CSD 610: Articulation and Phonology

1. Continuant:

"Incessant" sounds produced without hindering the airstream by any blockages within the oral cavity. Vowels, fricatives, glides and liquids are + continuant; stops, nasals, and affricates are - continuant

The words sheep and keep have the same rhyme. Therefore, these words:

"rhyme"

*Phoneme Vs. Speech Sound: Speech Sound:

-Actual realizations of phonemes; referred to as allophonic variations or phonetic variations -Concrete, produced, transmitted, and perceived. -Can be examined without referring to a specific language system. -Basic unit within phonetics -Notation is within brackets, ex. "the [f] speech sound"

*Syntax:

-Consists of organization rules denoting word, phrase, and clause order; sentence organization and the relationship between words; word classes; and other sentence elements.

*What is the difference between speech and language? & Language definition:

-Language can be defined as a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in various modes for though and communication. Language is rule governed and is described by at least five linguistic parameters: phonological, morphological, syntactical, semantic, and pragmatic. Language is intricate and includes variability and change.

Clinical Implications of phonetic transcription and diacritic markers:

-Provides a professional way to note certain deviations from norm productions. Allows clinicians to communicate freely with others. Can be translated back into actual speech. -Allow for additional diagnostic complexity that would not be considered without this knowledge. -Detailed knowledge about actual realizations is indispensable for the assessment and successful remediation of errors. By establishing that a sound is distorted, we are saying only that its typical production is 'off'. By comparing the child's actual articulatory features with the known features for typical productions, we will know precisely which placement characteristics need to be changed therapeutically. -Its essential ingredient is our ability to note and differentiate between changes in sound quality as the basis for our remedial skills.

*Morphology:

-Studies the structure of words; it analyzes how words are built out of pieces, which are labeled morphemes

*Speech:

-The communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words, that is, in oral, verbal communication.

*Communication:

-The process of sharing information between individuals. Can be broadly divided into speech and language. Refers to any act in which information is given to or received from another person concerning that person's needs, desire, perceptions, knowledge or affective states. -Refers to any way that we convey information from one person to another. -May be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes.

Morpheme:

-The smallest meaningful unit of a language. The word "cycle" is one morpheme meaning circular or wheel; however, the word "bicycle" contains two morphemes, "bi-" and "cycle".

*Phoneme Vs. Speech Sound: Phoneme:

-The smallest unit within a language that is able, when combined with other units, to establish word meanings and distinguish between them. -Linguistic unit -Used in reference to a particular language system -Basic unit within phonology -Notation is within virgules / /, ex. "the /s/ phoneme"

*Semantics:

-The study of linguistic meaning and includes the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Includes the fact that certain words have more than one meaning, and that words can have similar meanings. Also words share more or less common characteristics. Semantics also includes phrase meanings as in the multiple interpretations of "a hot dog".

*Phonology:

-The study of the sound system of language and includes the rules that govern its spoken form. Analyzes which sound units are within a language. Examines how these sounds are arranged, their systematic organization, and rule system.

Binary system analysis example for /k/ and /g/:

/k/: is a consonants (+ consonantal) is not a vowel (-vocalic) is not voiced (-voice) /g/: is a consonant (+consonantal) is not a vowel (-vocalic) is voiced (+ voice)

What are the four phonetic categories used to transcribe consonants?

1) Active articulator (organ of articulation) 2) Passive articulator (place of articulation) 3) Manner of articulation 4) Voicing features

The major class features characterize and distinguish between 3 sound production possibilities that result in different basic sound classes. What are the possibilities:

1) Sonorant 2) Consonantal 3) Vocalic

The term naturalness designates two features:

1) The relative simplicity of a sound production 2) its high frequency of occurence in languages. In other words, more natural sounds are those that are considered easier to produce and occur in many languages of the world.

Distinctive feature analysis could show whether:

1) error sounds shared common features and 2) specific error patterns existed

The ease of syllable production can be affected by at least three circumstances:

1) the number of syllables an utterance contains 2) the type of syllable (open versus closed) 3) the degree of syllable stress (stressed or unstressed) (Generally, fewer syllables, open syllables, and stressed syllables facilitate accurate productions of specific targets sounds) Another concept that can be included is: 4) the number of consonants that are grouped together (Single consonants (singletons) are easier to produce than consonant clusters)

Cavity features refer to active and/or passive place of articulation, including: (9 things)

1. Coronal 2. Anterior 3. Distributed 4. Nasal 5. Lateral 6. High 7. Low 8. Back 9. Round

Source features refer to subglottal air pressure, voicing and stridency. There are 3:

1. Heightened subglottal pressure. 2. Voiced 3. Strident

Vowels are commonly described according to certain parameters:

1. The portion of the tongue that is involved in the articulation (ex. front vs. back vowels) 2. The tongues position relative to the palate (ex. high vs. low vowel) 3. The degree of lip rounding or unrounding The terms tense/lax and open/close are also used to describe vowels.

Linear phonologies:

1. emphasis on the linear, sequential arrangements of sound segments 2. each discrete segment of this string of sound elements consists of a bundle of distinctive features 3. a common set of distinctive features is attributable to all sound segments according to a binary system 4. all sound segments have equal value and all distinctive features are equal; thus, no one sound segment has control over the other units. 5. the phonological rules generated apply only to the segmental level (as opposed to the suprasegmental level) and to those changes that occur in the distinctive features.

Sonorants are distinguished from obstruents, which are characterized by:

A complete or narrow constriction between the articulators hindering the expiratory airstream. The obstruents include the stop-plosives (p, b, t, d, k, g), the fricatives (f, v, s, z, sh, beiGE, h) and the affricates (CH, J- job)

What are distinctive features?

A distinctive feature is any property that separates a subset of elements from a group. A sound component is said to be distinctive if it serves to distinguish one phoneme from another. These units, which are smaller than sound segments, are considered to be "atomic" constituents of sound segments that cannot be broken down further. Distinctive features are considered to be universal properties of speech segments. The smallest indivisible sound properties that establish phonemes.

dipthong eI

A nonphonemic dipthong, in the sense that the meaning word would not change in a particular word if the vowel were to be pronounced as a monopthing [e] vs a dipthong [eI]. Therefore, no change in meaning would result if just the onglide was released. Words pronounced [beIk] or [bek] for example, would be recognized as the same word.

dipthong oU-

A nonphonemic dipthong.

dipthong aI-

A phonemic dipthong, in the sense that the meaning would change in a particular word if only the vowel onglide was produced; in other words, the vowel was realized as a monopthong. A realization of [a] instead of [aI] will change the meaning in GAE, as the words sod [sad] versus sighed [saId] demonstrate.

dipthong backwards cI-

A phonemic dipthong. The opposition jaw (just the backwards c) versus joy (the backwards c with the I), exemplifies its phonemic value as a meaning-differentiating sound feature of English.

Skeletal (or CV) tier:

A representation of a syllable and its hierarchically related components' onset and rhyme

Progressive assimilation:

A segment influences a following sound in a right to left manner. This is also referred to as perseverative assimilation. From previous example: jumping --> jumBin skunk --> stunk telefone --> tedephone

Regressive assimilation:

A sound segment influences a preceding sound. If "is she" is pronounced "iz (idg) she), changing s into z regressive assimilation is noted. the S has impacted the articulation of the z so that it has changed to a fricative similar to S, but with a voicing (other z) Regressive assimilations are also known as anticipatory assimilations

1. Heightened subglottal pressure:

AE voiceless aspirated stops, p, t, k are + HSP because their production requires an added amt of expiratory airflow that, after freely passing the glottis, accumulates behind the occlusion within the oral cavity.

What are more natural (unmarked): anterior consonants or nonanterior consonants:

Anterior consonants

Linkage condition:

Any condition governing the association of units on each tier. A linkage condition states, for instance, that if a segment is not linked to a position on another tier, it will not be phonetically realized

Perhaps a better classification for [r] is the term:

Approximant, which is used within the IPA. In this case, [r] is a central approximant. According to the IPA, there are two symbols used for central rhotic approximants. The [upside down r] is a postalveolar approximant in which the tongue tip is raised and points directly upward toward the rear of the alveolar ridge. The [upside down r with a little thingy at the bottom] is a retroflex production characterized by the tongue tip elevated and bent backward in a more retroflexed position. Officially, there is no IPA symbol for the bunched-r production.

Approximants:

Are consonants in which there is a much wider passage of air, resulting in a smooth (as opposed to turbulent) airflow for these voiced sounds.

Sonorant consonants:

Are produced with a relatively open expiratory passageway. When contrasted to other consonants, sonorant consonants demonstrate less obstruction of the airstream during their production. The sonorant consonants include nasals (m, n, ng), liquids (l, r), and glides (w, j).

Metrical trees:

Are used to reflect the syntactic structure of an utterance. To show the relative prominence of each constituent in an utterance, stress patterns are represented by a binary branching of these metrical trees. One branch is labeled S for "stronger" stress and the other W for "weaker" stress.

What are the three branches of phonetics?

Articulatory phonetics: exemplifying speech production Acoustic phonetics: The study of speech transmission Auditory phonetics: Examines speech perception

Cluster reduction:

Articulatory simplification of consonant clusters into a single consonant, typically the more "natural" member of the cluster pun for spoon

Why are diacritics important and what are they?

As clinicians we are often analyzing disordered speech; therefore, additional symbols may be added to the basic sound unit to characterize allophonic variation.

The result of coarticulation is referred to as:

Assimilation.

Types of nonlinear phonologies:

Autosegmental Metrical Feature Geometry Optimality

To summarize:

Autosegmental phonology was originally conceived to account for cases in which a single segment is associated with 2 mutually exclusive features. It has since been expanded to demonstrate relationships between certain syllable types and consonant realizations. Feature spreading accounts for examples in which the feature or property of one segment spreads to adjacent segments.

Transcription is separated into two types:

Broad transcription & Narrow transcription.

Naturalness and Markedness:

Can be seen as two ends of a continuum.

Autosegmental phonology also accounted for feature spreading:

Certain features such as - and + rounding can be spread to other vowels and consonants.

What terms refer to the relative closeness of the tongue to the roof of the mouth?

Close and Open

What are more natural: Close-tense vowels or open-lax vowels?

Close-tense vowels

Syllables that do not have codas are called:

Closed or checked syllables Stop, or the first syllable in window [win].

Syllable structure processes:

Cluster reduction Reduplication weak syllable deletion Final consonant deletion

Distinctive feature analysis:

Compares the phonetic features of the target sound with the phonetic features of its substitution. Advantage: it allows for a comparison of several sound substitutions to the target phoneme.

Onset:

Consists of all the segments prior to the peak. The segments that compose the onset are also termed syllable releasing sounds. The onset of meet [mit] is [m]; that is, [m] is the syllable releasing sound.

3. Tense:

Consonants and vowels produced with a relatively greater articulatory effort (muscle tension, expiratory air pressure). p, t, k, i, and u for example are + tense. b, d, g, I, and U, by comparison, are - tense.

What are more natural: Consonants without secondary articulation or those with secondary articulation (such as simultaneous lip rounding?)

Consonants without secondary articulation are more natural.

Manner of articulation features specificy the way active and passive articulators work together to produce sound classes, signaling production differences between stops and fricatives for example. There are 3:

Continuant Delayed release Tense

Rhyme:

Cover term for nucleus (vowel) and coda (the arrest of the syllable)

*Articulatory phonetics:

Deals with the production features of speech sounds, their categorization and classification according to specific parameters of their production. Central aspects include how speech sounds are actually articulated, their objective similarities, and their differences. Deals with the categorization and classification of the production features of speech sounds.

Term: Articulation Disorder Definition & Examples

Definition: Difficulty with the motor production aspects of speech or an inability to produce certain speech sounds. Examples: A diagnostic category that indicates that an individual's speech sound productions vary widely from the norm; ex, "Tony was diagnosed as having an articulation disorder"

Term: Phonological Disorder Definition & Examples:

Definition: Impaired comprehension and/or use of the sound system of a language and the rules that govern the sound combinations. Examples: The inventory of phonemes may be restricted; ex, "Jonathan used the phoneme /t/ for /d, , g, s, z, etc./. He was diagnosed as having a phonological disorder.

Term: Phonology Definition & Examples:

Definition: The study of the sound system of a language, examines the sound units of that particular language, how these sounds are arranged, their systematic organization and rule system. Examples: Describing the inventory and arrangements of sound units; ex, the Spanish phonological system has fewer vowels than American English. The phoneme /s/ is present in Spanish, but not /z/.

Term: Articulation. Definition & Examples:

Definition: The totality of motor processes involved in the planning and execution of speech. Examples: Describes the speech sound production of individuals; ex. "The articulation of [s] was incorrect." Describes tests that examine the production of speech sounds; ex, "The clinician administered an articulation test"

*Passive Articulator/Place of Articulation

Denotes the area within the vocal tract that remains motionless during consonant articulation. It is the part that the active articulator or organ of articulation approaches or contacts directly. GAE: The upper lip and teeth, the palate, and the velum are the main places of articulation when describing the consonants.

Advanced/Retracted Tongue Position:

Describe

Bilabial Fricatives:

Describe

Changes in Tongue Placement for Vowels:

Describe

Duration Symbols:

Describe

Flap, Tap, or One-Tap Trill:

Describe

Glottal Stop:

Describe

Lengthening:

Describe

Nasality Symbols:

Describe

Palatal Fricatives:

Describe

Postdorsal-Uvular Stops:

Describe

Postdorsal-Velar Fricatives:

Describe

Primary Stress:

Describe

Raised/Lowered Tongue Position:

Describe

Rounding/Unrounding of Vowels:

Describe

Secondary Stress:

Describe

Shortening:

Describe

Stress Markers:

Describe

Syllable Boundaries:

Describe

The following manners of articulation are used to account phonetically for the consonants of General American English: Stop-Plosives:

During the production of stop-plosives, complete occlusion is secured at specific points in the vocal tract. Simultaneously, the velum is raised so that no air can escape through the nose. The expiratory air pressure builds up naturally behind the closure (stop); compression results, which is then suddenly released (plosive). Examples of stop-plosives are [p] and [b].

*Minimal pairs:

Examples of minimal pairs are dog versus log, and dog versus dot. These are two words that differ in only one phoneme value.

Metrical phonology:

Extended a hierarchical-based analysis to stress. The stress assignment rules of linear phonology produced a relative ordering within any given string of sound segments. This ordering can be used to 1) analyze the relative stressing of individual words within a sentence (sentence stress) as well as 2) to analyze the relative stressing of syllables within a word (word stress)

Generative Distinctive Features:

First accounts presented by Chomsky and Halle Authors describe 5 features that are able to establish and distinguish between phonemes: 1) major class features 2) cavity features 3) manner of articulation 4) source features 5) prosodic features

1. Contact or Remote assimilations

First type and degree of assimilatory processes.

There are two rules for spreading.

First, + and - round spreads from a vowel to adjacent consonants within a syllable Second, + and - round spreads from a consonant to an adjacent consonant up to a vowel. Feature spreading also occurs within such features as +voice and +nasal.

Affricates:

For affricate sounds, two phases can be noted. First, a complete closure is formed between the active and passive articulators, the velum is raised. As a consequence of these articulatory conditions, expiratory air pressure builds up behind the blockage formed by the articulators, the stop phase, which is considered the first portion of the affricate. Second, the stop is then slowly (in comparison to the plosives) released orally, resulting in the friction portion of the speech sound. Affricates should not be viewed as a stop plus fricative combination similar to consonant blends or clusters, such as [ks], in which the stop portion is formed by active and passive articulators, which differ in their placement. Rather, affricates are single uniform speech sounds characterized by a slow release of a stopping phase into a homorganic (hom=same) friction element. The two most prominent affricates of General American English are [tS (chop)] and [dz (job)].

Glides:

For the realization of glides, the constriction between active and passive articulators is not as narrow as for fricatives. In addition to this relatively wide articulatory posture, glides are also characterized by a gliding movement of the articulators from a relatively constricted into a more open position. The sounds [w] and [j] are considered glides. According to the classification of the IPA, [w] and [j] are considered approximants.

What are more natural: fricatives or affricates?

Fricatives

Fricatives:

Fricatives result when active and passive articulators approximate each other so closely that the escaping expiratory airstream causes an audible friction. As with the stops, the velum is raised for all fricative sounds. Two examples of fricatives are [f] and [v]. Some fricatives are referred to as sibilants, have a sharper sound than others due to the presence of high-frequency components. In General American English [s], [z], [S(sh)], and [z(beige)] belong to the sibilants.

*Consonants:

Have significant constriction in the oral and/or pharyngeal cavities during their production. For consonants, the airstream from the vocal folds to the lips and nostrils encounters some type of articulatory obstacle along the way. Therefore, consonants are considered to be CONSTRICTED sounds.

*Auditory phonetics:

How we perceive sounds. Our ears are not objective receivers of acoustic data. Rather, many factors, including our individual experiences, influence our perception.

Phonetic Variations:

If one wants to refer to the physical reality, to the actual production, the term speech sound is used. From early to contemporary publications, such phoneme realizations have also been labeled phonetic variations.

Example of how diacritics can be used:

If the child's tongue placement of 's' is just a bit too far forward, it does not sound like 'th' but rather a distorted 's', narrow transcription is employed. A marker, a diacritic, is added to 's'. This narrow transcription indicates a dentalized production, one in which the tongue is approaching the front teeth: that is, the tongue is slightly forward, giving the 's' a distorted quality.

*Language Disorder:

Impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and/or other symbol systems. May involve one or more of the following areas: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Centering dipthongs:

In this case, the offglide, or less prominent element of the dipthong, is a central vowel. Common in GAE is the use of the central vowel with r-coloring [upside down e^] as an offglide. Centering dipthongs are also seen transcribed with [r].

Association lines:

Indicators for connections between autosegments on different tiers. Association lines cannot cross.

Generative phonology:

Is an outgrowth of distinctive feature theory representing a substantial departure from previous phonological theories.

Example of contact assimilation:

Jumping --> jumBin The voiced [m] impacts the normally voiceless [p], the result is a voiced [b] skunk --> stunk The articulatory placements of the active and passive articulators for [s] influence the stop-plosive, changing it from a postdorsal-velar [k] to a coronal-alveolar [t]

Place features:

Lips: Labial, round, labidental The tip of the tongue: coronal, anterior, distributed, grooved The tongue body: dorsal, back, high, low The tongue root: radical, advanced tongue root (ATR)

What is the most natural (unmarked) vowel?

Low-front vowels

What are diacritics?

Marks added to sound transcription symbols in order to give them a particular phonetic value. Because speech-language pathologists deal mostly with aberrant articulatory events, it follows that diacritical markers are of special importance when characterizing the speech of their clients. These are needed to note the clients' deviant sound qualities.

There are two types of vowels: what are they?

Monopthongs and dipthongs.

Do all syllables have onsets or codas?

No. For example, both syllables of today lack a coda, whereas off does not have an onset.

What is more natural: obstruents or sonorants?

Obstruents are more natural (unmarked) than sonorants

What is phonemic similitude?

Occurs when the change in the segment is such that it is still perceived by speakers of a language as nothing more than a variation of the original segment.

Palatalization.

Only sounds for which the palate is NOT the place of articulation can be palatalized. This can occur with sounds that have a place of articulation anterior or posterior to the hard palate region. This causes a typical change in the quality of the sound(s) in question. The diacritical mark for palatalization is a superscript j added to the right of the basic IPA symbol.

Onset:

Onset of a syllable. Includes all segments before the nucleus.

Word: Scratched What is the onset, peak and coda of this word?

Onset: [skr] peak: [ae] Coda: [tSt]

1. Sonorant:

Open vocal tract configuration promoting voicing. AE vowels, glides, nasals, and liquids belong to this category

Cognates:

Pairs of similar sounds, in this case differing only in their voicing feature (ex. Pairs of sounds such as [t] and [d]- consonants that are voiced or voiceless.

Phonemes:

Phonemes, on the other hand, are defined in terms of their linguistic function- that is, in terms of their ability to establish meaningful units in a language.

What is Phonology?

Phonology can be defined as the description of the systems and patterns of phonemes that occur in a language. It involves determining the language-specific phonemes and the rules that describe the changes that take place when these phonemes occur in words.

*What are the 5 subdivisions of language?

Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

Natural phonology:

Presents language as a natural reflection of the needs, capacities and world of its users, rather than as a merely conventional institution. Incorporates features of naturalness theories and was specifically designed to explain the development of the child's phonological system. Postulates that patterns of speech are governed by an innate, universal set of phonological processes.

*Vowels:

Produced with a relatively open vocal tract; no significant constriction of the oral (and pharyngeal) cavities exists. The airstream from the vocal folds to the lips is relatively unimpeded. Therefore, vowel sounds are considered to be OPEN sounds.

2. Voiced:

Produced with simultaneous vocal fold vibration. All AE vowels, glides, liquids, nasals, and voiced stops, fricatives, and affricates are + voiced. p, t, k, f, s, and SH by contrast are - voiced.

*Importance of phonetic transcription:

Professionals clearly need more information about HOW a specific speech event has been executed than about WHAT has been said. Without a reliable record of how a child or adult realized a particular speech sound, we simply do not have enough information for goal-directed intervention. Phonetic transcription provides a reasonably accurate written record of what was said and what is sounded like.

Velarization:

Refers to a more posterior tongue placement (in the direction of the velum) for palatal sounds. This diacritial mark for velarziation is a superscript (y looking thing) placed to the right of the IPA symbol. An exception is the so-called dark [l], which may be transcribed in two different ways. In GAE, this dark [l] is usually heard in word-final positions, for example, in pull or shawl; also as a syllabic, such as in little or bottle; preceding a consonant, exemplified by salt or build; and following high-back vowels (loop) or (look). The velarization in these cases is often so prominent that even the main phonetic characteristics of [l], the articulation of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge, are sometimes no longer present. In such a case, the velarization actually replaces the typical apico-alveolar l-articulation. The velarized production is an allophonic variation of [l]. Velarized [l] productions are transcribed with a either a line through the [l] or with the y-looking superscript thing.

*Articulation Disorder:

Refers to difficulties with the motor production aspects of speech, or an inability to produce certain speech sound. Typically classified relative to a child's age.

*Phonological Disorder:

Refers to impaired comprehension of the sound system of a language and the rules that govern the sound combinations. Seen as a subsystem of a language disorder

2. Delayed release

Refers to sounds produced with a slow release of a total obstruction within the oral cavity. Affricates such as [ch] and [dz] are + delayed release

*Phonotactics:

Refers to the description of the allowed combinations of phonemes in a particular language.

9. Round:

Refers to the rounding of the lips for the production of vowels and consonants. u and w are +round

*Pragmatics:

Refers to the study of language used to communicate within various situational contexts. Includes the reasons for talking, conversational skills, and the flexibility to modify speech for different listeners and social situations.

*Articulation:

Refers to the totality of motor processes involved in the planning and execution of sequences of overlapping gestures that result in speech. Learning to articulate is a specific kind of motor learning.

*Manner of articulation:

Refers to the type of constriction that the active and passive articulators produce for the realization of a particular consonant. There are various manners of articulation, ranging from complete closure for the production of stop-plosives to a very limited constriction of the vocal tract for the production of glides.

*Speech sounds:

Represent physical sound realities; they are end products of articulatory motor processes. When talking about a child's s-production in the context of an articulation test, we refer to the speech sound production of [s].

Feature geometry:

Represents a group of theories that have adopted the tiered representation of features used in autosegmental phonology. Attempts to explain why some features (and not others) are affected by neutralization or deletion processes (known as delinking). Also uses tiers that interact with one another. Some features are designated as nodes, which means that they may dominate more than one other feature and serve as a link between the dominated feature and higher levels of representation.

Generative phonology:

Represents the applications of principles of generative (or transformational) grammar to phonology. One aim of generative grammar was to privde a way to analyze sentences that would account for differences. A concept was developed that postulated not only a surface level of realization but also a deep level of representation.

The peak and coda together are referred to as the:

Rhyme Therefore, in the word sun, the onset is "s" and the rhyme is "un".

For most consonants, the constriction occurs along the:

Sagittal midline of the vocal tract. (In contrast, during vowel productions, the sagittal midline remains free)

Tiers:

Separable and independent levels that represent a sequence of gestures or a unified set of acoustic features

Sonority:

Sonority of a sound is its loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress, and pitch. For example, we can say that vowels have greater sonority than consonants. Due to the greater sonority of vowels over consonants, vowels are also referred to as SONORANTS.

2. Anterior:

Sounds produced in the frontal region of the oral cavity with the alveolar ridge being the posterior brorder: that is, labial, dental, and alveolar consonants. m, n, b, p, f, v, d, and t are examples

2. Consonantal:

Sounds produced with a high degree of oral obstruction, such as stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids and nasals

6. High

Sounds produced with a high tongue position, vowels as well as consonants. Thus i, u, k, and ng would be +high

3. Vocalic:

Sounds produced with a low degree of oral obstruction (not higher than required for the high vowels [i] and [u], such as vowels and liquids. q

4. Nasal:

Sounds produced with an open nasal passageway- exemplified by the nasals m, n, and ng

5. Lateral

Sounds produced with lowered lateral rim portions of the tongue (uni- or bilateral). The only AE example is [l].

1. Coronal:

Sounds produced with the apical/predorsal portion of the tongue (blade of the tongue raised from its neutral position). This cavity feature marks several consonants, for example, [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l].

3. Distributed:

Sounds with relatively long oral-sagittal constriction, such as Sh, s, and z

What are speech sounds? (when compared to phonemes)

Speech sounds (phones, allophones) are physical forms that are the result of physiological processes and that have objectively verifiable acoustic properties. Speech sounds are viewed from the end-product of their production.

Obstruents include:

Stops, fricatives and affricates

What are more natural: stops or fricatives?

Stops.

Universal trends that are considered typical:

Syllables begin with a consonant: Onset Syllables have one vowel: peak Syllables end with a vowel: Nocoda Syllables have at most one consonant at an edge: complex

Optimality theory uses what to demonstrate the rank order of constraint?

Tableaus. Boxes with word listed on the far left followed by the rank-ordered constraints. Higher-ranking constraints are to the left.

Coalescence:

Term is used when two neighboring segments are merged into a new and different segment.

Rhotic dipthongs:

The dipthongs that are paired with [upside down e^].

*Communication Disorder:

The impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend concepts including verbal, nonverbal, and graphic symbol systems. Consists of language, speech, and hearing disorder.

Onglide and offglide:

The initial segment, the beginning portion of such a dipthong, is phonetically referred to as the ONGLIDE, it's end portion of the OFFGLIDE.

Peak:

The most prominent, acoustically most intense part of the syllable. Although vowels are clearly more prevalent as syllable peaks, consonants are not strictly excluded. A peak may stand alone, as in the first syllable of the word a-way, or it can be surrounded by other sounds, as in tan or bring.

What is the central unit of phonology?

The phoneme- the smallest entity that can be distinguished by its contrasting function within words.

Rhotics:

The phonetic characteristics of the rhotics are especially difficult to describe. First, there are at least two types of rhotic productions: retroflexed and bunched. Second, the actual forming of rhotics is highly context dependent. Thus, the production easily changes depending on the features of the surrounding sounds. In addition, the positioning of the tongue for individual speakers is highly variable. Generally, the retroflexed rhotics are produced with the tongue tip in a retroflexed position (retro=back, flex=turn). The bunched rhotics, on the other hand, show an elevation on the whole corpus of the tongue toward the palate.

Monopthongs:

The quality remains the same throughout their entire production. They are pure vowels.

Example of coalescence:

The realization of sanwich as samich. The bilabial features for the articulation of [w] have impacted the original coronal-alveolar nasal (regressive assimilation), which now is changed to a bilabial nasal [m].

PHONEMIC Inventory:

The repertoire of PHONEMES used contrastively by an individual.

PHONETIC Inventory:

The repertoire of SPEECH SOUNDS for a particular client, including all the characteristic production features the client uses.

Affrication:

The replacement of fricatives by homorganic affricates: tSu for shoe

Substitution processes: Consonant cluster substitution

The replacement of one member of a cluster: stwit for street

*Phonetics:

The science of speech. The study of speech emphasizing the description and classification of spech sounds according to their productions, transmission, and perceptual features.

*Phoneme:

The smallest linguistic unit that is able, when combined with other such units, to establish word meanings and distinguish between them. For example, "beet" has three phonemes /b/, /i/, and /t/. A phoneme is not a single, concrete, unchanging entity. A phoneme is an abstraction that is based on the many variations that occur for a particular sound as it is heard in differing contexts of conversational speech.

Binary system:

The term binary is used in most distinctive feature analyses to indicate these similarities and differences. A binary system use a plus (+) and minus (-) system to signal the presence (+) or absence (-) of certain features.

3. Strident:

The term strident (making a loud or harsh sound) is a feature of American English voiceless and voiced fricatives and affricates. However, the interdental fricatives TH and other TH are - strident.

*Voicing:

The term used to denote the presence or absence of simultaneous vibration of the vocal cords, resulting in voiced or voiceless consonants.

How does natural phonology work?

The theory assumes that a child's innate phonological system is continuously revised in the direction of the adult phonological system. Stampe proposed 3 mechanisms to account for these changes: 1) limitation, 2) ordering, and 3) suppression.

*Acoustic phonetics:

The transmission properties of speech. Frequency, intensity, and duration of speech sounds are described and categorized.

*i/I - which is tense and which is lax?

The vowel i is considered to be a TENSE vowel, whereas I is lax.

Nasals:

These consonants are produced with the velum lowered so that the air can pass freely through the nasal cavity. However, there is complete occlusion within the oral cavity between the active and passive articulators. These sounds have been called nasal stops due to the occlusion of the active and passive articulators and the ensuing free air passage through the nasal cavity. [m], [n], and [ng] are the nasal speech sounds in GAE.

Laterals:

These sounds are established by a midline closure but lateral openings within the oral cavity. Consequently, the expiratory airstream can pass around one or both sides of the tongue. [l] is the only lateral consonant of GAE. The laterals together with the rhotics are collectively referred to as liquids. According to the classification system of the IPA [l] is considered a lateral approximant.

Rising dipthongs:

This means that when producing these dipthongs, essential portions of the tongue move from a lower onglide to a higher offglide position; thus, relative to the palate, the tongue moves in a rising motion.

Dentalization:

This refers to an articulatory variation in which the tongue approaches the upper incisors. Small mark placed underneath the IPA symbol. This occurs quite often as the result of coarticulation. Compare d-productions in the words WIDOW and WIDTH. This articulatory influence of the following th, an addental or even interdental sound, will probably "dentalize" normally alveolar [d] realizations. Dentalized s-sounds, s and z, frequently occur in the speech of children.

Pregenerative theories of phonology:

Those occurring prior to generative phonology distinguished between two levels of realization: phonetic and phonemic. However, in pregenerative theories, both the phonetic and phonemic levels were analyzed by means of the actual productions, or the concrete realizations, of speech Pregenerative theories were developed around the surface forms- the actual end products of production

2. Progressive or regressive

Type 2 of assimilatory processes

*Speech Disorder:

Used to indicate oral, verbal communication that is so deviant from the norm that it is noticeable or interferes with communication. Divided into articulation, fluency and voice.

Different nodes and features: Laryngeal features:

Voiced, spread glottis, constricted glottis (+ or - on all)

Classify the following consonants according to the parameters of voicing, active and passive articulators, and manner of production: [p]:

Voiceless bilabial stop-plosive Because active and passive articulators are the lower and upper lips, one should actually say labio-labial. However, the term bilabial is usually preferred

8. Back

Vowels and consonants produced with a retracted body of the tongue; that is, back vowels and velar and pharyngeal consonants.

Dipthongs:

Vowels in which there is a change in quality during their production.

7. Low

Vowels produced with a low tongue position [a] for example. The only consonants qualifying for this category are h, and the flap, and pharyngeal sounds. The latter are produced with the root of the tongue as an active articulator.

*Active articulators:

What has been termed organs of articulation, are the parts within the vocal tract that actually move to achieve the articulatory result. In GAE, we are referring specifically to the movements of the lower lip and portions of the tongue.

Are some consonants also labeled sonorants?

Yes- due to the production features of a special group of consonants and their resulting sonority, certain consonants are also labeled sonorants.

Are voiceless obstruents more natural than voiced obstruents?

Yes. They are more natural (unmarked)

*List of central vowels:

[3^]- (bird)- a central vowel, rounded, tense, with r-coloring. Rounding may vary, however from speaker to speaker. This is a stressed vowel. It is typically acoustically more intense, has a higher fundamental frequency, and has a longer duration when it is compared to a similar unstressed vowel such as [upside down e^] [upside down e^]- (winner) a central vowel, rounded, lax with r-coloring. Again, lip rounding may vary from speaker to speaker. This lax vowel is an unstressed vowel. [3]- (girl) a central vowel, rounded, tense. This is very similar in production to [3^], but it lacks any r-coloring. This vowel is heard in certain dialects. This might be found in a Southern dialect pronunciation of bird or worth, for example. Also it could be heard in the speech of children having difficulties producing the 'r' sound. [^]- (cut) a lax, unrounded central vowel. It is a STRESSED vowel [upside down e] (above)- a lax, unrounded central vowel. It is an UNSTRESSED vowel.

*List of front vowels:

[i] (eat)- a high-front vowel, unrounded, close and tense. [I]- (in) a high-front vowel, unrounded, open and lax. [e]- (ape) a mid-front vowel, unrounded, close and tense. In GAE, this vowel is typically produced as a dipthong, especially in stressed syllables or when articulated slowly. [E]- (egg) a mid front vowel, unrounded, open, and lax [ae]- (at) a low-front vowel, unrounded, open and lax [a]- (father) a low-front vowel, unrounded, close and tense. In GAE, the use of this vowel depends on the particular regional dialect of the speaker. In the New England dialect in the Northeast, one might often ear it.

*List of Back vowels:

[u] (moon)- a high-back vowel, rounded, close and tense [U] (wood)- a high-back vowel, rounded, open and lax [o] (boat)- a mid-back vowel, rounded, close and tense. This vowel is typically produced as a dipthong, especially in stressed syllables or when articulated slowly. [backwards c] (father)- a low mid back vowel, rounded, open and lax. The use of this vowel depends on regional pronunciation [normal a] (hop) a low-back vowel, unrounded, open and lax. There seems to be some confusion in transcribing this and the backwards C, although acoustic differences certainly exist. One distinguishing feature: the backwards C shows some degree of lip rounding, whereas this does not.

aU-

a phonemic dipthong. Oppositions such as [mas], moss, versus [maUs], mouse, exemplify its phonemic value.

The term assimilation refers to:

adaptive articulatory changes by which one speech sound becomes similar, sometimes identical, to a neighboring sound segment. Such a change may affect one, several, or all of a sound's phonetic constituents; that is, a sound may change its active and passive articulators, manner, and/or voicing properties under the articulatory influence of another sound.

Narrow transcription exemplifies:

allophones

Generative phonology assumes two levels of sound representation:

an abstract underlying form called phonological representation and its modified surface form, the phonetic representation.

Nonlinear phonologies (aka multilinear)

are a group of phonological theories understanding segments as governed by more complex linguistic dimensions. Allow a description of underlying relationships that would permit one level of unit to be governed by another, instead of a single, linear representation (one unit followed by another with none having any superiority or control over other units)

In natural phonology: disordered phonology is seen:

as an inability to realize this "natural" process of goal-oriented adaptive change.

*Voiced:

b, d, g, m, n, ng, v, z, z(beige), th(those), w, j, l, r

labial assimilation:

change of a non-labial into a labial sound under the influence of a neighboring labial sound ex: fwing for swing

Alveolarization:

change of nonalveolar sounds into alveolar ones sum for thumb

Optimality theory:

considered a constraint-based, not a rule-governed, approach as is the case with feature geometry. Constraints are a limit to what constitutes a possible pronunciation of a word. Constraints are based on principles of markedness. Constrains are a means of 1) characterizing universal patterns that occur across languages and 2) demonstrating variations of patterns that occur between languages, and 3) determining markedness indicated by constraint violations.

Assimilatory processes modifying directly adjacent sounds are called:

contact (or contiguous) assimilations.

Lateralization

describe

Voice symbols

describe

aspiration and nonaspiration of stop-plosives

describe

derhotacization:

describe

labialization/nonlabialization of consonants:

describe

partial devoicing

describe

partial voicing

describe

syllabic consonants

describe

unreleased stop-plosives

describe

Coarticulation:

describes the concept that the articulators are continually moving into position for other segments over a stretch of speech.

Voicing:

du for two

Denasalization:

dud for noon

Partial assimilation:

exists when the changed segment is close to, but not identical with, the source segment.

Generative phonologies:

expanded this concept decisively to include what has been called the underlying form. The underlying form, or underlying representation, is a purely theoretical concept that is thought to represent a mental reality behind the way people use language. Underlying forms exemplify the person's language competency as one aspect of his or her cognitive capacity.

Optimality theory was originally developed to:

explain the differences that occur between languages. Presupposes a Universal Grammar and states that constraints characterize universals; however, constrains can be violated.

There are two types of constraints functioning within this mechanism:

faithfulness and markedness. Faithfulness constrains require that input and output forms be identical to one another. If segments between the input and output are deleted, inserted, or rearranged, the faithfulness constraint is violated. There is an antagonistic relationship between faithfulness and markedness.

Changes in the active articulator or passive articulator (organ or place of articulation):

fronting labialization alveolarization

Labialization:

fum for thumb

Phonological rules:

govern how this phonological representation (underlying representation) is transformed into the actual pronunciation (surface form)

Partial assimilation example:

handkerchief --> hangkerchief In this example, the nasality of the sound is present but the placement of the active and passive articulators has changed from a coronal-alveolar [n] to a postdorsal-velar [ng].

Assimilatory processes are also referred to as:

harmony processes

i/I - which is close and which is open?

i is more close and I more open.

Example of progressive assimilation:

ice cream --> aistrim The active and passive articulators for [s] influence the following stop-plosive, changing it from a postdorsal-velar [k] to a coronal-alveolar [t] stop-plosive production: This is progressive contact assimilation television--> tedevision Manner of articulation is impacted when the stop-plosive [t] impacts the following [l]; the lateral [l] is now articulated as a stop-plosive [d]. This is progressive remote assimilation.

Narrow transcription:

in this case the sound units are recorded with as much production detail as possible. This notation encompasses both the use of the broad classification system noted in the IPA as well as extra symbols, which can be added to give a particular phonemic value. This type of transcription is also denoted as phonetic transcription due to the fact that phonetic, production feature details are included. Symbols are placed within brackets [ ].

Phonological processes:

innate and universal; therefore, all children are born with the capacity to use the same system of processes. Phonological processes are 1) easier for a child to produce and are substituted for sounds, sound classes, or sound sequences when the child's motor capacities do not yet allow their norm realization, 2) are operating as all children attempt to use and organize their phonological systems so that they can progress to the language-specific system that characterizes their native language and 3) are used to constantly revise existing differences between the innate patterns and the adult norm production.

assimilatory processes (harmony processes):

labial assimilation velar assimilation nasal assimilation liquid assimilation

Coda:

made up of all the sound segments of a syllable following its peak. The segments that compose the coda are also termed syllable arresting sounds. The coda, or syllable arresting sound, of meet is [t]. This applies also to consonant blends within one syllable.

Broad transcription:

more general. Based on the phoneme system of the particular language; each symbol represents a phoneme. This is also referred to as phonemic transcription. For broad transcription, symbols are placed within slashes / /, which are termed virgules.

Limitation:

occurs when differences between the child's and the adult's systems become limited to only specific sounds, sound classes, or sound sequences. exemplified by the following: A child might first use a more "natural" sound for a more marked one. For example, all fricatives might be replaced by homorganic stops ex. f --> p. Lateral, this global substitution of all fricatives by stops might become limited to only s and z.

Ordering:

occurs when substitutions that appear unordered and random become more organize. Exemplified by the following: A child's first revisions appear unordered. A child might at first also devoice the voiced stops of the substitution, thus s-->t and z-->t. Thus, Sue is pronounced as tu, but zoo is also articulated as tu. Later, this child might begin to order the revisions by voicing initial voiced stops but still retaining the stop substitution. Now, Sue is tu and zoo is du

Assimilation processes can also be total or partial. Total assimilation:

occurs when the changed segment and the source of the influence become identical.

Final consonant deletion:

omission of a syllable-arresting consonant: he for head

Weak syllable deletion:

omission of unstressed syllable nana for banana

A child's first words consist typically of:

open or unchecked syllables, such as [ba] for ball or [mI] for milk. If children start to produced closed syllables, usually they only contain single-segment codas. Similarly, two-syllable words at this stage of development consist usually of open syllables.

Syllables that do not contain codas are called:

open or unchecked syllables. Examples are do, glee, or the first syllable of rebound.

*Voiceless:

p, t, k, f, s, S, th(think), upside-down w (when), h

The syllable can be divided into three parts:

peak, onset and coda

Broad transcription notes the differences in:

phonemes

If an altered segment is perceived to be a different phoneme altogether, this is termed:

phonemic assimilation

devoicing:

pit for beet

Autosegmental Phonology:

proposed that changes within the boundary of a segment could be factored out and put onto another 'tier'. Thus + and - continuant could be placed on another level to indicate the change within the segment boundary. ex. tS.

Examples of regressive assimilation:

pumpkin --> pungkin The positioning of the active and passive articulators for [k] as a postdorsal-velar stop plosive influence [m], which is changed from the bilabial [m] to the postdorsal-velar nasal [ng]: This is regressive contact assimilation. bathtub --> thathtub Active, passive articulators and manner are impacted as [th] influences the previous segment, [b]. The result is that [b] is replaced by [th]: this is regressive remote assimilation.

Markedness:

refers to sounds that are relatively more difficult to produce and are found less frequently in languages. For example, p is considered a natural sound (=unmarked). It is easy to produce and occurs in many languages around the world. The affricate [tS] though, is a marked sound: It is relatively more difficult to produce and is found infrequently in other languages.

Suppression:

refers to the abolishment of one or more phonological process as children move from the innate speech patterns to the adult patterns. Occurs when a previously used process is not used anymore.

If at least one other segments separates the sounds in question, especially when the two sounds are in two different syllables, one speaks of:

remote (or noncontiguous) assimilation.

Gliding of liquids/fricatives:

replacement of liquids or fricatives by glides wed for red ju for shoe

Vowelization (vocalization):

replaement of syllabic liquids and nasals by vowels teibo for table ladu for ladder

Manner features:

sonorant, consonantal, continuant, nasal, lateral, tense

Rules in nonlinear analysis are restricted to two basic operations:

spreading (known as linking) and deletion (known as delinking) of phonological information from one tier to another. Spreading of features could be exemplified by the production of guk for duck. Delinking could be exemplified by the production of du for duck.

Changes in manner of articulation:

stopping affrication deaffrication denasalization gliding of liquids/fricatives vowelization (vocalization) derhotacization

Consonants that serve as the syllable peak are referred to as:

syllabics.

A phonemic assimilation could be exemplified by the change in:

ten girls --> teng girls. The [n] completely changes to [ng] due to the influence of the following postdorsal-velar stop-plosive [g].

velar assimilation:

the change of a nonvelar into a velar sound under influence of neighboring velar sound ex: gog for dog

liquid assimilation:

the influence of a liquid on a nonliquid sound: lelou for yellow

nasal assimilation:

the influence of a nasal on a nonnasal sound: muni for bunny

An example of phonemic similitude would be:

the lip rounding of [s] in soup, as the [s] is influenced by the lip rounding of the following [u]. This would still be perceived as [s] and not another sound unit; the [s with lip rounding] is an allophone of /s/j.

derhotacization:

the loss of r coloring in rhotics [r] and central vowels with r-coloring bed for bird ladu for ladder

Deaffrication:

the production of affricates as homorganic fricatives Siz for cheeze

Fronting:

ti for key su for shoe

Stopping:

tun for sun dus for juice

u/U - which is more close and which is more open?

u - close U- open

[l]

voiced apico-alveolar lateral or lateral approximant

[z]

voiced apico-alveolar or predorsal-alveolar fricative

[other th sound] (those)

voiced apico-dental or interdental fricative

[m]

voiced bilabial nasal

[b]

voiced bilabial stop-plosive

[n]

voiced coronal-alveolar nasal

[dz] (job)

voiced coronal-alveolar stop portion followed by a voiced coronal-prepalatal fricative portion.

[d]

voiced coronal-alveolar stop-plosive

[z] (beige)

voiced coronal-prepalatal or coronal-postalveolar fricative with lip rounding.

[w]

voiced labial-velar glide or approximant

[v]

voiced labio-dental fricative

[j]

voiced mediodorsal-mediopalatal glide or approximant

[r]

voiced mediodorsal-mediopalatal rhotic approximant (bunched) or voiced apico-prepalatal rhotic approximant (retroflexed) Here, the term apico refers to the underside of the apex of the tongue.

[ng]

voiced postdorsal-velar nasal

[g]

voiced postdorsal-velar stop-plosive

[s]

voiceless apico-alveolar or predorsal-alveolar fricative The [s] (and [z]) can be produced in one of two ways: with the tongue tip up (i.e., as apico-alveolar fricative [sibilant]) or with the tongue tip resting behind the lower incisors (i.e., predorsal-alveolar fricative [sibilant]).

[O with a line through it] (think)

voiceless apico-dental or interdental fricative The two th's are typically produced with either the tongue tip resting behind the upper incisors (i.e., apico-dental) or with the tongue tip between the upper and lower incisors (i.e., interdental).

[tS] (chop)

voiceless coronal-alveolar stop portion followed by a voiceless coronal-prepalatal fricative portion

[t]

voiceless coronal-alveolar stop-plosive

[S] (shop)

voiceless coronal-prepalatal or coronal-postalveolar fricative with lip rounding.

[upside down w]

voiceless labial-velar fricative

[f]

voiceless labio-dental fricative

[k]

voiceless postdorsal-velar stop-plosive

[h]

voiceless unlocalized open consonant, (an aspirate) or glottal fricative. Although this sound is sometimes classified as a laryngeal or glottal fricative, in General American English, there is normally no constriction at the laryngeal, pharyngeal, or oral levels.

Changes in voicing:

voicing devoicing

Reduplication:

wawa for water babi for blanket

Total assimilation example:

window --> winow Pontiac --> Poniak In these two examples, the [d] and [t] are not produced, thus, total assimilation.

Examples of remote assimilation:

yellow --> lelow The position of the active and passive articulators are impacted when the [j] at the beginning of the word becomes identical to the following [l] telephone --> teDephone Manner of articulation is impacted when the [l] is changed from a lateral to a stop-plosive, similar to the [t] at the beginning of the word.