Critical Thinking Final study guide

Explain Hume's Conditions for Cause and Effect.

* X is the cause and Y is the effect* 1. X is preceded by Y in time. 2. X and Y are in contiguous (in contact with each other). 3. There is history of both 1 and 2.

Define "fairness doctrine." .

- A former U.S. policy by which broadcasters must allow equal airtime for all sides of an issue

What is the Gestalt Principle?

- A principle that states that our minds strive toward congruence and completion of information.

What is an enthymeme?

- A syllogism with a key part or parts implied rather than directly stated.

Define "romance the product."

- A technique used by advertisers in which consumers are asked to associate a product with something bigger, better and more attractive.

. Define a sound argument.

- A valid deductive argument whose premises are true.

Define "connotation."

- All the images (positive, negative, and neutral) that are associated with any given denotation by an individual or a group.

Define a valid argument.

- An argument structured in a correct deductive format; an argument structured in such way that if its premises are true, then its conclusion must be true

What is a "sound bite"? .

- An excerpt from a speech or report that is presented as summarizing but may actually distort the sentiments of the speaker or writer

What is "subliminal persuasion"?

- Information meant to affect people on an unconscious level, some of which can be detected with training and some which cannot be detected with the conscious mind, regardless of training.

Explain the Cycle of Bias. What are the three components of the Cycle? How does it relate to the Iceberg Analogy of Culture?

- The Cycle of Bias is when a stereotypes lead to prejudice and prejudice leads to discrimination which reinforces the stereotypes continuing the cycle. The three components are Stereotype (Idea), Prejudice (Feeling) and Discrimination (Action).

Explain the Iceberg Analogy of Culture. What features are on the surface? What features are below the surface?

- The Iceberg Analogy of Culture is based on our initial interactions on external and internal cultural factors. The external factors are on the surface (things we see, hear, or touch). The internal factors are below the surface (beliefs, assumptions, values, and traditions).

Define "framing."

- The deliberate or unconscious use of a camera shots to influence audiences.

Define the term "lead."

- The introductory sentence of a news story that is meant to give a reader the essence or general meaning of the story.

Discuss the problem of vagueness.

- The meaning is unclear. Vagueness is a problem that arises with the use of nonspecific or abstract words.

Define "product placement."

- The practice of integrating or embedding products in films, television programs, and other media in order to reach consumers

Define "emotional reasoning." What are the 6 patterns of thinking that distort reality? What are 6 ways to deal with emotional reasoning?

- The process of using one's feeling as definitive proof of an accurate analysis of a situation. Patterns are Overgeneralizing, Mind Reading, Filtering, Catastrophizing, Personalizing and Perfectionism. Ways to deal with the patterns are Be aware, Map out the general beliefs behind your emotion, Analyze the specific situation that caused your thinking, Consider other interpretations of the situation, Prepare for action, Accept good changes and also accept reality

Define "groupthink."

- The tendency for group members to rigidly conform to and reinforce a collective opinion or judgement about an issue

Define "conformity."

- The tendency to follow others uncritically usually to gain acceptance or to avoid conflict

Define "Ethnocentrism."

- The tendency to view one's race or culture as central, based n the deep-seated belief that one's own group is superior to all others

How does a critical thinker counter ethnocentrism? What 3 things are involved in this?

- They develop Fair-mindedness. 1. A respect for people whose ethnicities and traditions are different from our own. 2. A willingness to hear and understand other viewpoints 3.An openness to change when new information or insight warrants that change

What are some problems that critical thinkers must be aware of regarding "expert testimonies"?

- Use of experts in the wrong field of expertise. - Use of expertise who are not recognized as experts. - Use of experts who are paid for their testimony. - Use of biased experts. - Experts who do not realistically limit - Expert testimony that is contradicted by equally expert testimony.

Define "neuro-marketing."

- Using technology to determine consumers' internal subconscious reactions to products and brand names in order to plan effective marketing strategies.

What are "fuzzy words?"

- Weasel words that create an appealing claim or impression without specially defining a concrete meaning for the words or phrases used.

What are some questions critical thinkers must ask regarding the reliability of statistical reports?

- What is the sample size? - Is the sample representative in all significant characteristics and in the proportion of those characteristics? - Have all significant characteristics been considered? -If the study is a poll, are the questions biased? - What is the credibility of the polling organization/research institution? - Is the survey biased because of the vested interest of the company that paid for it?

What is "sensationalism"? Why is it in the media?

- a method used to attract viewers by presenting more exciting stories over less- exciting but perhaps more newsworthy ones; to continue to bring in new viewers for higher ratings.

Define "reification."

- a process by which words become more powerful and real than the objective reality.

What is meant by the "power of suggestion"? Cite an example.

-the power to present ideas or images in such a way as to reveal certain ideas and qualities and to conceal others.

List and define 2 types of Multiple causes.

1. Immediate causes - A causal factor that immediately precedes the effect. 2. Remote causes - Factors or conditions that led up to but not immediately precede the effect.

What are our two defense mechanisms? Define them.

1. Rationalization - a defense mechanism that underlies others 2.Denial - a state of mind that blocks critical thinking by the repression of our refusal to recognize negative or threaten information

As critical thinkers, how do we counter egocentrism?

1. to recognize the basic defense mechanisms we use to distort reality and to deceive others and ourselves 2. To recognize areas where we. for whatever reasons have trouble being rational 3. To understand and have empathy for someone's viewpoint

What is a sample? Which 3 criteria/conditions must be satisfied for a sample to be reliable?

A sample is the members of the target population who are studied by a researcher. 1. The sample must be large enough. 2. The sample must be representative of the target audience. 3.The sample must be random.

What is a syllogism? What are the three basic parts called?

A syllogism is a deductive argument usually consisting of two premises and a conclusion. The three parts are major premise, minor premise and conclusion.

Using A, B, and C, show the form of an enthymeme as a syllogism.

A then B If A then B A because B

What is a sound argument?

A valid deductive whose premises are true.

. In critical thinking, what is an argument? What are the three parts? Define each.

An argument is a conclusion about an issue that is supported by reasons. The three parts of an argument are the issue, reasons, and conclusion. An issue is the question or subject under discussion. Reasons are statements of evidence given to support the conclusion. The conclusion is a position taken about an issue, also a claim or an opinion; in deductive reasoning, the inference drawn from the major and minor premises; in research, the meaning and significance of the data as interpreted by the researcher.

What is technical causation? What conditions or principles are necessary?

Another format of determining causation; necessary condition and sufficient condition

. Define "conditional syllogism." What is another name for conditional syllogism?

Another name of conditional syllogism is hypothetical syllogism. Conditional Syllogism - A syllogism whose major premise asserts that if the condition is cited in the first part of a statement is true, then the claim cited in the second part of the statement will follow.

Define "argument of elimination." What does its pattern look like?

Argument of elimination - A valid syllogism that seeks to logically rule out various possibilities until only a single possibility remains. - Either A, or B, or C Either A, or B, C, D Not B or C OR If B or C, Then D Therefore A Not D Therefore A

What are assumptions? What are the two types? Why are they important to find in an argument?

Assumptions are beliefs, usually taken for granted, that are based on the experiences, observations, or desires of an individual/group. The two types of assumptions are reality assumptions and value assumptions. It is important to look for value assumptions in an argument because they reflect the individual's values that are important to the opponent.

Differentiate between correlation and causation

Causation is the assumption that one event caused another, whereas correlation is the similarity/connection that the two events have. i. Correlation - A relationship or connection between two objects or events. ii. Causation - A connection between two events in which it is established that one event cause the other.

What is a critical thinker? What are two main personal traits?

Critical Thinkers are people who use specific criteria to evaluate reasoning, form positions, and make decisions. They have empathy and fairmindedness.

What is "statistical evidence"? How is it used to make statistical generalizations"?

Data collected by polling and research studies that can be used to make statistical generalizations; Inferences drawn to make statistical evidence that is used to give strength to inductive arguments.

What are the three types of issues

Factual issues (descriptive issues), Values (prescriptive issues), and Policy issues.

Define "disjunctive syllogism." What does the pattern look like?

Disjunctive syllogism - A hypothetical syllogism in which two possibilities are given in the major premise and one is assumed to be necessarily true. In the minor premise, one of the possible alternatives is negated and remaining the alternative is then affirmed in the conclusion. - Either A or B Either A or B Not B OR Not A Therefore A. Therefore B.

Define "ambiguity."

Having two or more possible meanings; Ambiguity is a language that occurs when the meaning of words are unclear or uncertain.

What is difference between High Power Distance and Low Power Distance? What are the signs of each?

High Power Distance believes that there is inequality in the world and accept it as a fact. Low Power Distance believes that power is shared. - High Power signs are: o Lower trust levels o Higher protocol levels o A desire to figure out roles for everyone participating o A need for more context - Low Power signs are: o Downplay the importance of hierarchy o Have a lower level of protocol o Feel that people in power should look less powerful than they are o Feel that people can gain power through education

Should a critical thinker always hold firm to his/her position? Or is there a time to revisit one's position? What about politicians who are criticized for flip-flopping when they change their position on issues?

If the position the thinker is holding is based on values then their position should not change but if it is based on facts and new evidence is presented that contradicts the thinker's argument then it is acceptable to alter their position.

What are the indicators of a conclusion? What are the indicators for reasons?

Indicators for the conclusion are words like "therefore, thus, hence" and phases such as "my point is..." and "what I am saying is..."

Define "semantic differential."

Is a tool that allows semanticists to assess the connotations of a word for a particular group.

What must every conditional syllogism contain? What is the name of the first part of this element? What is the name of the second part?

It must contain at least one "if-then" statement. The first part is the antecedent. The second part is the consequent.

What is "double speak"? Define the 5 types of double speak.

Language used to lie or mislead while pretending to tell the truth. i. Euphemism - the use of a less direct but softer or more acceptable term to describe an event, person or, object. ii. Jargon - Specialized language sometimes used to exclude or impress people who do not understand the terminology. iii. Gobbledygook - Vague or inflated language used to confuse or overwhelm those who hear it. iv. Spin - the use of language particular in politics and public relations, to create a biased, positive connotation for ideas, events, or policies that one favor and a biased negative impression about ideas, events, and policies that one dislikes. v. Weasel Words - a word used to evade or retreat from a direct or forthright position or statement.

What is the difference between morals and ethics?

Morals are principles that distinguish right from wrong behavior, whereas ethnics are standards of conduct reflecting what is considered to be right or wrong behavior.

What is a representative sample? A biased sample?

Representative sample is a quality of a research sample in which the sample has the same significant characteristics in the same population as the target population; Biased sample is a sample that does not reflect a random, representative population and does not have adequate evidence to support a conclusion.

Define "empathy."

The ability to identify and understand the feelings and perspective of others.

What conditions must be met in order for a conclusion of a conditional syllogism to be true?

The antecedent must be true in order for the consequent to be true.

Differentiate between "real" and "ideal" values.

The difference between real values and ideal values is that real values are actually enacted upon. i. Ideal value - A value considered to be right and good. ii. Real values - A value considered to be right and good that is acted upon in one's life.

Why is the negative connotation of argument not appropriate to critical thinking?

The negative connotation of the word argument appeals toward hostile emotion whether than a logical debate.

Define "inductive reasoning/induction."

The process of drawing generalizations from known facts of research to give strength and support to conclusions; The process of finding truth by making observations (inferring general laws and truth from specific instances)

What is the reason and conclusion in a statement: If A, then B and A because B.

The reason is "if A, then B", the conclusion is " A because B".

Define "denotation."

The specific object or action that a word points to, refers to, or indicates.

What are the three elements of a speech?

The three element of a speech are content, organization, and delivery.

What are the three parts of the Statement of Reason Pattern?

The three parts of the Statement of Reason Pattern are the Introduction, Body of the Speech, and the Conclusion.

What are the three audience types? What technique is appropriate when dealing with a hostile audience?

The three types of audiences are a believing audience, a neutral audience, and a hostile audience. When dealing with a hostile audience you should use both-sides persuasion technique.

List two types of reasoning to discuss reality assumptions. Differentiate between them.

The two types of reality assumptions are Inductive Reasoning and Deductive Reasoning. Inductive Reasoning - The process of finding truth by making observations. Deductive Reasoning - The process of inferring a conclusion by putting forth true premises in a valid format.

What is a blind study? A double blind study?

• Blind Study - A study in which subjects are not told whether they belong to the control group or the experimental group • Double blind study - A study in which neither the experiment nor the subjects know which is the experimental group.

What are value conflicts? How should we resolve value conflicts?

Value conflicts are disagreements about the priority different values should have in decision making. Value conflicts should be resolved by choosing which of the values would best fit the situation.

. What is value prioritization?

Value prioritization is the process of choosing the most important values in an issue.

What are values? What are value assumptions? Why is it important to examine value assumptions before discussing issues in which values are involved?

Values are beliefs, ideals, or principles that are considered worthy or held in high regard. Value assumptions are beliefs about how the world should be. There is significance about specific values about certain issues.

What are warrants?

Warrants are unstated but necessary links between reasons and claims; the assumptions made by the speaker/writer that a connect claims and reasons.

What are the criteria for evaluating a study or experiment?

a. How large is the sample? b. Is the study reliable? c. Are these alternative explanations for the findings? d. Are the results statistically significant? e. Have other researchers been able to duplicate the results? f. Does the research claim that the study proves more than it was designed to prove? g. Has the research been done by a respected institution? h. Are the researchers biased?

What are some common rationalizations that people make to justify taking action contrary to their principles and values?

i. "If it's necessary, it's ethical." ii. "If it's legal and permissible, it's proper." iii. "I was just doing it for you." iv. "I'm just fighting fire with fire." v. "I doesn't hurt anyone." vi. "It can't be wrong, everyone's doing it." vii. "It's OK if I don't gain personally." viii. "I've got it coming." ix. "I can still be objective."

. What are the three elements of a persuasive argument? Define each.

i. Ethos - the credibility/ reputation of a speaker. ii. Logos - logical organization and credible content in a speech. iii. Pathos - the use of emotional appeal to support conclusions.

. (a) Identify and define seven types of inadequate reasons as fallacies.

i. Faulty analogy- A comparison of one situation or idea to another that disregards significant differences that make the comparison invalid. ii. False Cause (post hoc ergo propter hoc) - A fallacy that occurs when there is no real proof that one event caused another event; there is only evidence that one event came after another event. iii. Slippery Slope - A fallacy that occurs when serious consequences of a potential action or policy are predicted and not substantiated by evidence. iv. Straw man - A fallacy in which an opponent's argument is distorted/exaggerated and is then more easily attacked. v. Hasty conclusion - A fallacy in which a generalization is drawn from a small and thus inadequate sample of information. vi. False Dilemma - An error in reasoning that occurs when one polarizes a situation by presenting only two alternatives, at two extremes of the spectrum of possibilities. vii. Begging the Question - A fallacy that occurs when a speaker/writer assumes what needs to be proven.

What are the 10 marketing/advertising tricks?

i. Fuzzy Words ii. Logical fallacies iii. Stylized images and sounds iv. Celebrity associations and endorsements v. Product placement vi. The Gestalt Principle vii. Use of opinion leaders to influence the market viii. Use of social media to build customer loyalty ix. Eye tracking x. Neuro-marketing

List and define the schools of thought about ethics.

i. Libertarianism - A belief system in which behavior is considered ethical when it allows for one's individual freedom and does not restrict the freedom of others. ii. Utilitarianism - A belief system in which behavior is considered ethical when it promotes the greatest general happiness and minimizes unhappiness. iii. Egalitarianism - A belief system in which behavior is considered to be ethical when equal opportunities and consequences apply to all people. iv. Religious Values - An ethical system based on spiritual truth and the principles of loving God and loving one's neighbor. v. Prima Facie Values - A system of universal ethnical principles, such as honesty and respect for others, that are considered to be self-evident and obvious to rational individuals of every culture.

What are the five parts of an enthymeme?

i. Major Premise ii. Minor Premise iii. Equivalent Assumptions iv. Identified Claims v. Conclusion

. Name and define the three types of conditional syllogisms. Differentiate among them. Can you identify their patterns if you saw them on a test?

i. Modus Ponens - A valid conditional/hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent is affirmed. ii. Modus Tollens - A valid conditional/hypothetical syllogism in which the consequent is denied. iii. Chain Argument - A form of argument that builds and depends on a series of conditions being met.

. List and define four tests used to make difficult decisions

i. Role Exchange Test - A test for ethical decision making that involves empathizing with people affected be an action that is being considered. ii. Universal Consequences Test - A test for ethical decision making that focuses of an action under consideration. iii. New Cases Test - A test for ethical decision making that asks whether a decision is consistent with decision that would be made in similar harder cases. iv. Higher Principles Test - An ethical test by which one determines if the principle on which one is acting is consistent with a higher or more general principle that one accepts.

(a) List and define seven types of fallacies that mislead.

i. Self-fulfilling Prophecy - a process whereby an expectation becomes reality. ii. Red Herring - A fallacy in which reasons offered to support conclusions lead the listener away from the issue under consideration. iii. Ad Hominem (attacking the person) - a Latin term meaning "to the man" or "attacking the person"; occurs when a person is attacked on a personal quality that is irrelevant to the issue under discussion. iv. Two wrongs make a right - a fallacy that is used to excuse bad behavior on the grounds of other bad behavior ; occurs when someone rationalizes that one person's or one group's action is justified because some other person's or one group's action is just as bad or worse. v. Look who's talking - A fallacy that is committed when someone denies a claim because they believe the speaker who is making the claim hypocritical. vi. Ad Populum - a fallacy that consists of a false appeal to the authority of "everyone"; this fallacy is based on the assumption that a course of action should be taken or an idea should be supported because "everyone" is doing/ believes it; Bandwagon. vii. Appeal to Tradition- A fallacy that occurs when a belief/ action is supported on the ground that it conforms to traditional ideas/practices.

. What are the three prerequisites for problem-solving? Describe them.

i. The Introduction - give the topic of the speech, state a clear purpose, and give some direction about the course of the speech. ii. Harms - should answer the question "How are we hurt by this problem?" iii. Inherency -should answer the question "Why does this problem exist?" The reasons for the existence of any problem can be categorized as either attitudinal or structural. a. Attitudinal inherency - occurs when the sentiments of the public create a barrier to the solution of the issue or when those sentiments help to perpetuate the cause of difficulty. b. Structural inherency - a physical barrier that must be overcome in order to solve the problem.

What are the 8 elements of TV suggestion?

i. The selection of issues ii. The use of time iii. The selection and treatment of guest and panel members iv. What is included or excluded on the set v. The nonverbal element of clothing vi. The use of language vii. The use of camera angles and cuts viii. Camera distance and framing

What are the 5 elements of print suggestion?

i. The use of Headlines ii. The use of "leads" or openings to a news story iii. The balance in reporting an issue iv. Fairness in editorial essays and letters v. Photo composition

Define the importance of each of the following terms in a study or experiment

• Hypothesis - A speculation about what will be discovered from a research study • Control group - A group of subjects from the sample who get no treatment or a placebo and are thus a test benchmark • Experimental group - A group of subjects who are exposed to a special treatment called the independent variable • Independent variable - The special treatment given to the experimental group in research study. • Sample - Members of the target population who are studied by a researcher • Subjects - People or animals studied to get information about a target population

Discuss Mills' Analysis of Cause and Effect.

• Method of Agreement - A theory of causation postulating that the cause of the effect is found by noting that X is the only factor always present when Y (good effect/problem); therefore, X causes Y • Method of Difference - A theory of causation postulating that the cause of an effect is found by noting that only between the event or (called Y) happening or not happening is whether one element -X- is present.