CSC 343 Operating Systems Midterm Chapters 1-5 By Shaan Badlu

Process

A program in execution

Shared Memory

A region of memory that is shared by cooperating processes is established. Process can then exchange information by reading and writing data to the shared region

Operating System

A program that manages a computer's hardware. It acts as an interface or intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer's hardware Execute User Programs and make solving user problems easier Make the computer program easier to use (Convenience) Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner (Efficiency)

Semaphore

A protected integer variable that can facilitate and restrict access to shared resources in a multi-processing environment. Problem it solves: Overcome the need for busy waiting

Concurrency vs Parallelism

Concurrency - Supports more than one task by allowing all the tasks to make progress Parallelism - It can perform more than one task simultaneously.

Multiprocessor System

Contains more than one CPU, allowing them to work in parallel.

Interrupt vs Trap

Interrupt - An event that occurs that executes a program. Trap - Software generated interrupt caused by either error or by a specific request from a user program that an operating system service be performed.

Firmware

It initializes all aspects of the system from CPU registers to device controllers to memory contents. It's stored in ROM.

Variables used in Peterson's solution

J and i J used to denote other processes and i is used as a process in the critical section

Scheduling Queues

Job Queue - Consists of all the processes in the system Ready Queue - Processes that are residing in main memory and are ready and waiting to execute are kept here Device Queue - The list of processes waiting for a particular I/O device

Schedulers

Job scheduler (long term) - Selects processes from a pool and loads them into memory for execution CPU scheduler ( short term) - Selects from among the processes that are ready to execute and allocates the CPU to one of them Medium term scheduler - Reduces the degree of multi programming if it can be advantageous to remove a process from memory

Memory Management

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and who is using them Deciding which processes and or parts of processes and data to move into and out of memory Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Simple Structure

MS DOS, started off as a small simple and limited systems. No dual mode and no hardware protection

Multithreading models

Many to one - Maps many user level threads to one kernel thread One to one - Each user thread is mapped to one kernel thread Many to many - Multiplexes many user level threads to a smaller or equal number of kernel threads.

Pthreads

May be provided as either a user level or a kernel level library. pthread_create() - Creates a new thread within a process pthread_join() - Suspends execution of the current thread and waits for the target thread thread to terminate

Mechanism vs policy

Mechanism - Determine how to do something Policy - Determine what will be done

Single Processor System

On a single processor system, there is 1 main CPU capable of executing a general purpose instruction set, including instructions from user processes.

Privileged instruction

Only in kernel mode, the instructions can be executed. This is to prevent user mode from executing them because its a way of protecting the operating system from errant users. Ex: Turn off interrupts, clear memory, set value of timer, modifies entries in device status table

Hybrid Structure

Operating systems that combine different structures. They address performance, security and usability issues. Examples: Mac OS X, IOS, and Android

Implicit Threading

Transfer the creation and management of threading from application developers to compilers and run time libraries

Message Passing

Communication takes place by means of messages exchanged between the cooperating processes.

Asymmetric vs Symmetric Multiprocessing

1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing -each processor is assigned a specific task. 2. Symmetric Multiprocessing -each processor performs all tasks

Time sharing (multitasking)

A logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it's running, creating interactive computing

OpenMP

A set of compiler directives as well as an API for programs written in C, C++, or FORTRAN that provides support for parallel programming in shared memory environments.

Multicore processor

A single computing component with 2 or more independent actual processing units.

Starvation

A situation in which processes wait indefinitely within the semaphore

Pipes

Acts as a conduit allowing 2 processes to communicate. System call used for it is pipe(int fd[]) Programming Requirements for a program that uses pipe: 1. Does the pipe allow bidirectional communication or is communication uni-direction? 2. If two way communication is allowed, is it half duplex or full duplex? 3. Must a relationship exist between the communicating processes 4. Can the pipes communicate over a network, or must the communicating processes reside on the same machine?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Peterson's Solution

Advantages - It provides a good algorithmic description of solving the critical section problem and illustrates some of the complexities involved in designing software that addresses the requirements of mutual exclusion, progress and bound waiting Disadvantages - Restricted to two processes that alternate execution between their critical sections and remainder sections

Dual Mode

Allows OS to protect itself and other system components User mode and kernel mode Mode bit provided by hardware Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code

Interprocess Communication

Allows processes to exchange data and information 2 common mechanisms involve shared memory and message passing

Race Condition

An undesirable situation that occurs when a device or system attempts to perform two or more operations at the same time

Asynchronous cancellation vs deferred cancellation

Asynchronous - One thread immediately terminates the target thread Deferred - The target thread periodically checks whether it should terminate, allowing it an opportunity to terminate itself in an orderly fashion.

Blocking vs non blocking receive

Blocking receive - The receiver blocks until a message is available Nonblocking receive - The receiver retrieves either a valid message or a null

Blocking vs non blocking send

Blocking send - The sending process is blocked until the message is received by the receiving process or by the mailbox. Nonblocking send - The sending process sends the message and resumes operation

Bounded vs Unbounded Capacity

Bounded - Queue has a finite length n and at most n messages can reside in it. If the link is full, the sender must block until space is available in the queue. Unbounded - The queue's length is potentially infinite. Thus any number of messages can wait in it. The sender never blocks

Various tasks performed by an Operating System

Control Hardware Access - The operating system provides generic interfaces to services provided by the underlying hardware. Process Management - The OS must allocate resources to processes, enable processes to share and exchange information, protect the resources of each process from other processes and enable synchronization among processes File Management - Type of software that manages data files in a computer system. It has limited capabilities and is designed to manage individual or group files, such as special office documents and records. Memory Management - Process of controlling and coordinating computer memory. Memory management resides in hardware, in the OS (operating system), and in programs and applications.

Counting vs binary semaphore

Counting - Value can range over an unrestricted domain Binary - Value can only range from 0 to 1.

Thread Pools

Create a number of threads at process startup and place them into a pool, where they sit and wait for work

Types of Parallelisms

Data - Focuses on distributing subsets of the same data across multiple computing cores and performing the same operation on each core Task - Involves distributing not data but tasks across multiple computing cores

System Programs

Device Manager Command Prompt File Management Status Information File Modification Communications

Thread Local Storage

Each thread having its own copy of certain data.

DMA (Direct Memory Access)

Feature of computer systems that allows certain hardware subsystems to access main system memory (Random-access memory), independent of the central processing unit (CPU). With DMA, the CPU first initiates the transfer, then it does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and it finally receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done.

Multi mode

Virtual machine manager mode for guest VMs

Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems

Increased throughout - The more processors, the more work gets done in less time Economy of Scale - Can cost less than equivalent multiple single processor systems because they can share peripherals, mass storage and power supplies Increased reliability - If 1 processor fails, it won't halt the system as the other processors can pick up a share of the work of the failed processor

Multiprogramming (Batch System)

Increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory One job selected and run via job scheduling When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

The three requirements to the CS Problem

Mutual exclusion - If process P1 is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical sections Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and some processes wish to enter their critical sections, then only those processes that are not executing in their remainder sections can participate in deciding which will enter its critical section next, and this selection cannon be postponed indefinitely Bound Waiting - There exists a bound or limit on the number of times that other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted

Explain the two algorithms discussed in class for hardware solution to process synchronization

Mutual exclusion implementation with test_and_set() - Instructions are executed simultaneously , they will be executed sequentially in some arbitrary order. Bound waiting mutual exclusion with test_and_set() - Process pi can only enter its critical section only if either waiting[i] = false or key == false. The variable waiting[i] can become false only if another process leaves its critical section. Only one waiting[i] is set to false, maintaining the mutual exclusion requirement

Process States

New - Process is being created Running - Instructions are being executed Waiting - Process is waiting for some event to occur( such as an I/O completion or reception of a signal) Ready - The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor Terminated - The process has finished execution

What is the role of a timer in an OS?

Prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock. Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction) When counter zero generate an interrupt Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate the program that exceeds the allotted time

Types of System Calls

Process Control - fork() exit() CreateProcess() File Manipulation - open() read() CreateFile() Device Manipulation - read() write() SetConsoleMode() Information Maintenance - getpid() alarm() GetCurrentProcessID() Communication - pipe() shm_open() CreatePipe() Protection - chmod() umask() chown() SetFileSecurity()

Operations on Processes

Process Creation - Creates a new process using fork() Process Termination - Termination of the process when it finishes executing its final statement and asks the operating system to delete it by using the exit() system call

PCB structure

Process state Process number Program counter Registers Memory limits List of open files

Several Acronyms

RAM - Random Access Memory ROM - Read Only Memory EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory PCB - Process Control Block CS - Critical Section DMA - Direct Memory Access IPC - Interprocess Communication CPU - Central Processing Unit

OS services provided for the efficiency of computing system itself

Resource allocation Accounting Protection and Security

Benefits of Multithreaded Programming

Responsiveness - Multi-threading an interactive application may allow a program to continue running even if part of it is blocked or is performing a lengthy operation, thereby increasing responsiveness to the user. Resource Sharing - Threads share the memory and the resources of the process to which they belong by default Economy - It is more economical to create and context-switch threads.

Process Management

Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs Creating and deleting both user and system processes Suspending and resuming processes Providing mechanisms for process synchronization Providing mechanisms for process communication

Memory picture of running processes in single tasking vs multitasking systems

Single tasking - free memory command interpreter kernel free memory process command interpreter kernel Multitasking - process D free memory process C interpreter process B kernel

Process in Memory

Stack - contains temporary data such as function parameters, return addresses, and local variables heap - memory that is dynamically allocated during process run time. data - contains local variables text - program's code along with the program counter and the contents of the processor's registers.

Micro kernels

Structures the operating system by removing all nonessential components from the kernel and implementing them as system and user level programs

Context Switching

Switching the CPU to another process requires performing a state save of the current process and a state restore of a different process. When it occurs, the kernel saves the context of the old process in its PCB and loads the saved context of the new process scheduled to run.

System call vs API

System calls provide an interface to the services made available by an operating system. Application Programming Interface specifies a set of functions that are available to an application programmer, including the parameters that are passed to each function and the return values the programmer can expect

Virtualization

Technology that allows operating systems to run as applications within other operating systems

Interrupt Driven

The CPU works on its given tasks continuously. When an input is available, such as when someone types a key on the keyboard, then the CPU is interrupted from its work to take care of the input data.

Layered Approach

The operating system is broken into a number of layers. The bottom layer is the hardware, and the highest layer is the user interface. Advantage: Layered approach is simplicity of construction and debugging

System view of an OS

The OS is the program most intimately involved with the hardware from the system's point of view. An OS in this case is a resource allocator (Manager of resources). It can also act as a control program in which it manages the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer.

User view of an OS

The goal is to maximize the work that the user is performing. (Ease of use) A user can be sitting in front of a PC, consisting of a monitor, keyboard, mouse and system unit. They can also be sitting at a terminal connected to a main frame or a minicomputer. In this case, resource utilization must be maximized. (How various hardware and software resources are shared.

Deadlock

The implementation of a semaphore with a waiting queue may result in a situation where 2 or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused by only one of the waiting process. The vent in question is execution of a signal() operation. Example: Po Pi1 wait(S); wait(Q); wait(Q); wait(S); . . . . . . signal(S); signal(Q); signal(Q); signal(S); Suppose that Po executes wait(S) and then P1 executes wait(Q). When Po executes wait(Q), it must wait until P1 executes signal(Q). Similarly, when P1 executes wait(S), it must wait until Po executes signal(S). Since these signal() operations cannot be executed, Po and P1 are deadlocked

Kernel

The one program running at all times on the computer

Zero Capacity

The queue has a max length of 0. Thus the link cannot have any messages waiting in it.

Critical Section

The segment of code that each process has in which the process may be changing some common variables, updating a table, writing a file, and so on.

Threads

The smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler

Bootstrap Program

The state where the computer is booting. It checks for the number of disk controllers and usbs connected to the computer.

Mutex

Used to protect critical regions and thus prevent race conditions Operations it provides: Acquire Lock - acquires the lock Release Lock - releases the lock Busy Waiting -While a process is in its critical section, any other process that tries to enter its critical section must loop continuously in the call to acquire(). Spin lock - The process spins while waiting for the lock to become available

User Goals vs System Goals

User Goals - System should be convenient to use, easy to learn and to use, reliable, safe, and fast. System Goals - System should be easy to design, implement, and maintain and it should be flexible, reliable, error free and efficient

OS services provided to the user

User interface Program execution I/O operations File-system manipulation Communications Error Detection

Rendezvous

When both send() and receive() are both blocking

Unix/Linux System Calls

read() - reads from a buffer write() - writes to a buffer open() - opens a file fork() - creates new process

shm_fd() vs ftruncate()

shm_fd() - Used to create a shared memory object ftruncate() - Configures the size of the object in bytes