EXCEPT:
failure to conform to conventional means
According to Hobbes, _________ motivates individual to cooperate in the formation of government and inspires them to obey the laws the government creates.
fear
Gottfredson and Hirschi believe that socialization controls are established _________.
first years of life
___________ refers to how often the individual offends at certain times.
frequency
Most of the executive functions of the brain, such as problem solving, take place in the ____________.
frontal lobe
One thing all forms of strain theory have in common is their emphasis on a sense of __________ in crime causation.
frustration
Punishment given to an individual meant to prevent or deter other potential offenders from engaging in such criminal activity in the future is called _________ deterrence.
general
The findings of 'twins separated at birth' studies have shown that ______ have/has a significant impact on human behavior, especially regarding criminal behavior.
genetics
_________ argues that part of human nature is that people's lives are a part, and a product, of their group associations.
group conflict theory
All of the following committed at an early age can be considered "red-flags" for determining the likelihood of an individual becoming a chronic offender EXCEPT:
history of delinquency
All individuals are born with a tendency toward inherent drives and selfishness due to the _____ domain of the mind.
id
All of the following are possible consequences of high levels of testosterone EXCEPT:
increased sensitivity to pain
Deterrence research has shifted away from aggregate level units of analysis and toward ________ level.
individual
_ is the degree of seriousness of the offenses he or she commits at certain times in the offending career. Correct!
intensity
The term criminal justice often refers to all of the following EXCEPT:
investigations
Peers have a profound impact on individual perceptions of the pros and cons of offending. When one sees one's friends getting away with crimes, the risk of punishment _____________.
is decreased
According to the text, providing an individual with a(n) ______ is key to building a more stable life, leaving the individual less likely to feel stressed or "strained."
job
________________ assumes that criminal behavior increases because certain individuals are caught and branded as offenders.
labeling theory
Criminologists from the consensus perspective maintain all of the following EXCEPT:
law is a partial system that protects private interests
The term insanity is a ______ term.
legal
Aggregate studies have shown evidence that an increased certainty of punishment was associated with ________ crime for most serious offenses.
less
The dominate ________ political climate of the 1960s was one of optimism with the perception that any social problem could be solved.
liberal
Crimes that are considered "an act which is not inherently immoral, but become so because its commission is expressly forbidden by positive law" are called ________.
mala prohibita
Differential associations vary in all of the following EXCEPT:
moderation
The four constructs of social bonding theory is made up of all of the following EXCEPT:
moderation
_________ twins are those that come from a single egg. These twins share 100% of their genotype.
monozygotic
Adoption studies have found that the adopted children for whom __________ were the least likely to become criminal.
neither set of parents were criminal
Are three strikes laws considered a general or specific deterrent?
no consensus
According to cultural theories of crime in the United States, what large group blatantly denies the middle-class norms of society?
no such groups exist
The breakdown in the conditions of a neighborhood leads to social disorganization, which in turn leads to delinquents learning criminal activities from whom?
older youth
___________ is a learning model based on the association between an action and feedback following the action.
operant conditioning
Commitment to school and attachments to ________ are some of the most essential predictors of delinquency according to Thornberry's interactional model.
parents
In the process of classical conditioning, the organism, animal, or person is a __________ actor in the process, simply receiving stimuli and responding.
passive
Once low self-control is set at an early age, there is no way to develop it afterward (according to the general theory of crime). Developmental theory believes that:
people can change over time
According to Shaw and McKay, the neighborhoods that have the highest rates of crime typically have all of the following common problems EXCEPT:
permanent population
Self-selection refers to:
picking friends based on their previous delinquent behavior
Spanking is considered an example of _________.
positive punishment
Robert Martinson's review of ________________ concluded that "nothing works" because offending was not reduced.
rehabilitative programs
Lifestyle theory is merely an extension of ________, offering no new revelations for why some individuals are victimized more than others.
routine activities theory
Matza's drift theory is highly consistent with several of the ideas presented by control theorists, including all of the following assumptions EXCEPT:
selfish tendencies appear only during the teenage years
The ________ of being caught committing a crime (related to informal sanctions) is one of the most important emotional responses related to deterrence.
shame
Shaw and McKay's findings rejected __________ because it is obvious that the culture is not what influences crime and delinquency but, rather, the criminogenic nature of the environment.
social Darwinism
Some critics of Shaw and McKay have stated that their original research did not actually measure their primary construct of _________.
social disorganization
What or who can provide the mechanism for limiting human individuals' insatiable appetite for more?
society
Who is deviance created by?
society
_______ refers specifically to antisocial personalities that are due to social or familial dysfunction.
sociopath
Although adoption studies have been criticized concerning selective placement, the ultimate findings of these studies are still _________.
somewhat valid
_________ is usually associated with racial prejudice and discrimination and can also occur in police encounters with juveniles.
stereotyping
According to Tannenbaum, the process of making the criminal involves all of the following EXCEPT:
stigmatizing the individual
The ___________ evolves during individual development when restrictions, mores, and values of society are learned.
superego
Tarde introduced imitation theory, which incorporated three laws of imitation. Which law below is not part of the laws of imitation?
the inferior is imitated by the superior
The __________ assumes that offenders will make a rational choice not to commit future offenses if they could go to prison for the rest of their life after committing three offenses.
three strikes you're out policy
According to Durkheim, the quickest way for a group to bond is to:
unite over a common enemy
A government, according to Cesare Beccaria, should strive for the greatest amount of happiness shared by the greatest number of people. This concept is termed _________.
utilitarianism
An example of a diversionary program is ___________.
youth courts