Critical Thinking Weeks 1 thru 4

Assessing Reportive Definitions

A good reportive definition of a word is one that tells us what others mean when they use the word and what others will understand us to mean when we use it. It will accurately describe the actual standard usage of the term ways in which a report of definition can fail to be a good definition. Too Broad a definition. Too narrow a definition. Too Broad and too narrow a definition. Circular definition, a circular definition includes the term being defined. For example a golf ball is a small spherical object used in the game of golf. Obscure definition is a definition that can also be useless when it fails through the use of vague obscure or metaphorical language to express clearly the meaning of the term being defined.

Loaded Terms

A loaded term is a term with a clear descriptive meaning and a positive or negative evaluative meaning which is used in an attempt to persuade us to accept the evaluation conveyed by the term loaded terms are most effective in context where the audience is not already committed to accepting or rejecting the evaluation carried by the loaded term and where this question is not being discussed explicitly creations people can more easily accept a loaded term because it sounds like really descriptive term. Vague terms what I admired most about Ernest Hemingway was that he broke the mold the phrase broke the mold is exceedingly vague. Loaded questions are questions presuppose an implied statement in order to be intelligible suggest something in a way that may be persuasive. Open questions leave it up to the respondent to structure and organize an answer however the respondent thinks best even the content is left entirely undetermined Restricted questions narrows the options available to a respondent to a limited range of possibilities. Loaded questions by contrast are not genuinely interrogative. Either they are allusions to the presuppositions and implications that make them intelligible or they are really disguised claims. This question cannot elicit an answer without impaling you on horn of a dilemma, such questions are called complex questions because they contain an assumption that any possible answer will confirm. Complex questions thus are a way of making a claim without appearing to do so. The only way to respond to a complex question containing a false assumption is to refuse to answer it in the form in which is been asked and you challenge the assumption directly. Rhetorical questions appear on the surface to elicit new information from a responded just as a real question does but they are really disguise statements such questions are formulated to suggest that there are only one reasonable answer and the question presupposes that answer rather than eliciting anything new from the audience accounts on agreement with the presupposed answer and this can win an audience's approval by tapping into its sympathies rather than presenting it with statements and evidence politicians asked is there anything more important for the future of society than child welfare they expect listeners to say no nothing. When a question is introduced as a way to phrase a possibility in the absence of evidence we can call these framing questions how is a newspaper prints an article under the headline does the senator have a secret Swiss bank account the article sites no evidence but merely describes how the reporter despite a thorough investigation failed to turn up any hard evidence that the senator does have a secret Swiss bank account the unwary reader will suspect that the newspaper had some grounds for asking the question

Meaning as Use

A new approach to meaning, meaning as use developed more recently by Ludwig Wittgenstein & John Austin. They recognized that many words do refer to things and that many words have a mental image or idea associated with them, but they held that the primary bearers of meaning are not words but sentences. Words have meaning only when they are used in sentences with such a context they have no meaning. When we ask what some particular word means we seem to be asking for the meaning of the word itself meaning apart from the way it was used in sentences. In fact the only meaning of word can have is the meaning it gains from the meanings of sentences in which the word was typically used.

Reductio Ad Absurdum

A statement is proven to be true by assuming it to be false, and then deriving a contradiction from that assumption.

Linguistic Ambiguity

Ambiguity and vagueness. An ambiguous sentence is one that has two or more different but possibly quite precise meanings. A vague sentence is one that lacks a precise meaning. Ambiguous sentences should be avoided whenever there is a risk of misinterpretation. Referential ambiguity arises when a word or phrase could in the context of a particular sentence refer to two or more properties or things. There is however one type of referential ambiguity that deserves special mention that between the collective and the distributive use of the term refer to a class of individual objects example class consisting of all dogs refers to the class of all books usually when we use such nouns we do store in order to say something about each and every member of its class when we use the term in this way it is being used distributively but sometimes we use terms to say something not about each and every member of the class as such when we use the term in this way it is being used collectively Grammatical ambiguity arises when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two interpretations which gives rise to a different meaning.. Use and mention is another type of linguistic ambiguity which arises through the failure to distinguish between using a word or phrase and mentioning a word or phrase.

Deductive Arguments (Uncommon)

Constitute strict proofs, that it is so strong the truth of the premise guarantees the proof of the conclusion.

The Main Functions of Language (9)

Descriptive function whenever we describe something, a situation or feeling we're stating facts or what we believe to be facts. Evaluative function we often use language not (or not merely) to describe something but to make a value judgment about it, that is to evaluate it. Emotive function language is sometimes used to express emotions and thus has an emotive function. Evocative function, language can be used for the purpose of evoking certain emotions in an audience. Poets are especially concerned with this function of language. Persuasive function, one of the most widespread uses of language is to persuade people to accept something or act in a certain way. Interrogative function, in order to elicit information we usually need to ask for it is it done by asking a question. Directive function, we sometimes use language to command others to do something or to provide advice. Performative function are utterances that are not descriptions, evaluations, directives and so on but are themselves to be regarded as actions. They are actions that consist of saying certain words, that is, in uttering a performative, the speaker performs some action in addition to merely saying a sentence. Recreational function finally we should not Overlook the fact that language is often used to amuse ourselves and others, we tell jokes and stories, write novels. People who tell jokes write stories out of simple enjoyment.

Normative Principles

Function as standards for assessment or guide for action, whereas descriptions merely attempt to accurately represent something. It explores the norms of reasoning and discovers how people ought to reason. Patterns of reasoning that have been identified as inductively or deductively strong are reliable for anyone to use.

Methods of Definition

Genus species method is a common method of defining a word referring to a kind of thing is to mention a larger category (a genus) to which that kind of thing belongs, and then to specify what makes that particular kind (that species) different from the other species in that genus. Ostensive method, sometimes the meaning of the word can easily be conveyed by giving examples either verbally or by pointing. If someone wants to know what a bassoon is, it may be sufficient to hold one up and say here is a bassoon or we made point one out by saying the bald man in the third row of the orchestra is playing a bassoon. Synonym method, often all that is needed to define a word is to give a synonym. Operational method, sometimes a term can be defined very precisely by specifying a rule or operation. In science for example it is essential that each concept be defined in a way that specifies exactly when it can be applied and when it cannot. One way of achieving such precision is to establish a rule that the term is to be applied only when specified test or operation yields for a certain result. IE a genius is anyone who scores over 140 on an iQ test. Operational definitions are commonly used outside science, terms that are used to distinguish things that form of continuum such as the quality of meat, student performance or degree of drunkenness. Thus we have operational definitions for such terms as grade A beef, honors standing and legal intoxication. Operational definitions often arise initially as stipulative definitions but may later become part of the standard usage. Contextual method, some words can best be defined by using the word in a standard context and providing a different sentence that does not use the word but has the same meaning.

Critical Thinking Skills (3)

Interpretive skills, verification skills and reasoning skills

Inference

Involves a special relationship between different thoughts. When we infer B from A, we move from A to B because we believe that A supports of justifies or makes it reasonable to believe in the truth of B.

Soundness

Is a property of an argument as a whole. Always keep the question of strength separate from the question of truth when dealing with any argument. Never simply ask, is this a good argument. Ask these 2 questions instead. 1. Is this a logically strong argument? 2. Are its premises true?

Truth

Is a property of statements, never of inferences

Statement

Is a sentence that is used to make a claim that is capable of being true of false. If it is not capable of being true or false it is not a statement.

Logic

Is the science that studies the relationships between premises and conclusions with a view to determining when and to what extent the premises actually support the conclusion. Logic as a science is a study of normative principles.

Inductive Arguments (More common)

More reasonable the premise hold to the conclusion, but not absolute.

Counterfactual Argument

One premise has to be counterfactual, or not true. EX something that did not happen in history.

The Purposes of Definition (3)

Reportive definitions are when we want to know the meaning of a word and its standard usage we need a reportive definition IE: One that reports its standard usage. Standard dictionaries give reportive definitions. Stipulative definitions. Sometimes it is useful to be able to create a new more precise meaning. As long as this stipulated meaning is explicitly stated there is no risk of misunderstanding, and there is an obvious gain in clarity and precision. We can also stipulate a new meaning for an old word, for example "bubble" to a promise made by a politician. There is however no guarantee these new words or uses will become part of the standard usage likely to happen only when there is a need need for the new term. Essentialist definitions, the correctness of an essentialist definition cannot be determined merely by an appeal to standard usage like a reportive definition nor by an appeal to its usefulness like a stipulative definition. Essentialist definitions really need to be understood as compressed theories to express in succinct form a theory about the nature of what is being defined. Thus assessing an essentialist definition involves assessing a theory and this goes far beyond questions about the meaning of words. Good stipulative definitions and good essentialist definitions are usually inadequate reportive definitions and good reportive definitions are usually unsatisfactory essentialist definitions

Inference Indicators

Since Thus Implies Consequently Because It Follows That Given that Sometimes there are no indicators, but you can see the inference in the statement EX "It's raining; I'd better take my umbrella."

Sound Argument

So if we want to know whether the conclusion of an argument is likely to be true, we need to know that "both" the argument is a strong one and that it's premises are true. An argument that has both logical strength and true premises is called a sound argument.

Assessing Stipulative & Essentialist Definitions

Stipulative and essentialist definitions however are not intended to convey the standard usage of a term. Stipulative definitions are intended to establish a new or restricted meaning for a term and cannot therefore be criticized for failing to convey adequately the standard usage of term. Essentialist definitions intended to describe the essential nature of something and since there's no guarantee that the standard usage of term will reflect standing up its essence we cannot criticize an essentialist definition for failing to convey the standard usage of the term. Stipulative and essentialist definitions are always put forward by specific purpose, whatever their purpose they must enable the audience to know how to use the term in accordance with its stipulated essential meaning, and this means that they should not be obscure or circular.

The Idea Theory of Meaning

The idea theory of meaning was developed by John Locke in the 17th century. He held that the meaning of the word consists of the idea or mental image that is associated with the word. When we think of the word dog it seems that we have a mental image we associate with the word, and it is plausible to hold that the meaning of dog is this image in our minds.

Reference Theory of Meaning

The reference theory of meaning was first expounded by Aristotle in the fourth century BCE. According to this View the meaning of the word consists in what it refers to. The word dog refers to all the dogs in the world, so it seems plausible to hold that the meaning of dog is all the dogs in the world. The meaning of the term thus consists of its reference class, that is the class of objects to which the word refers

Logical Strength

We say an argument has logical strength when its premises, if true actually provide support for its conclusion. When we assess the logical strength of an argument we are really asking if the premises are true, would we be justified in accepting the conclusion? How much evidence in the statement has been provided to determine if it is strong or weak?

Argument

When an inference is expressed in statements it is called an argument. An argument is a set of statements or claims that one or more of those statements, called "premises" support another of them called the "conclusion" thus every argument claims that its premises support its conclusion.

Charity Principle

When our opponents are not present and cannot clarify what they have said we ought to be prepared to do so on their behalf. It is up to us to find the fairest interpretation of their words that is available that best represents their presumed intentions. Thus in any discussion we have a moral obligation to treat our opponents fairly. When they are present we ought to give them the opportunity to clarify what they have said. When they are not present we have a moral obligation to follow the principle of Charity that is to adopt the most charitable interpretation of their words among the possible interpretations suggested by the context. The most charitable interpretation is the one that makes our opponents views plausible or defensible as possible. According to the principle of charity whenever two interpretations are possible we should always adopt the more reasonable one.

Reasoning

When thinking, our thoughts merely come to us. When we reason we actively link thoughts together in such a way that we believe one thought provides support for another thought. (Inference)

Logical Strength

is a property of inferences and never of statements, logical strength refers to the inferential connection between the premises and conclusion of an argument.