Critical Thinking and Logic

Which of the following is something we take for granted as true in our reasoning?

Assumption

Which of the following statements is true? A. Good reasoning should contain no assumptions. B. All reasoning is based on assumptions. C. No assumptions are justified.

B. All reasoning is based on assumptions. Correct. All reasoning is based on assumptions. Critical thinkers analyze and identify their assumptions.

Which of the following statements about questions of judgment is false? A. Questions of judgment may be answered differently by people with different points of view. B. There may be a best answer to questions of judgment. C. Questions of judgment permit only a single well-reasoned answer.

C. Questions of judgment permit only a single well-reasoned answer. Correct. This statement is false. A question of judgment does not have one correct answer, but a number of well-reasoned answers.

nine fundamental intellectual standards:

Clarity Accuracy Precision Relevance Depth Breadth Logic Significance Fairness his is not a finite list of standards. There are many standards a person might use to measure thinking; however, these nine are the most fundamental.

There are six steps in the scientific method: 1) Ask a question; 2) Conduct background research; 3) Construct a hypothesis; 4) Test this hypothesis through experiment(s); 5) Analyze the data and draw a conclusion; and 6) Communicate results." Is this information clear or unclear?

Clear Correct. This is a clear presentation of steps in the scientific method.

These questions have more than one answer, with some answers better than others. a) Questions of fact b) Questions of preference c) Questions of judgment d) Weak-sense questions

Correct Answer Checked c) Questions of judgment The correct answer is C. Questions of judgment have competing answers, with some better than others.

In constructing questions of judgment, which of the following is NOT part of the process?

Developing questions that have only one answer

Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are_______ not ________.

Distinctions between the elements of reasoning are relative not absolute.

The implicit beliefs that support our explicit reasoning about something are: a inferences b implications c assumptions d reasons

The correct answer is C. Assumptions are the implicit beliefs that support our explicit reasoning.

A common problem with applying the critical thinking standard of clarity to information is: a the information isn't accurate b the information is irrelevant c the information is inadequate d the information isn't clear

The correct answer is D. A common problem with the clarity standard is unclear information.

Which of the following statements falsely represents Paul and Elder's views of the news media? a It is vital that citizens recognize bias, slanting, and propaganda in news coverage. b The major media fosters sociocentric thinking. c There is a bias towards reporting what is novel, strange, or sensational. d Events can be viewed and interpreted from one objective point-of-view.

The correct answer is D. Paul and Elder argue for employing multiple points of view in looking at events.

Which kind of evidence describes the meaning (i.e., the why and how) of something? a Qualitative b Admissible c Quantitative d Credible

a) Qualitative

Which report of risk reduction conveys a more significant treatment effect? a Relative b Absolute c Random d Qualitative

a) Relative

Which of the following statements is false? a. Activated knowledge requires truthful information. b. Activated knowledge is based upon stereotypes. c. Activated knowledge leads to insights and more knowledge. d. Activated knowledge is acted upon.

b. Activated knowledge is based upon stereotypes. Yes, the correct answer is b. Activated knowledge is not based upon stereotypes, but truthful information.

Which of the following statements are false? Statistics always prove truth. Statistics can't be trusted. Unreported information leads to false conclusions. Average, rate, and ratio are the only methods of reporting statistics.

b. I, II, and IV Yes, the correct answer is b. Statistics do not prove truth in all cases, but soundly derived statistics can be trustworthy. Also, a percentage is another form of statistical reporting, along with average, ratio, and rate.

If a sample is too small or not random enough, the critical thinker must: a. assume the findings are incorrect. b. be skeptical of the outcome. c. trust the outcome. d. none of the above

b. be skeptical of the outcome. Yes, the correct answer is b. A critical thinker must be skeptical of an outcome derived from a statistical sample that is too small or not sufficiently random.

A ________ is calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and dividing by the total number of values in the dataset. a. median b. mean c. percentage d. mode

b. mean Yes, the correct answer is b. A mean is calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and dividing by the total number of values in the dataset.

Which of the following terms expresses the value which appears most frequently in a series of values? a Mean b Median c Mode d Average

c) Mode

A research study is an example of which kind of evidence? a Qualitative b Admissible c Quantitative d Credible

c) Quantitative

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, and analyzing _________. a Qualitative data b Numbers c Quantitative data d Factual information

c) Quantitative data

Which of the following terms describes a plausible alternative explanation for why a particular outcome happened? a Competing rationale b Optional result c Rival cause d Option Y

c) Rival cause

Reasoning can only be as sound as the ________________ it is based on." a hypothesis b inferences c information d conclusions

c) information

Which of the following is not a drawback to using appeal to authority as a source of evidence? a. An authority can be mistaken. b. An authority can have an ulterior motive. c. An authority will often support the rival cause. d. An authority may lack expertise in the subject.

c. An authority will often support the rival cause. Yes, the correct answer is c. A, B, and D are all legitimate drawbacks to using appeal to authority as a source of evidence. However, whether or not an authority figure supports a rival cause is irrelevant to whether their opinion can be considered quality evidence.

Which of the following statements is false? a. People often memorize inert information. b. People think they understand inert information, but don't. c. People really understand inert information. d. People can't really use inert information.

c. People really understand inert information. Yes, the correct answer is c. This statement is false because people don't really understand inert information, even though they think they do.

. For statistical data to be valid, the sample must be _______ and sufficiently ________. a. absolute / relative b. precise / random c. random / large d. random / precise

c. random / large Yes, the correct answer is c. For statistical data to be valid, the sample must be random and sufficiently large.

A scientist discovered that all laboratory hamsters that had been eating lettuce developed Salmonella poisoning. This is an example of causation by:

common factor This is an example of causation by a shared common factor.

To be fair-minded is to

consider all relevant opinions equally without regard to one's own sentiments or selfish interests. It is also to do so without reference to the sentiments or selfish interests of one's friends, community, or nation.

Which of the following represents a difficulty with surveys as evidence? a Survey questions are sometimes worded ambiguously b Survey responses don't necessarily reflect the actual beliefs of respondents c Surveys have built-in biases d All of the above

d) All of the above

Which of the following graphical forms is well suited to summarizing time series data? a Pie chart b Venn diagram c Bar graph d Line graph

d) Line graph

egocentrism

the tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself

Which of the following statements best defines critical thinking?

thinking about thinking in order to make thinking better

Hiding or distorting evidence illustrates which of the following?

weak-sense thinking

Critical thinking comprises which three interlinking dimensions:

1 Analyzing one's own thinking- breaking it down into its component parts. 2 Evaluating one's own thinking- identifying its weaknesses while recognizing its strengths. 3 Improving one's own thinking- reconstructing it to make it better.

Strong sense critical Thinking

A consistent pursuit of what is fair and just. strive to be ethical Will entertain arguments with which they do not agree Change their views when confronted with superior reasoning think reasonably and not manipulatively

Which of the following is an element of reasoning? A. Point of view B. Relevance C. Fairness

A. Point of view Correct. Points of view is an element of reasoning.

Which elements of reasoning are operative when we think through a problem?

All eight elements

Of the five key factors Jefferson Flanders identifies in evaluating research, which one best addresses tracing the origins of the information? a Authority b Transparency c Point-of-view d Accuracy

The correct answer is B. Transparency is a key factor in tracing the origins of information.

Acknowledging different sources of point of view is an argument for intellectual relativism. True or false?

False Correct. Acknowledging that different sources shape point of view is not an argument for intellectual relativity, i.e., the claim that nothing is provable because everything is relative. Observing things from a particular point of view does not render one unable to distinguish accurate from inaccurate statements.

An inference is something we presuppose. True or false?

False Correct. An inference is a mental step by which one concludes that something is true based on something else being true or appearing to be so. An assumption is something we presuppose.

Second-order thinking (critical thinking)

First-order thinking that is consciously realized (i.e., analyzed, assessed, and reconstructed)

Which of the following is not among the suggested beginning tactics for improving your thinking?

Handle multiple problems per day.

In strategic thinking, recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed is which component?

Identification Identification is recognizing when your thinking is irrational or flawed.

Weak Sense Critical Thinking

Ignore the flaws in their own thinking Often seek to win an argument through intellectual trickery or deceit. makes no good faith effort to consider alternative viewpoints. Lacks fair-mindedness.

What is said to follow from our reasoning?

Implications Implications are what follow from our reasoning.

In reasoning, we make __________ based on ___________.

In reasoning, we make inferences based on assumptions.

In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at a(n) ________ level.

In some cases, the conclusions we draw are based on assumptions that operate at an unconscious level.

The mind drawing conclusions on the basis of reasons defines which process?

Inferring Reasoning Both inferring and reasoning occurs whenever the mind draws conclusions based on reasons.

In strategic thinking, engaging and challenging your own thinking is which component?

Intellectual action

We've been asked to provide an estimate of sales for next year. I think we can safely say that we will reduce costs 25 percent and improve profitability." Is this information relevant or irrelevant?

Irrelevant Correct. The information provided is not relevant to the question, which is asking for a sales forecast, not a cost forecast.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of second-order thinking?

It relies on intuition.

Which of the following statements about Uncritical Persons (as defined by Paul and Elder) is false? a They are skilled in manipulation. b They have socially conditioned beliefs. c They see themselves as "good" and opponents as "evil." d They are prone to emotional counter-attacks when their thinking is questioned.

The correct answer is A. Paul and Elder argue that Skilled Manipulators, not Uncritical Persons, know how to manipulate.

Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning is an example of: a ad hominem fallacy b appeal to authority c appeal to popularity d red herring

The correct answer is A. This is an example of an ad hominem fallacy, where the person is attacked, not the reasoning.

An unsupported claim is what critical thinking experts refer to as a(n): a Preliminary conclusion b Opinion c Deductive assertion d Inference

The correct answer is B. Critical thinking experts refer to an unsupported claim as a mere opinion.

Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim is an example of: a appeal to authority b appeal to popularity c hasty generalization d slippery slope

The correct answer is B. It is an appeal to popularity.

Impediments to sound thinking include

Making generalizations unsupported by evidence. Letting a stereotype* shape our thinking. Viewing the world from one fixed vantage point. Forming false beliefs. Dismissing or attacking viewpoints that conflict with our own. Thinking deceptively about our own experiences.

Which of the following best describes activated ignorance?

Mentally taking in and actively using false information

Paul and Elder's "Dimensions of Decision-Making" suggest all of the following steps, except:

Merge problems and decisions into a comprehensive decision whenever possible.

The elements of reasoning are also known as the:

Parts of thinking and Fundamental structures of thought

What are the three kinds of implications that may be involved in any situation?

Possible, probable, necessary

What is the term for the goal or desired outcome of our reasoning?

Purpose

What are the elements of critical thinking?

Purposes, Questions, Points of View, Information, Inferences, Concepts, Implications, Assumptions

Reasoning that is specific, exact and sufficiently detailed is said to be:

Reasoning that is specific, exact and sufficiently detailed is said to be precise.

First-order thinking (ordinary thinking)

Spontaneous and non-reflective Contains insight, prejudice, good and bad reasoning Indiscriminately combined

Which of the following correctly reflects the relationship between the standards of thinking, the elements of thinking, and intellectual traits?

The standards must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

The standards of ___________ must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

The standards of critical thinking must be applied to the elements as the critical thinker learns to develop intellectual traits.

Theories are examples of:

Theories are examples of concepts.

Thinking that is easily understood reflects which of the intellectual standards?

Thinking that is easily understood reflects the standard of clarity.

Actively using information that is false, although we mistakenly think it is true, is an example of:

This is an example of activated ignorance.

To analyze the logic of an article, one can apply:

To analyze the logic of an article, one can apply the Elements of Reasoning.

Intellectual standards require that assumptions be acknowledged and stated clearly and concisely. True or false?

True Correct. Assumptions, what is presupposed to be true, must be directly acknowledged and analyzed.

Data is a type of information. True or false?

True Correct. Examples of information include data, facts, experiences and observations, and word of mouth. Information that plays a role in thinking and argumentation must be carefully analyzed.

One good way to analyze causes is to eliminate non-causal factors, identifying the causal factor through the process of elimination. True or false? True False

True Correct. In analyzing causation, it is a good idea to try to rule out non-causal factors until one correct causal factor remains.

Concomitant variation refers to a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect. True or false? True False

True Correct. One way to analyze causation is to look for concomitant variation, a pattern of variation between a possible cause and a possible effect.

Given the following dataset, what is the median? 1, 5, 7, 8, 3, 2, 5, 6, 8, 4, 9 a. 5 b. 3 c. 9 d. 5.3

a. 5 Yes, the correct answer is a. The median is 5. Re-ordering the values in the dataset gives us: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9 The middle point is data point 5.

1. Risk reduction can be expressed in _______ and ________ terms. a. relative / absolute b. ratio / index c. qualitative / quantitative d. none of the above

a. relative / absolute Yes, the correct answer is a. Risk reduction can be expressed in relative and absolute terms.

Which of the following is more widely regarded as a high quality source of evidence? a. research studies b. intuition c. personal experience d. appeal to authority

a. research studies Yes, the correct answer is a. Research studies, if conducted properly, can provide very strong evidence because they produce empirical data that may be independently tested and verified.

Statistics based on imprecise reporting is known as: a. a best guess b. an opinion c. an approximation d. all of the above

all of the above Yes, the correct answer is d. Statistics based on imprecise reporting is known as a best guess, an approximation, and also an opinion.

Critical thinking involves_______ one's own thinking

analyzing, evaluating, and improving

It is impossible to interpret the significance of a percentage without knowing the _________ on which it is based. a Relative numbers b Absolute numbers c Statistical sample d Median

b) Absolute numbers

Strong analogies entail comparisons between things that have _________ and lack _________. a Similarities/differences b Relevant similarities/relevant differences c Relevant differences/relevant similarities d Similar characteristics/contradictions

b) Relevant similarities/relevant differences

"Is basketball or ice hockey more fun to watch?" is a:

b) question of preference

Which of the following is not a part of statistics? a. collecting data b. organizing data c. analyzing data d. engineering data

d. engineering data Yes, the correct answer is d. Statistics involves collecting, organizing, and analyzing data, but does not include engineering data.

The _______ is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset. a. median b. mean c. percentage d. mode

d. mode Yes, the correct answer is d. The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

A rival cause tells us that there is _____________ for why something happened. a. only one credible explanation b. never a faulty explanation c. only one inconsistent explanation d. more than one credible explanation

d. more than one credible explanation Yes, the correct answer is d. A rival cause tells us that there is more than one credible explanation for why something happened.

Critical thinking values ________ of thought over ______ of thought.

depth/speed

Which term means the tendency to view everything in relationship to oneself?

egocentrism

Bringing an unbiased perspective to all relevant viewpoints exemplifies which of the following?

fair-mindedness

Which of the mind's basic functions evaluates the extent to which life's events are either positive or negative?

feeling

In thinking through a problem, the critical thinker does all of the following except

gathers information that supports his/her presuppositions

The opposite of intellectual conformity is:

intellectual autonomy

The ability to reconstruct others' viewpoints exemplifies which of the following traits?

intellectual empathy

To admit flaws in one's own thinking is an expression of:

intellectual integrity

Define Critical Thinking

is the art of thinking about thinking while thinking in order to make thinking better. Richard Paul and Linda Elder in Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life

sociocentrism

or the assumption that one's own social group is inherently superior to all others

A mechanic ruled out failures in 10 different engine parts before finding the problem in the carburetor. This is an example of:

process of elimination

Which of the following is not a bad habit of thought?

reasoning from assumptions that are not one's own

Another term for critical thinking is:

second-order thinking

Critical thinking is characteristically:

self-directed self-disciplined self-monitored self-corrective

In analyzing causation, looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another, similar, situation is called the:

single difference method Looking for a causal factor that is present in one situation but absent in another, similar, situation is called the single difference method.