CRJU 315 Exam 2

Saturation Patrol

A dramatic & sudden increase in patrol officers in a specific area to increase police visibility & deter potential criminal behavior.

Describe Broken Windows Policing & relevant research

Broken windows policing (a.k.a. disorder policing, order maintenance policing) is based on Wilson and Kelling's (1982) proposition that physical deterioration of an area leads to fear of crime and more serious crime. Their hypothesis, often referred to as "broken windows theory," is that physically (and socially) disordered areas send a message to neighborhood residents that the area is unsafe, which causes law-abiding residents to stay out of the area for fear of victimization. At the same time, it sends a message to potential criminals that no one cares about the area and that they are able to operate without fear of getting caught breaking the law. The idea is that if small offenses (graffiti, vandalism, public intoxication, panhandling, drug use, prostitution, etc.) are left unchecked, more serious crimes will appear and flourish, driving out the law-abiding element completely.

List & describe the main components of community policing

Components of Community Policing So, what is community policing? It is "an overall philosophy that redefines the overall mission of policing as well as its operational methods and administrative form" It incorporates crime prevention, problem solving, community engagement, and partnerships to reduce crime and improve an area's quality of life (QOL). It balances the need to reactively respond to calls for services with the practice of proactive problem solving. It places a premium on community partnerships because police officers need community support to solve crimes, maintain order, and enforce law.

Describe the 4 main types of analysis

Crime trend analysis: aka crime pattern analysis, involves analyzing specific types of crime that are occurring to determine who is doing what to whom by focusing on crimes against persons and property and looking for patterns. This is what people often think of when they hear "crime analysis" (when they are not thinking "CSI"). An analyst might perform crime trend analysis by reviewing and mapping all (or at least the most serious) crime reports filed and then looking for clumps of crime or changes in crime locations or volume. The analyst then shares this information with patrol officers or other appropriate personnel (quite often analysts create crime maps and post them in the briefing room or distribute them to officers on a daily or weekly basis). Sometimes, an officer or supervisor will ask an analyst to look into a specific problem. For example, in her (CG) previous work as an analyst, the stolen vehicle task force had access to a bait car and wanted to know when and where to put it for maximum effectiveness. An analysis of stolen vehicles revealed three separate patterns. Cars were being stolen from (1) a small residential neighborhood during the late night/early morning hours on week days, (2) the parking lot of a major retailer during the late morning/early afternoon hours, and (3) the parking lot of the local movie theater during the evening hours. The task force was able to use this analysis to place the bait car in each of these locations at the appropriate times on the specified days to catch several car thieves. Intelligence analysis: (a.k.a. network analysis or link analysis) assists in determining who is doing what with whom by focusing on the relationships between persons and organizations involved in illegal activity (fraud, smuggling, paper crimes, terrorism, drugs...). It includes, but is not limited to, social network analysis. In particular, it is used to identify suspects by connecting a suspect to a crime scene address, a victim, or something else. It is often used by analysts who work closely with gang units or narcotics units. Network analysis reveals the people who share an address, attend the same school, or were arrested together. It is extremely useful in complex cases but can be time consuming due to the amount of data entry that is usually required. Investigative analysis: is a specialized type of analysis that provides insight into the type of criminal and his/her motivation for committing that crime. It is most typically used with serial offenders such as rapists and killers but can be used on criminals who commit other types of crime. The fictional television show Criminal Minds is based upon the FBI's Behavioral Analysis Unit, which is probably the most famous team of investigative analysts (profilers) in the nation. Analysts who use investigative analysis to profile criminals look at the crime scene for evidence that a criminal was organized or disorganized, experienced or novice, known to the victim or a stranger. Knowing such things helps detectives identify the criminal. For example, novice criminals do not travel out of their comfort zone which means that if a crime scene indicates that the criminal was a novice, officers would look for suspects who work, live, or have other business very near the crime scene. Operations analysis: (a.k.a. administrative analysis) enables the analyst to determine how the agency is using its internal resources by examining personnel deployment and workload distribution patterns. Analysts evaluate data and provide their analysis to command staff so that they can answer questions such as should the department have three officers per shift or four? Which schedule is most efficient for the department—4-10s, 3-12s, or a 9/80? Should we employ civilian report writers rather than send a sworn officer to every past crime report? This type of analysis is conducted at the operational or strategic level. It could also involve a pre/post analysis of a change in procedures or targeted intervention (such as problem-oriented policing projects).

Describe focused-deterrence & the relevant research

Focused Deterrence: (a.k.a. pulling levers) is a prime example of an offender-based operational strategy used to reduce crime. This tactic, developed in Boston as part of Operation Ceasefire, uses the legal system and available social services to encourage identified individuals (violent gang members in Boston) to refrain from committing crime. Specifically, Boston gang members were notified that gang violence would not be tolerated and anyone who engaged in violence would be subjected to every possible legal consequence that could be directed at them. At the same time, social services were provided to individuals who requested the services and committed to be violence-free. Unlike some of the other strategies, pulling levers is generally implemented on a city-wide basis (to a specific audience) and involves partners from other agencies (such as the district attorney's office, probation department, community leaders, etc.) Research conducted thus far suggests this is a strategy that "works." Interestingly, this approach got its start as a POP project—not surprisingly, it won the Herman Goldstein Award for excellence the year it was nominated (1998).

Differentiate b/w organizational & operational approaches to crime control

ORGANIZATIONAL: organizational methods tend to require more commitment and coordination from the entire agency than do operational methods. They also tend to be long-term, defining philosophies that require significant organizational change. Total organizational commitment Major organizational restructuring required Long-term Many resources Addresses broad set of problems OPERATIONAL: Operational methods, require fewer resources than do organizational methods and they can operate within an already existing organizational philosophy. Also, operational strategies can come and go more easily than ingrained organizational approaches. Commitment from small segment of organization Minimal organizational restructuring required Short(er) term Few resources Addresses narrow set of problems

Describe the problem-oriented policing process, including the SARA model & problem analysis triangle

Problem-oriented policing (POP) is a policing approach that emphasizes identifying, analyzing, and developing highly individualized solutions to intrinsic community problems. problem-oriented policing emphasizes solving substantive community problems within the police purview. the SARA model: Scanning: • Identifying recurring problems of concern to the public and the police. • Identifying the consequences of the problem for the community and the police. • Prioritizing those problems. • Developing broad goals. • Confirming that the problems exist. • Determining how frequently the problem occurs and how long it has been taking place. • Selecting problems for closer examination. Analysis: •Identifying and understanding the events and conditions that precede and accompany the problem. •Identifying relevant data to be collected. •Researching what is known about the problem type. •Taking inventory of how the problem is currently addressed and the strengths and limitations of the current response. •Narrowing the scope of the problem as specifically as possible. •Identifying a variety of resources that may be of assistance in developing a deeper understanding of the problem . •Developing a working hypothesis about why the problem is occurring. Response: •Brainstorming for new interventions. •Searching for what other communities with similar problems have done. •Choosing among the alternative interventions. •Outlining a response plan and identifying responsible parties. •Stating the specific objectives for the response plan. •Carrying out the planned activities. Assessment: •Determining whether the plan was implemented (a process evaluation). •Collecting pre- and post-response qualitative and quantitative data. •Determining whether broad goals and specific objectives were attained. ~Identifying any new strategies needed to augment the original plan. •Conducting ongoing assessment to ensure continued effectiveness. PROBLEM ANALYSIS TRIANGLE: 1. Behavior. Certain behavior(s) is (are) common to the incidents. For example, making excessive noise, robbing people or businesses, driving under the influence, crashing vehicles, dealing drugs, and stealing cars. There are many different behaviors that might constitute problems. 2. Place. Certain places can be common to incidents. Incidents involving one or more problem behaviors may occur at, for example, a street corner, a house, a business, a park, a neighborhood, or a school. Some incidents occur in abstract places such as cyberspace, on the telephone, or through other information networks. 3. Persons. Certain individuals or groups of people can be common to incidents. These people could be either offenders or victims. Incidents involving one or more behaviors occurring in one or more places may be attributed to, for example, a youth gang, a lone person, a group of prostitutes, a group of chronic inebriates, or a property owner. Or incidents may be causing harm to, for example, residents of a neighborhood, senior citizens, young children, or a lone individual. 4. Time. Certain times can be common to incidents. Incidents involving one or more behaviors, in one or more places, caused by or affecting one or more people may hap- pen at, for example, traffic rush hour, bar closing time, the holiday shopping season, or during an annual festival. There is growing evidence that, in fact, crime and disorder does cluster in these ways. It is not evenly distributed across time, place, or people. Increasingly, police and researchers are recognizing some of these clusters as: • • • Repeat offenders attacking different targets at different places. Repeat victims repeatedly attacked by different offenders at different places. Repeat places (or hot spots) involving different offenders and different targets interacting at the same place. The problem analysis triangle was derived from the routine activity approach to explain how and why crime occurs. This theory argues that when a crime occurs, three things happen at the same time and in the same space: •a suitable target is available. ~ there is the lack of a suitable guardian to prevent the crime from happening. ~a motivated offender is present.

Differentiate real time crime centers from regional intelligence centers

REAL TIME CRIME CENTERS: These are centralized technology and analysis centers that use advanced data mining, analytic, and forecasting software and high-tech tools to provide near-real-time information to patrol officers, detectives, and police managers. extremely expensive to develop It is believed that New York City was the first to establish a real-time crime center in 2005. Usually they are single agency efforts, but occasionally they can be multi-jurisdictional endeavors. Centers operate 24/7, and the difference between a real-time crime center and a dispatch center is that real-time crime centers are staffed by analysts around the clock, not dispatchers. The analysts provide up-to-the-minute access to technology, analysis, and investigative support. What makes these centers unique from standard crime analysis units is the following: •the staffing structure (24/7, not 8-5) •constant monitoring of calls for service allows analysts to provide valuable information to officers and detectives while they are on scene (or en route to calls) •a highly sophisticated, integrated network of technology provides access to billions of bits of information almost instantaneously as well as the ability to merge queries from a variety of databases •state-of-the-art data analysis software that easily combines information from multiple databases and other technologies (videos, license plate readers, etc.) to identify and locate suspects quickly •superb data-viewing capabilities—centers are outfitted with numerous large screen monitors and televisions to display multiple crime scenes, traffic cameras, and news programs simultaneously. REGIONAL INTELLIGENCE CENTERS: (also called fusion centers) were initiated after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to address the major gaps in information sharing that existed between federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies in the United States at that time. Fusion centers bring together federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies within a region for the purpose of gathering, receiving, analyzing, and disseminating intelligence on criminal enterprises (Department of Homeland Security, n.d.). There are currently 78 regional intelligence centers spread across the United States Each of the fusion centers are owned and operated by state or local agencies with federal support through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Each center functions as a terrorism early warning group and coordinates all counter-terrorism efforts in the defined jurisdiction, including protecting critical infrastructures, assessing threats, monitoring infectious disease outbreaks, and working with both public and private entities to identify suspicious activity. Unlike real-time crime centers, which are more concerned with local crime and criminals, fusion centers were created to prevent terrorism and coordinate emergency responses. However, this does not mean they are limited to terrorism and emergency responses, and most fusion centers assist authorities investigate local crimes and address complex problems such as gangs, narcotics, violence, and human trafficking.

Crackdowns

Short term intensive operations that target an unwanted behavior & usually include a lot of arrests &/or citations.

Directed patrol

Spending an allotted amount of time patrolling a specific area of the community that is considered to be a high crime area.

Explain the investigative process, including the preliminary investigation & secondary investigation

The criminal investigator's primary goal is to identify the perpetrator of a crime and aid in the prosecution of the perpetrator. Another key objective is to recover stolen property and return it to the victims. The investigative process is generally broken down into two separate stages: the preliminary investigation and the secondary investigation. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION: The preliminary investigation is conducted by the initial responding patrol officer. It is the initial inquiry into a reported crime. Typically, officers spend approximately an hour on the preliminary investigation—slightly less for property crime, slightly more for violent crimes. There are six main objectives at this stage: 1. Gather initial facts—On the way to the crime scene and upon arriving on the scene, the responding officer gathers the initial facts to determine whether a crime was committed and whether the crime was committed within the officer's jurisdiction. Some initial facts might include the type of crime that occurred as well as when and how it occurred, suspect description and location (which direction they fled or if they are still on scene), suspect vehicle description (if any), suspect weapon, and victim injuries. 2. Locate and apprehend fleeing suspects (and collect any discarded evidence)—Based on the description given to the dispatchers, the responding officer is on the lookout for the suspect while she is driving to the call. She also retrieves (or more commonly, radios to dispatch any evidence left behind at the crime scene needs to be documented by responding officers. the location of) any evidence discarded by the suspect/s in their attempt to flee from the crime scene (such as weapons, disguise used to commit the crime, money bags, or other identifying property taken during the crime). 3. Assess scene and request additional help—It is the responding officer's responsibility to determine what additional resources are needed at the crime scene. For example, it is common for Emergency Medical Services (EMS) to respond to provide medical care to injured parties. (Note: in some consolidated public safety departments, police officers are cross-trained 4. Secure crime scene—This involves taking control of the crime scene and directing person- nel and onlookers. Sometimes this requires taping off the crime scene and keeping people out of the area. In a major incident, an officer will keep a log of everyone who enters a crime scene as well as how long they are there. Many departments now require officers to carry specially designed booties in their gear bag—these are to wear over their shoes at a crime scene to prevent contamination and preserve the integrity of the evidence. 5. Identify and interview individuals with information about the crime—The responding offi- cer takes statements from the reporting party, as well as any victims, witnesses, potential suspects, and others with information. These individuals (and their contact information) are listed on the initial report so that the detective assigned to the case can conduct follow- up interviews, if necessary. 6. Write report—Finally, the assigned officer writes an initial report summarizing what occurred and who was involved. It contains suspect and victim information as well as a description of any stolen property and individual statements made by involved parties. Sometimes, photos of injuries, damage, or stolen property are included. This is the report that the investigator uses to start his secondary investigation. In some cases, when there were many victims and witnesses, other responding officers may interview some of the involved parties and write a "supplemental" report containing the individuals' statements. SECONDARY INVESTIGATION: This is the stage when the detective assumes responsibility for the case and starts to "fill in the blanks." The first thing that a detective does is confirm that a crime was committed within her jurisdiction and that there are clues that could lead to the perpetrator of the crime and/or recovery of stolen property. The detective maintains a case file that includes the initial report (written by the responding patrol officer) as well as all supplemental reports (written by others who responded to the initial call and the detective). As part of the investigation, the detective conducts follow-up interviews, reviews reports and crime scene photos, runs criminal history checks on named suspects, checks suspect descriptions in the department's RMS and other databases interprets evidence analysis, and performs other investigatory tasks to solve the case. The detective is the main point of contact for others working the case. For example, if a death occurred, the county coroner usually autopsies the body and provides a report to the investigator. Likewise, many agencies employ specially trained evidence technicians (sometimes called crime scene investigators) who collect and/or analyze physical evidence. Some large agencies have their own crime lab, but most agencies rely on their county or state crime lab to process DNA and perform other analyses (such as toxicology, serology, ballistics, etc.). Additionally, a specially trained computer forensic examiner might be used to collect and preserve any digital evidence. These highly skilled experts are necessary because there are strict rules that apply to handling evidence and documenting the chain of custody of evidence so that pertinent evidence can be admitted into court. most of a detective's time is spent on reviewing files and reports.

Recount the history of investigations

The first time the word "detective" was used was probably in 1842, when the London Metro- politan Police created the first "detective unit." Kuykendall, a police historian, breaks the history of American investigations into three semi-distinct, but overlapping, periods. 1850S-1920S: ThE SECRETIVE ROGUE: Investigators during this period were generally plain clothed, poorly trained, and corrupt. They focused their efforts on criminals (not crimes) because criminals were easy targets and reward money provided a strong incentive. Due to the systemic corruption that existed at all levels at this point in history, detectives were sometimes instructed by politicians to focus their investigative efforts on specific individuals (namely, the enemies of those in power) or lose their job. They performed their job in secret much of the time and fraternized with criminals in order to infiltrate criminal organizations. 1890S-1960S: THE INQUISITOR: By the turn of the century, police became associated with brutal practices and a rash of abuse. The "third degree" was widely and systematically practiced and came to define investigations during this period. Detectives inflicted physical and psychological pain and suffering on individuals to obtain information about crimes and coerce suspects to confess This torture occurred almost "without restraint" and many police executives publicly supported the practice up through the 1930s The Wickersham Commission, which published its report in 1931, heavily criticized the abusive practices and called for an immediate stop. When policing moved into the reform (professional) era, there were increased expectations on detectives to solve crimes and make arrests. As crime detection methods became more "scientific" and police training and education improved, the need for abusive interrogation practices waned. Police began to collect evidence and rely more on "modern" (psychological) interrogation practices that were persuasive but not abusive. Use of the third degree declined substantially in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s (first in large, urban departments and then in small, rural agencies). By the mid-1940s, the practice had ceased in most places and by the time the President's Commission was assembled in 1967, the practice had all but disappeared (except for a few rare and isolated cases—Chicago, Il. for example). 1940S-PRESENT: THE HIGHLY SKILLED PROFESSIONAl: The professionalization era put pressure on detectives to be more accountable for their behavior and more professional (less brutal). Detectives began to focus on specific crimes and respond to individual victims (rather than focusing solely on criminals). The due process revolution of the 1960s placed new constraints on officers which (they thought) would make it more difficult to obtain confessions (as you'll see, it didn't work out that way). The new legal constraints did, how- ever, force detectives to place a greater emphasis on investigative procedures and the accompanying paperwork to demonstrate that evidence and confessions were obtained lawfully. Investigators must now rely on developing solid cases which means collecting better evidence and working more closely with victims and witnesses. At this point, detectives are highly trained and skilled in the art and science of investigations and interrogations.

Describe typical suspect interrogations

The first, isolation, rap- port, and minimization, involves the detective isolating the suspect away from family and friends, developing a rapport with the suspect, and minimizing the moral seriousness of the crime. The second, confrontation, involves confronting the suspect with a statement of guilt (and a case file to appear there is evidence against him); essentially the detective accuses the suspect of the crime and suggests that the paperwork in the file establishes his guilt. 1. Ask as many open-ended questions as possible 2. Avoid yes-no, forced-choice, multiple-choice, and leading questions. 3. Use active listening; do not interrupt. 4. 80:20 rule: Interviewer should listen 80% of the time and talk 20% of the time. 5. Remain non-judgemental; do not share own opinions. The third technique, threatening the suspect, has the detective threaten the suspect with consequences if she doesn't tell the truth. The fourth technique, presentation of evidence, involves showing the suspect some of the actual evidence against her. Almost all suspect interrogations include the following elements: (1) isolating the suspect away from family and friends; (2) placing the suspect in a small, private room; (3) identifying contradictions in the suspect's account; and (4) trying to establish a rapport with the suspect to gain trust. Many interrogations also involve the detective confronting the suspect with evidence of guilt and appealing to the suspect's self-interests. Typically, a suspect interview/interrogation lasts for 1.6 hours and is conducted during normal waking hours. Most suspects are questioned three times, on average, during an investigation (the first couple are certainly interviews while the later (or last) one is customarily an interrogation). Interestingly, very few suspects (19%) invoke their Miranda rights and most suspects (81%) choose to talk to investigators.

Summarize the analytic process of crime analysis

The standard intelligence cycle includes five steps: direction, collation, analysis, dissemination, and feedback and review. Analysts take direction (someone asks them to analyze something or they notice something on their own to investigate), collate pertinent information, and then analyze it. After analyzing the data, they disseminate the findings to the person who made the initial request (and/or other pertinent personnel who could benefit from the information) and receive feedback and review (the receiver of the analysis may have additional questions or be satisfied that the question was answered appropriately). At that point, the cycle ends or begins again. Once an analyst has interpreted the criminal environment (analyzed the data), she will provide her findings to the appropriate decision-makers (patrol officers, detectives, special teams, or police leaders, for example). Depending on the situation and the department, this often involves offering recommendations for action. The decision-maker then uses the information provided by the analyst to impact the criminal environment to reduce, prevent, or disrupt crime.

Explain the research on the ideal number of patrol officers

Two person patrol cars were the standard when the automobile replaced foot patrol. Although many foot patrol officers patrolled on their own, two-officer patrol cars were thought to be safer and more effective than single-officer units due to the complexity of the job and the required multitasking—driving, listening to the police radio, talking on the police radio, and observing suspicious behavior. Police chiefs at the time debated whether officers were physically and intellectually up to the task Also, conventional wisdom suggested that two-officer units would be more proactive in their investigations of suspicious activity than one-officer units.

SARA Model

acronym for scan, analyze, respond, and assess—the four stages of the problem-oriented policing strategy.

Trespass Laws

allow private property owners to limit access to their property.

Zero-tolerance policing

an aggressive style of policing focused on eliminating disorderly behav- ior through a high number of arrests and citations. Based upon the broken windows theory, it was first instituted in New York City in the late 1980s to early 1990s.

COMPSTAT

an intelligence-led approach developed by NYPD in the mid-1990s that entails holding middle managers accountable for crime and other performance indicators in their area.

Situational Crime Prevention

crime prevention strategy based on routine activities theory that focuses on making it harder to commit a crime or reducing the rewards for committing a crime.

Off-limits orders

orders requiring an individual to stay away from a specified geographic area as a condition of probation or parole.

Exclusion orders

orders that ban a named person from a specific place within a jurisdiction for a defined period of time.

Banishment orders

orders that combine civil and criminal processes and penalties to reduce social disorder in defined places. Also known as civil orders.

Evidence based policing

policing strategies proven effective through social scientific research.

Omnibus Crime Control & Safe Streets Act of 1968

provided money for law enforcement agencies to purchase equipment & for researchers to conduct studies to ascertain which strategies employed by police officers were most successful, & under which conditions.

Problem Analysis Triangle

provides a way of thinking about recurring problems of crime and disorder. This idea assumes that a crime or disorder results when (1) likely offenders and (2) suitable targets come together in (3) time and space, in the absence of capable guardians for that target.

Explain how an officer's job might vary by the beat &/or shift she works

Beats are essentially small service areas within a jurisdiction that indicate an officer's area of responsibility (territory). ~drawing appropriate boundaries & assigning an appropriate number of officers to each beat serves to improve coverage & response time. ~some beats/shifts are busier than others

Identify 4 way that detectives can prevent false confessions

(1) electronically record interrogations, (2) reform interrogation practices that disproportionately lead to false confessions, (3) require all confessions to have corroborating evidence, and (4) improve police training

Describe the research on police response time & when rapid response might make a difference in suspect apprehension

1. Citizen discovery and reporting time: The time it takes for a person (victim or witness) to discover that a crime was committed and then call the police department to request an officer (this can happen during or after the crime occurred). 2. Police dispatch time: The time it takes for the dispatcher/s to process the call—to determine what happened and where it happened, and assign an available officer. 3. Officer travel time: The time taken for a responding officer to acknowledge the call, finish what he is doing, and then travel to the scene of the crime. One of the main reasons that response time is not particularly important is because most crimes are noticed after the crime has been committed. In fact, 75% of all crimes are discovery crimes, meaning they were discovered after the crime had been committed and the perpetrator had fled (e.g., burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft are commonly discovered long after the criminal committed the crime). Only 25% of crimes are considered to be involvement crimes, those in which the victim was confronted by the suspect (such as a robbery, assault, or rape). Research tells us that response time has little to no impact on solving the crime or apprehending a suspect in discovery crimes However, rapid response can increase the likelihood of apprehending a suspect in an involvement crime if the crime was reported by the citizen immediately.

Name & describe the 3 basic functions of policing

1. Law Enforcement (Crime Control): ~tasks that are directly related to enforcing the law & controlling crime ~making arrests, taking crime reports, investigating crimes, & writing traffic citations, interviewing witnesses & suspects, collecting evidence, patrolling hot spots, running DUI checkpoints, performing undercover operations ~ it is the function that officers spend the least amount of time doing. ~primarily reactive; police respond & perform these tasks after a crime has been reported, not before. can be proactive, police officers observe a law violation & make contact with the suspect on their own w/o being alerted to the law violation by a member of the community. 2. Order Maintenance: ~entails those activities that promote an orderly & peaceful society, for example, providing public safety during events that draw large crowds (sporting matches, parades, & civil protests) ensuring safe traveling conditions for vehicles & pedestrians & regulating the use of public space. ~police officers provide a variety of services to the general public, including emergency medical services, supporting community events & schools, crime prevention training & aiding individuals in need. ~essentially the peace keeping part of a police officer's job. helping resolve disputes b/w neighbors (loud music) limiting the amount of disorder caused by homeless persons & their belongings; quelling public disturbances; removing prostitutes from busy avenues; & addressing issues caused by teens, street racers & drug addicts, natural disasters. ~can be large scale or small scale & proactive or reactive. 3. Service: ~provision of services to members of the community. ~includes activities that do not (or only minimally) involve maintaining order, controlling crime, or enforcing laws; activities such as looking for missing children, seniors, & runaways; performing emergency medical services; responding to burglar alarms; assisting stranded motorists; teaching crime prevention, bike safety & citizen academy classes; engaging with local youth through outreach programs like the police explorers & police athletic league; & doing k9 demonstrations, child fingerprinting & show & tell at elementary schools. ~amount spent in service depends on the level of crime in an area.

President's Crime Commission

Appointed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 to study the crime problem and the structure of criminal justice administration and make recommendations for action.

Discuss the extent of community policing in America

Approximately two-thirds of law enforcement agencies across the United States could be said to practice community policing—they include it in their mission statement, utilize geographic policing, and train their recruits in its principles. This is an increase from a decade ago when only 47% of agencies had a mission statement that included community policing. Almost 9 out of every 10 locally employed sworn police officers in the United States now work for an agency committed to community policing. The percent of agencies that use geographic assignment for patrol officers increased from 31% in 2003 to 44% in 2013. In fact, almost every agency that serves a population of 100,000 or more now uses geographic assignment for patrol officers. We've also seen improvements in the percent of agencies that actively encourage patrol officer involvement in problem solving projects (from 24% in 2003 to 33% in 2013), in the percent of agencies that include problem solving in patrol officers' performance evaluations (from 14% in 2003 to 30% in 2013), and in the percent that train their recruits for at least 8 hours in community policing and problem-solving principles (from 39% in 2003 to 60% in 2013).

Explain the benefits & problems associated with Compstat

BENEFITS: Compstat has been called "arguably one of the most significant strategic innovations in policing in the last couple of decades" and "perhaps the single most important organizational/administrative innovation in policing during the latter half of the 20th century. It received the Innovations in American Government Award from the Ford Foundation and Harvard University as well as Vice President Gore's Hammer Award for government innovation It definitely makes departments smarter and more efficient. However, the verdict is still out on whether or not it actually reduces crime. One of the problems with the research is that it is very difficult to disentangle the crime reduction benefits of Compstat from the policing strategies it instigates. For example, Compstat is associated with the major crime decline in New York City (NYC). From the early 1990s through 2009, crime in NYC declined by about 75%, and while this decline was larger and longer than any other decline in the nation, many things changed in NYC at the same time and it is clear that Compstat was only part of the reason for the decline (expansion of the police force, hot spot policing, and targeted violence-prevention programs share much of the credit) Compstat has been associated with a rise in some "broken windows"-type arrests and decreases in property and total index crime as well as a decline in unlawful entry offenses and the total number of reported offenses in Queensland, Australia What we can say with confidence is that Compstat is almost certainly part of the solution because it helps commanders use current crime information (intelligence) to tailor crime control responses to specific problems. PROBLEMS: The main criticism of Compstat is that its emphasis on statistics and crime reduction unintentionally encourages managers to use unethical practices to achieve set goals. For middle managers who are accountable for crime trends, having statistics that go in the right direction is highly important; not just so they look good during the Compstat meeting, but also so they are promotable. This intense pressure is transferred to subordinates who are encouraged to change procedures to support goal achievement. Some of the unethical reporting practices that have been documented by researchers include down grading felonies (serious crimes) to misdemeanors (minor crimes) or non-crimes (such as lost property or embezzlement), under-valuing property stolen so that the crime is not a felony, reporting a series of crimes as a single event, and making it so difficult to report a crime that victims give up, rather than file a report. A group of retired NYPD commanders reported that the pressure to reduce index crime increased significantly and manager's demand for integrity in crime statistics decreased significantly after Compstat was implemented One of the most important findings was that, before Compstat was instituted, the demand for integrity in crime statistics was greater than the pressure to reduce index crime and after Compstat was introduced, the pressure to reduce index crime was greater than the demand for integrity in crime statistics! Compstat induced crime misclassification.

Describe banishment orders

Banishment Orders: Using broken windows for theoretical support, banishment orders (also sometimes called civil orders) combine criminal and civil processes and penalties to reduce social disorder in defined places. Because these orders most often impact individuals experiencing homelessness, mental illness, and substance abuse, some scholars contend that the purpose of these orders is to exclude "socially marginal" people from public space. Beckett and Herbert (2009) identified three common types of banishment orders in use by police departments in America—parks exclusion laws, off-limits orders, and trespass laws Exclusion orders: ban a person from a specific park (certain parks, or all parks) within a jurisdiction for up to 1 year. They are issued by police, without a hearing, to individuals who are caught committing an infraction (such as possessing alcohol, littering, urinating in public, being present after hours, etc.). The order is considered a civil law, but violating the order is a crime (usually a misdemeanor). Off-limits orders: are typically a condition of probation or parole for individuals convicted of (and sometimes just arrested and given diversion for) specific crimes. They require individu- als to stay out of a specified geographic area. For example, Seattle (WA) residents convicted of (or diverted for) prostitution-related crimes may receive a SOAP (Stay Out of Areas of Prostitution) order while those convicted of drug crimes might receive a SODA (Stay Out of Drug Areas) order. This means that those individuals may not go into the area defined by the court for any reason, even to visit family or receive public services. Sometimes the defined exclusion area is very large. Violation of one of these orders is treated as a criminal offense or as a violation of probation/parole. Trespass laws: allow private property owners to limit access to their property. As a new innovation, cities are conveying (transferring) ownership rights to private property owners (such as businesses, libraries, recreation centers, public housing complexes, public transportation stations, etc.) so the owners can place restrictions on who can access the property (cities can't limit access).

Explain the legal rules governing police questioning

By and large, the cases governing police interrogations focus on our Fifth Amendment right to due process and against self-incrimination and our Sixth Amendment right to be informed of all formal charges and to the assistance of counsel. The first major U.S.S.C. case pertaining to police interrogation was Escobedo v. Illinois (1964). This case provided that a person's right to counsel begins as soon as the person is a primary suspect (when questioning becomes accusatory), not upon appearing in court on a felony charge (as was the previous decision). It came one year after Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), which established that indigent defendants accused of felonies in state courts have a right to counsel provided for them. A mere two years later, the U.S.S.C. supplanted the Escobedo decision with Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which stipulated that officer's must advise suspects of their rights to free legal representation and against self-incrimination

Describe Compstat, including the components & process

Compstat: (which stands for compare statistics) is a strategic management tool that was introduced by Commissioner William Bratton and Deputy Commissioner Jack Maple of the NYPD as a way to track crime and hold managers accountable for achieving agency goals (crime reduction). It was Bratton's attempt to fix a highly dysfunctional and moribund department. THE COMPONENTS: 1. mission clarification 2. internal accountability 3. geographic organization of command 4. organizational flexibility 5. data-driven problem identification and assessment 6. innovative problem solving. Mission clarification means that the organization has clearly identified a mission/objective that is measurable and that leaders can be held responsible for achieving (e.g., reduce crime by 10%). Internal accountability means that "people in the organization are held directly responsible for carrying out organizational goals and can expect consequences if they are not knowledgeable about or have not responded to problems that fit within the mission of the department" In this case, it is the middle managers who are accountable for crime problems. Additionally, geographic organization of command dictates that accountability rests with managers of geographic units and decision-making is shifted to supervisors with territorial responsibility (beat or precinct commanders, for example). This means that precinct commanders are typically able to make decisions about staffing and deployment of extra patrols without getting permission from headquarters. Organizational flexibility requires that middle managers are provided the resources necessary to accomplish their mission and the flexibility to deploy those resources; however, she or he feels is best. That might include, for example, allowing patrol officers to perform tasks normally delegated to special teams (such as drug enforcement). Likewise, timely and accurate data must be available to relevant personnel for problem identification and assessment. Without it, Compstat would fall apart. Finally, commanders are expected to employ innovative problem-solving tactics. Experimentation is encouraged and commanders are expected to develop strategies based on knowledge of what works, not based on what was done yesterday. THE PROCESS As part of the process, agency goals are identified, data are collected on a wide variety of performance measures, and reports are produced—for example, the number of crimes committed, arrests made, citations issued, Terry stops conducted, crimes cleared, sick days taken, overtime shifts, car accidents, and citizen complaints, are commonly tracked. This information is compiled regularly (usually daily) so district commanders can be aware of all developing issues and take appropriate action quickly. Although the process differs slightly in each agency that uses Compstat, it is possible to describe a typical process.

Name & describe the 3 types of targeted patrol practices

Directed patrol: involves increasing patrol in a specified area to address a specific issue or as a general attempt to reduce crime or disorder in a high crime area. It could be as simple as an officer sitting in the parking lot of the nearest convenience store after school lets out for the day to deter juveniles from causing trouble (you might find this hard to believe, but crime increases near high schools immediately after school); or driving around an apartment complex that has been the site of numerous vehicle burglaries at night. It could also involve traffic officers writing tickets for unsafe driving on a specific stretch of road that has had a lot of accidents. The key is that officers are focused on the places in their beat that are generating a disproportionate amount of calls for service, either in the short-term or over the long-term. Saturation patrol: uses a dramatic and sudden increase in patrol officers in a specific area to increase police visibility and deter potential criminal behavior. For example, after a gang shooting, a city might deploy additional patrol officers in an attempt to avert retaliatory violence by a rival gang. Beach cities (and other touristy destinations) routinely schedule additional officers on holiday weekends and during the summer to discourage drinking in public and other unruly behaviors in places where they expect, based on previous experience, to have trouble. Usually, these supplementary officers come from the jurisdiction's own forces but sometimes additional officers come from neighboring jurisdictions or even the National Guard. You may recall that in November 2014, more than 2,000 Missouri National Guard arrived in Ferguson, MO the week before the grand jury decision whether to indict Officer Wilson in the shooting death of Michael Brown was announced, as a show of police presence to deter violent protests and to encourage peaceful demonstrations (some argue that it had the opposite effect) Crackdowns: are short-term, intensive operations that target an unwanted behavior and usually include a lot of arrests and/or citations. Often crackdowns require additional officers to achieve the crime reduction goal, but not always. For example, officers might hide near the entrance of an elementary school and issue tickets to every speeding motorist between 7:30 and 8:00 am on weekdays for a week. Or, a city may ticket and tow every vehicle illegally parked on a main thoroughfare during commuting hours. A college town might crackdown on drinking in public by issuing citations to everyone with an open alcoholic beverage on game days. Although crackdowns can be aimed at any crime or illegal behavior, often they are aimed at prostitution, drugs, and impaired, distracted, or otherwise unsafe drivers. State highway patrol departments routinely schedule crackdowns on texting (or talking) while driving, driving without a seatbelt, and intoxicated driving. Some agencies crackdown on gang violence by instigating intensive enforcement of truancy laws, curfew laws, gun laws, traffic laws, and/or extensive use of field interviews and searches. Studies show that crackdowns and saturation patrol are generally effective at deterring crime for a short period of time.

Summarize evidence-based policing practices

Evidence-based policing: takes all the information we have on police methods and uses it to identify the practices and strategies that accomplish police missions most cost-effectively. Some of the earliest studies showed that traditional policing methods (random patrol, rapid response to incidents, and reactive investigations) do not effectively reduce crime. Since those early studies, other studies have identified police strategies that do effectively reduce crime. It is not enough, however, for academics to know which strategies "work" if police professionals do not use the research and implement the strategies deemed effective. Toward this end, renowned police scholar Lawrence Sherman proposed the "Triple-T" strategy of policing—targeting, testing, and tracking—to increase implementation of best practices in policing. 1. Targeting: "Police should conduct and apply good research to target scarce resources on predictable concentrations of harm from crime and disorder" 2. Testing: "Once police choose their high-priority targets, they should review or conduct tests of police methods to help choose what works best to reduce harm" 3. Tracking: "Once police agencies use research to target their tested practices, they should generate and use internal evidence to track the daily delivery and effect of those practices, including public perceptions of police legitimacy"

Name 4 methods used to patrol & explain the benefits of each

Foot Patrol: ~officers walked a beat & were expected to get to know the members of the community. ~it is beneficial to the department because it is a good way to build & maintain community trust & support through positive interactions. Vehicle Patrol: ~improved coverage area & response time, it also caused the police to grow more distant from the general public. ~more efficient that foot patrol Motorcycles/ Bicycles: ~Motorcycles: often associated with & used for traffic control & enforcement because of their maneuverability, acceleration & ability to hide in plain sight. ~Bicycles: more efficient than foot patrol & great for areas that are not easily accessible to vehicles, such as public housing, developments, college campuses, tourist areas & business complexes. Special Vehicles: ~ATVs,departments that patrol beach cities ~on the sand & Segway's on pedestrian pathways adjacent to the sand. ~Segway's popular in tourist areas & shopping malls. ~ATVs are also used in mountain & desert communities ~Snowmobiles are used in mountain areas, rural areas & for search & rescue ~Boats to patrol harbors, lakes, rivers ~Horse patrol good for parks & mountains as well as crowd control situations. Many departments see horses as a public relations tool & worth the investment. Air Patrol: ~used in larger police agencies

Explain intelligence-led policing

ILP is based on two essential truths: (1) a small number of prolific offenders commit a large portion of crime and (2) crime is clustered in a small number of problem places. These two facts suggest that if police focus their attention on these crime-prone places and people, they can achieve a large crime reduction effect. Hence, ILP is a proactive policing philosophy that focuses on crime intelligence, which is defined as the combination of crime analysis (which focuses on crime events) and criminal intelligence (which focuses on the behavior and relationships of offenders), to direct police resources

Distinguish community policing from problem-oriented policing

Look at table 10.3

Name 3 cases that govern police searches & importance of each

Physical evidence: This is the widest category of evidence and includes any physical item related to the case that can be seen and felt, such as a note, weapon, dye pack contained in stolen bank money, an item of clothing, a shoe, a phone, a duffle bag, a carpet, a plane, train, or bus ticket, bank statements, receipts, anything you can imagine. It could also include a shoe print impression or a finger print. Biometrics Considered a subcategory of physical evidence, biometrics is the term used to refer to biological evidence. It includes things such as blood, DNA, hair or fiber samples that can be used to learn something about the persons involved in the crime (victim or suspect), and finger prints. Ballistics is the identification of firearms and bullets. This category, which is also a subcategory of physical evidence, includes bullet shell casings and guns found at the crime scene. Digital evidence: Anything and everything that can be found in a computer, cell phone, or tablet. This category includes the computer itself, along with any files on the computer as well as the search history of the web browser. It includes all the personal information we've entered into our favorite apps and programs—our personal contacts, calendar, music, phone numbers we've dialed (or received calls/ texts from), GPS coordinates of places we've been (or just searched), and posts on social media. It can also include images from traffic and other surveillance cameras and license plate readers. Digital evidence is extremely valuable because it is often date and time-stamped, which is difficult for the standard user to fabricate or erase. Documentary evidence: a forensics lab technician examines a bullet for evidence to be used in a court case. This category includes documents that are part of a crime; in particular crimes that are considered "white collar" or that were committed for financial gain. For example, a log of crematorium clients listing tracking numbers and body parts which were illegally disarticulated from the client's body prior to cremation; or a bank account or other financial records indicating fraud, money- laundering, or criminal personal gain. The documents can be in hardcopy or digital format (thus this category overlaps with the physical evidence and digital evidence categories). Testimonial evidence: This category includes knowledge and memories provided by individuals—victims, witnesses, suspects, and key others (conspirators, agents, etc.). While definitely important in an investigation, research reveals that human memory is not reliable. Not only do our minds alter and embellish things that did happen; they sometimes manufacture incidents that did not happen.

Describe the difference b/w reactive policing & proactive policing

Reactive policing: strategies occur in response to a citizens request for service (responding to calls for service) Proactive policing: police initiate anti-crime strategies

Explain the research on problem-oriented policing

Research suggests that POP can be used effectively to address a wide variety of problems, such as convenience store robberies, construction thefts, common bar/nightclub problems, prostitution, and more. Problem- oriented policing strategies have been shown to moderately reduce crime and disorder and are more effective than traditional responses on all three types of problems: repeat places, repeat criminals, and repeat victims. Property and drug crimes appear to be particularly well suited to POP techniques.

Summarize the research on preventative patrol

Researchers from the Police Foundation, led by George Kelling, divided the city into 15 beats—five groups of three matched beats. The beats were matched on population demographics (race/ethnicity and median income), crime types and rates, and calls for service. One of the beats in the group (the proactive beat) received extra preventative patrol which amounted to two-three times the amount of visible patrol cars. Another one (deemed the reactive beat) received no preventative patrol; officers were to stay out of the beat unless responding to a call and were instructed to patrol only the perimeter or in an adjacent proactive beat. The third beat (called the control beat) operated as they did in the past and there was no change to patrol procedures or staffing levels. Researchers measured crime rates and surveyed residents and found that random preventative patrol had no effect on crime rates, public perception of police services, citizens' fear of crime, officer response time or the public's satisfaction with officer response time, or the number of traffic accidents. Essentially, the researchers discovered that randomly driving around in a patrol car does not deter crime. One of the reasons that random preventative patrol is not effective is because crime is not randomly distributed throughout a city.

Explain the research on community policing

Researching community policing is very difficult for two main reasons. First, the community policing philosophy is ambiguous; there are several components but no clear, concise, agreed-upon definition. Because the concept is vague, it is difficult to define and even more difficult to measure "success." The ambiguity of community policing also makes it hard to implement. A recent survey of police leaders from across the country found that most agencies have a very difficult time securing the financial resources required to fully implement community policing and many also have difficulty gaining the support of line-level officers. As previously mentioned, most agencies do not fully implement community policing, but rather adopt the "language of community oriented policing" Despite these limitations, a recent review of research found that community policing increases citizen satisfaction of the police, improves perceptions of disorder, and increases police legitimacy. This is interesting, and important the main benefit of community policing appears to be improving police-community relations, not reducing crime.

Explain & provide examples of Situational Crime Prevention

Situational Crime Prevention (SCP): Based on the routine activities theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979), which stipulates that a crime occurs when three things converge in space and time (a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians), situational crime prevention tackles the situational context of criminal events. It typically focuses on specific problems in specific places; however, it is extremely versatile in the fact that it can be a place-based strategy, an offense- based strategy, an offender-based strategy, or a victim-based strategy. Situational crime prevention calls on police (in partnership with property owners, store managers, event organizers, and others) to (1) increase the effort required to commit a crime, (2) increase the risks associated with committing a crime, (3) reduce the rewards derived from committing a crime, (4) reduce provocations that lead a crime, and (5) remove the excuses for committing crime. For example, consumers used to buy cough medicine with pseudoephedrine in the medicine aisle. You didn't have to ask, nor provide your name to the pharmacist, and you could buy as much as you wanted to buy. However, as methamphetamine use and manufacturing became a serious problem in the late 1990s, laws were created to restrict access to pseudoephedrine (which is one of the main ingredients needed to cook methamphetamine). The situational crime prevention tactic worked by increasing the effort needed to commit the crime (manufacture the methamphetamine) but it also instigated a new crime wave of pharmacy robberies in some places for a short time, which led to more target hardening and eventually a reduction in the original and subsequent crimes. Other examples of situational crime prevention you might be familiar with include speed bumps on long straight streets (prevents speeding and drag racing), electronic sensors on clothing and other often stolen merchandise, CCTV, height charts affixed to entry/ exit doors at convenience stores and other retail establishments, educa- tional signs (such as those on little league fields reminding parents "it's just a game and they're just kids"; or those on the freeway remind- ing drivers how expensive it is to get caught texting and driving or drinking and driving), extremely large packaging for small ink car- tridges for your printer, knobs on rails and benches to prevent skate- boarding, and the "greeter" at your favorite store in the mall

Describe the 3 levels of crime analysis & when each would be used

Tactical analysis: supports officers working in front-line assignments such as patrol, investigations, and special enforcement teams (drugs, prostitution, and gangs for example). In typical police departments, analysts spend most of their time engaged in tactical analysis (crime trend analysis, investigative analysis, intelligence analysis, suspect identification, etc.) Operational analysis: is one step up and includes analysis which supports deploying department resources to most effectively reduce crime or achieve other operational goals for example, examining the number of calls for service by day, time, type, and geographic location for the station commander so that patrol beats and shifts can be restructured to balance workload across officers. It could also involve analysis of underlying community problems and support for short-term operations. For instance, determining where, how, and when to deploy a roaming task force of officers to eradicate a persistent crime problem. This is the level at which COMPSTAT operates. Strategic analysis: is the top level, and as the name indicates, it is concerned with informing broader department policies, strategies, and ways of doing business. For example, examining when and under what circumstances juvenile crime is occurring to help the chief decide whether to ask the city council to pass a juvenile curfew ordinance, or looking at the effects of arrest practices for specific crimes (such as domestic violence) to decide whether there are any clear best practices that should be incorporated into department policy.

Describe the basic structure of typical detective unit

The size of the detective unit depends on the size of the agency. In general, about 10-15% of a department's sworn staff are assigned to the detective bureau (also called investigations). In small departments, one or two detectives (investigators) work on every type of crime whereas in larger departments detectives are assigned to work on specific types of crimes. For organizational purposes, it is common for medium-sized (and larger) departments to subdivide the detective bureau into some of the following divisions: property crimes, sex crimes, computer crimes, and violent crimes. In large agencies, these are often further subdivided into homicide, robbery, domestic violence, fraud, and juvenile crime. While these are common divisions, agencies are free to divide cases into any categorization scheme that works for the agency. In general, the larger the agency (and the more reported crime), the larger the number of subdivisions in the investigations bureau.

Discuss the problem of false confessions & name the practices that lead to false confessions

This imbalance is caused by multiple factors: (1) detectives are highly trained interviewers and experts in the law; (2) suspects are generally not knowledgeable about the law or interview rules and are unaware that police can legally use deception during questioning (career criminals and streetwise offenders, especially those who are part of a criminal network, may be exceptions to this assumption); (3) detectives have the ability to frame the suspect's actions to other criminal justice practitioners (put in a good word with the prosecutor, for example); (4) suspects' movements are controlled by detectives (suspect must ask detective to use the bathroom, eat, drink, take a break); (5) suspects have a lot more at stake than the detective (namely, their freedom); and (6) interrogations take place in the police station, a place that is very comfortable for detectives but not suspects. voluntary false confession: to gain fame or notoriety, to protect another person, or because they (due to a mental or psychological condition) are unable to discern reality from fantasy. coerced-compliant false confession: in response to "extreme methods of interrogation" because they want to stop the interrogation and believe that confessing to the crime will result in a more positive outcome than continuing to tell the truth (to the detective's dismay and the suspect's discomfort). coerced-internalized false confession: because they have been convinced (incorrectly) of their guilt.

Name at least 5 recommendations offered by IACP to reduce wrongful convictions

Use established best practices for eyewitness identification (warnings, double-blind administration, sequential lineups, avoid confirmatory feedback, gather certainty statement, document the process). •Gather corroborating evidence in cases of jailhouse testimony of informants. •Conduct supervisory review to assess whether investigative bias adversely affected a case; develop protocols to acknowledge, address, and limit investigative bias; train investigators in risk-based decision-making. •Improve timeline of DNA testing and delivery of results and ensure dissemination of results to all parties in a timely manner. •Create a wrongful arrest risk-assessment tool, incorporating an investigative checklist or point system to guide pre-arrest decisions and post-arrest reevaluation. •Establish accountability at every level in law enforcement agency for major case investigations; create a culture of critical thinking and openness to new information and incentivize using promising investigative practices (rather than focusing on speedy actions and outcomes). •Create critical case review opportunities to increase transparency and decrease agency vulnerability to lawsuits. •Improve training and protocols for evidence collection, preservation, and retention; invest in emerging technology that can enhance investigative quality and accuracy. •"Law enforcement should take a leadership role in developing greater openness to re-examination [of closed cases when credible evidence calls into question prior decision-making]—both on a national level with the IACP and a local level with each executive leading that charge in every investigation"

Intelligence-led policing

a policing practice that uses crime intelligence and criminal intelligence to reduce and prevent crime.

Hot Spot Patrol

a proactive approach that devotes police resources to reduce crime or other problems at small geographic places based on crime, calls for service, or other data.

Focused deterrence

a proactive policing strategy that uses the legal system and available social services to encourage identified individuals to refrain from committing crime. Also known as pulling levers.

Broken Windows Theory

a theory proposed by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling in 1982 that proposes that unkempt areas invite additional disorder and serious crime

Contrast zero-tolerance & stop-and-frisk tactics with the broken windows theory

Zero tolerance: It was this lesson that Bratton brought with him when he became police commissioner of the NYPD for the first time in 1994 and implemented his QOL policing initiative. Based on the logic of broken windows and the experience gained through Operation Enforcement, this was a concerted attempt to reduce the incidence of 25 specific Quality of Life offenses in NYC using an aggressive arrest approach. quality of life policing became known as zero tolerance policing (and the general understanding of broken windows began to morph into something other than what it had been up to this point). Stop and Frisk: The next iteration of NYPD's BWP strategy, stop and frisk or stop-question- and-frisk (SQF), developed during Commissioner Raymond Kelly's leadership from 2002 to 2013. Like the other iterations, it too has become a tactic used by police departments across the country. The approach is similar to zero tolerance but uses pedestrian stops (instead of misdemeanor arrests) as the primary method of reducing crime. Pedestrian stops, which are also called Terry stops (named for the court case which made them legal), are police-initiated stops of suspicious individuals for investigative purposes.

Problem Oriented Policing

a method of policing developed by Herman Goldstein in 1979 that broadens the role of police and involves identifying and addressing the root causes of problems.

community policing

a policing philosophy that focuses on building community partnerships to reduce and prevent crime and improve police—community relations.

Name & describe the two main computer systems agencies use to store information

computer aided dispatch (CAD): you could print a report of calls-for-service. Depending on the computer system, you might be able to get a list of addresses with the highest number of calls for service—though it isn't usually this easy and often requires some work on your part, like counting the number of times an address appears on the list. Some CAD systems allow an officer to build a report that includes days and times of calls and call summary information (the call type and disposition), but not all systems are this flexible or useful for this purpose. Information collected from calls from the public might include suspect information—physical description, possibly a name or address, and maybe vehicle information such as make and model of car, color, or license plate. It also generally includes caller information (unless the caller requests to remain anonymous), location of the incident, and the nature of the incident (what is happening or what happened). Call information is stored in the agency's CAD system for a specific period of time, which varies by agency and network capabilities and may be based on state law. The information retained in the CAD system is sometimes only accessible to dispatchers and responding officers, and others by specific request. Records Management System (RMS): stores and secures their most important data. In the case of a police department, that would be information from crime reports, accident reports, arrests, restraining orders, warrants, criminal registrants (narcotics, arson, and sex), and some- times field interview cards. For example, information contained in crime reports is entered into the agency's RMS by records clerks. Here, it is stored for future retrieval for an indefinite period of time (or until the computer system is severely strained and inactive records must be purged or archived in order to avoid a system crash). This is the system that is typically used to report crime activity to the FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) program each year. Often, the information in the RMS database is integrated with the CAD system so that dispatchers and officers in the field have access to the information contained in it, along with station personnel.

Explain the importance of both effectiveness & equity in policing strategies

findings suggest that highly focused strategies (those on the right side of the figure) are the most effective but have either unknown equity or low equity ratings. She reiterates our earlier point that how policing is done matters immensely for citizen perception of police (perceived equity). Engel makes a strong case that "equity" should be part of all evaluations of police strategies and that only strategies that are both effective and equitable should be endorsed as evidence-based.

Explain hot spot policing & relevant research

hot spots policing: attempt to reduce crime by focusing on the places that generate the most crimes or calls for service. This is one example of a place-based operational strategy to reduce crime. It is defined as "the application of police interventions at very small geographic units of analysis" It is based on the fact that crime is not normally distributed but rather concentrated in a few "hot spots." Some of the most common examples of small geographic units of analysis (a.k.a. hot spots) are a specific address, street segment, intersection, block, or cluster of blocks. A hot spot could also be an apartment complex, park, parking lot, business, or shopping center. Hot spots are typically identified through crime mapping and other intelligence- led procedures (crime analysis and COMPSTAT, for example), but they can also be identified by community members RESEARCH: A substantial body of research has shown hot spot policing to be effective at reducing crime and disorder. Although displacement is always a concern in place-based strategies, research shows that hot spot policing tactics more often diffuse benefits (reduce crime/disorder in areas that did not receive the intervention) than displace crime (move crime from targeted area to another area not targeted for intervention)

Summarize predictive policing

involves using computer software to model historical crime data in order to predict future crime events. Although crime analysts have long attempted to predict the "next" crime in a pattern, predictive policing is different in that it pulls information from large databases to forecast "likely" locations of future criminal activity. Based on the facts that (1) crime is clustered in a small number of problem places and (2) criminals are creatures of habit who generally operate within a designated "comfort zone," departments have developed sophisticated mathematical models based on past crime data as well as other variables thought to impact crime location selection, such as weather patterns, payday schedules, sporting events, holidays, liquor store locations, marijuana dispensaries (if applicable), bars/nightclubs, and freeway on-ramps, to predict where future criminal activity is likely to occur. It is thought Predictive policing uses historical data to predict future crime events. that if officers know these spots ahead of time, they can spend more time patrolling the areas and thus prevent crime. Predictive policing uses historical data to predict future crime events.

Differential response times

the practice of prioritizing calls for service or triaging.

Explain the role of police officers as gate keepers

they are the main gatekeepers of the system & can be a citizen's first, & sometimes only, encounter with the criminal justice system. ~the way patrol officers exercise discretion & interact with citizens is immensely important. ~they are a department's best opportunity for encouraging cooperation, developing camaraderie, & establishing legitimacy in the community.

Explain why dispatchers are considered gate keepers

they are typically the first gatekeepers that residents encounter when requesting police services & are often the public's first impression of the police. ~like police officers, dispatchers are street level bureaucrats who exercise tremendous discretion in determining who gets service, when, & the level of service received. ~Dispatchers use discretion as they screen & prioritize calls. Dispatchers answer about 23 million calls annually.