Cultural Anthro Unit 2

Shifting the Focus (Scott)

Most analysis of peasant/proletariat resistance centered on rebellions ("real resistance"). Everyday resistance ("incidental activities") more pervasive and significant. Requires little or no coordination and planning. Avoids direct symbolic confrontation w/authority. Extended campaigns of attrition; constant testing of relations between the classes.

Political Power

Political Power: How power is created and enacted to attain goals that are presumed good for a community

Racialized Science

(a.k.a. Scientific Racism): The use of scientific techniques to support the hypotheses that biological race is a determinant of social and economic behaviors and outcomes, and that some races are superior to others.

Marriage Exchanges

*Bride Price*: Gift to bride's family by groom's family to compensate for loss of daughter's labor. *Dowry*: Gift to daughter to ensure her well-being in husband's family. Often given to groom's family. -These are basically opposites

Birth of Biometric Security (Maguire)

*Biometrics:* Recognizing humans on basis of traits. *Physical Traits:* Face, fingerprints, iris, hand geometry, DNA, body odor. *Behavioral Traits:* Handwriting, voice pattern, gait. *Biometric Security* Record a characteristic (e.g., "mug shot", fingerprint) and enter it into a database. Disseminating the database creates a method for tracking individuals. *Maguire's Research Agenda* Biosecurity research dominated by technical fields (e.g., encryption). Move beyond debates on efficacy of technology by focusing on *historical and cultural dimensions* of biometrics. Explore genealogy of biometric security to show it as "an invisible chain that held past populations in strikingly contemporary ways." What are the social ramifications of widely deploying such technologies? *Governmentality (Foucault)* Methods used by governments to produce citizens who act in accordance with government policies or objectives. The ideologies and techniques through which subjects are governed. -overlap with hegemony: dominancy by means of an ideology that justifies why a stratified social order is in everybody's best interest *Panopticism* "He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection." --> With biometrics and biosecurity the *body becomes both a target and instrument of control.* measurements make body the target of control and knowledge of measurements induce self control...but every now and then people don't notice the camera *Historical Development of Biometrics* *William Herschel* Pioneered use of finger and hand prints as identity markers in colonial India for purpose of guaranteeing contractual obligations. *Francis Galton* Search for heritable characteristics of race through anthropometrics. Received Herschel's notes on subject of fingerprints. Understood potential for fingerprints to be used as identifiers. *Alphonse Bertillon* Concern in Paris about urban population and crime. Photographed, finger-printed and collected other data on criminals. Filed data so details of individuals could be easily retrieved. Disseminated files so individuals could be tracked. *Biometrics and Utopian Vision* - Bertillon's idea Every human being should be partially signalised...It would then be possible to find any persona at once whenever desired, whether for its own good or that of society at large, in whatever place he might be and however he might alter his appearance or name. *Crime would thus be rooted out, elections purified, immigration laws effectively enforced* . . . Publisher's introduction to Bertillon's Signaletics, 1896 Contemporary Applications: Controlling Populations Movement enhanced for some (e.g., quick screening at airports) and obstructed for others (e.g., "no fly list"). UK "Smart Border": Facilitate rapid movement for some; deter, detect and remove others. Expanding Uses (video: smartphone, cars, and India's welfare system) "As citizens get used to biometric identification in their dealings with border control the association with criminal behavior will diminish and people may be more prepared to accent it for other purposes as well." (European Parliament Report, 2005)

In What Ways Are Men and Women Unequal?

*Social stratification exists in all societies.* Gender inequality is one form of stratification. Gender inequality rooted in the social construction of gender. *What Is a "Social Construct"?* A *category* (e.g., "gender") created and developed by society. A *perception* of a group (e.g., "men, women") that is 'constructed' through cultural or social practice. *Gender* Something we take for granted in everyday social practices and interactions. -we often "do gender" without thinking about it -starts at birth (dressing, naming) - Boy or girl? --babies are blobs -gives gender specific clothing, names, etc. -continues in childhood: party city, birthday parties --one learns gender through birthday parties --Sweet and Sassy makeover parties...strong gender dimension to birthday parties --Boy's birthday parties are shooting at things and racing cars --Video: Comparison of the birthday parties -gender construction is evident in children's social events...gender roles and stereotypes reinforced *Gender Roles* The tasks and activities a culture assigns by gender. -Division of labor by gender...who does the domestic work...who does majority of child care?

Land of the Walking Marriage (Yuan and Mitchell)

*Mosuo Family System* Matrilineal descent, female-headed households, no formal marital unions. - rare as heck sisi = "walking back and forth", informal unions based on love, no dowry. Children raised by mother and her brothers...don't co-reside with brothers.... No social or economic obligations between father and children. -No Co-resident affines! All consanguineal -Video: non-traditional marriage, lots of lovers, matrilineal farms where you eat what you grow...most important thing is to help your own family, rigorous rules of love, can't be private often...flirting with knives and dogs...grown mosuo kids don't know their dads but have families -not really free love, there are rules, gifts, debates, blessings, negotiations, social rules *Advantages of "Walking Marriage"* Avoid partitioning of land - land within the family. All siblings (brothers and sisters) contribute to the welfare of the household. No potential conflicts between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law...lots of conflict there

Making Men:

*Multiple paths to masculinity*, all influence by enculturation through *direct transmission*, learning through rituals, *informal means of social* control, influence of *media*, enculturation through *observation*.

Hegemony (Antonio Gramsci)

Dominance of one social group over another by means of an ideology that justifies why a stratified social order (e.g., by socioeconomics, race/ethnicity, gender) is in everybody's best interest. Theoretical explanation for how a diverse, complex society can be dominated by one social group. The Logic: Coercive rule is expensive and unstable: Better option is to persuade subordinates that social order is in everybody's best interest. Ideology (state level; political) creates illusion that relations between dominant and subordinate groups are mutually beneficial. Goal: get subordinate groups to comply with stratified social order without using coercion.

Arranging a Marriage in India (Nanda)

Most marriages are arranged by parents. Arranged marriages are contrary to the American ideal of individualism, and the notion that a successful marriage is based on romantic love. *Nanda's Points* -started with ethnocentric biases, approach it from American standpoint Marriage = family (not individual) decision. Emphasis on quality of bride's family. Emphasis on extended family values. Modern aspirations; traditional values. *Matrimonial Ad* Ad posted by family member, not the girl. Specifics about caste and occupations. - reflects endogamy preferences: religion, caste, language "She respects elders." Modern education and"believer in family values." - Looking for a Wife and a Daughter-in-law *Parental Decision*: "My marriage is too important to be arranged by such an inexperienced person as myself." (Sita, college graduate). Contrast with US: Anxiety over being popular (american dating sites are me first, family second) *Changing norms and expectations* - Tech ads playing on theme of arranged marriage, tech is enabler of more options - normative but changing a lot

Gender Violence and Pop Culture

*Wrestling with Manhood* What are the social repercussions when extreme violence is associated with an idealized model of masculinity?- soap operas for guys What does it mean that we are entertained by men beating up women? What does it mean that millions of men and boys choose to watch entertainment that is abusive, degrading, and disrespectful to women? What does it mean that men are aroused by the gender violence portrayed in WWE? -anything this popular reveals something larger about society -Masculinity presented as ideal of physical strength, control, scaring, not back away from confrontation *Happy violence* -violence without consequences, makes things OK -still never thought this is how to be *Why Is WWE Different?* Emulating how to "be a man". Glorifying the bully (physical and psychic domination of others). No consequences, only rewards: fame, fortune, sexual control over women. *Violence as entertainment* -important for gender relations -say its just entertainment -but its abusive and degrading, so what? *Serious Questions* -is it "just entertainment?" *Gender Violence in Music* -Jimi Hendrix "Hey Joe" - gonna go shoot my lady for messing around with another man -Johnny Cash "Delia" - shot her, sounds like a murder confession, dark music video -both cases don't glorify it, but there is absolutely a consequence (jail, mental breakdown, etc.) -WWE is different because it's not consequences but rewards -Caveat: not male on female violence, now marketed as family entertainment *Video Games and Gender* Why do people behave badly? Audience, anonymity, no consequences. -Symbolic Rape during fights -Video games are new to Childs, so here we go -Bullying through videogames -Harassment for feminists playing games --Beat up game -"Fat, ugly, or slutty" website compiling comments women receive - death threats, rape threats, etc. -Do so because *audience + anonymity - consequences = appealing to be trolls* --is this what happens without social control *What does this mean?* -some men feel emboldened while playing online games to engage in misogynist behavior thats unthinkable in public...gets back to the panopticon...does it not exist iin the virtual world? *Repercussions* -Curt Schilling's daughter gets rape threats --so he publically exposed them - they got formal means of social control (suspended or fired)

Race, Evolution, and Behavior (Rushton)

Pioneer Fund book sent out to 100,000s of academics *Premise:* There are 3 biologically-based races among humans... Classification Orientals (East Asians, Mongoloids), Whites (Europeans, Caucasoids), Blacks (Africans, Negroids). Rationale: How would a team of extraterrestrial scientist divide humans into groups? How are racial groups distinguished in "common usage." -not very scientific categories at all -common usage is a social construct, i.e. not scientific --fatally flawed logic *Racial Determinism* Premise: Racial groups differ in intelligence, health, and other social/behavioral variables. Claims to identify 60 social/behavioral variables that distinguish racial groups and argues that these are *innate* and *genetically determined* variables. -brain measurements, which were flawed anyway *Race and Intelligence* IQ tests can be culturally biased (or biased toward class that designs them). IQ test scores heavily influenced by quality of schooling, modes of instruction, etc. Thus, IQ test scores reflect innate intelligence AND quality of education. Therefore, IQ tests are not a reliable measure of innate intelligence...not neutral, not just innate -Mapping unreliable IQ tests onto social constructs is BAD SCIENCE -social behavior has nothing to do with genetics --reminds us of the caricatures...trying to prove --so...genetics -> personality -> rule following -> criminality -> etc. -Conclusions --Blacks are low IQ, hyper-sexual, and criminal...same as cartoons --both bad science and a racial agenda --Rushton's book downloaded for free on white supremacy websites *What Is the "Alt-Right?"* Alternative Right: "groups and individuals whose core belief is that 'white identity' is under attack by multicultural forces using 'political correctness' and 'social justice' to undermine white people and 'their' civilization." Southern Poverty Law Center. Termed coined in 2008 by Richard Spencer, head of the National Policy Institute...white ID group *Devlin and Spencer's Argument*...verbatim from Rushton Races are distinct groups of people. Races vary in intelligence. Race and Crime: "propensity to crime is strongly correlated to lower intelligence, shorter 'time horizons' and ability to plan for the future, as well as other factors such as . . . lower impulse control." Reproductive Strategies: "Compared to White and Asian populations, Black Africans are more fertile and tend to devote less time and effort to their offspring." Cite fostering as evidence Ultimately, there is no unequivocal reason to think that the recognition of racial differences in particular traits implies any overall "superiority."...why would they make this claim -Richard Spencer is a cuck -there's a whole history to this, it doesn't arise in a vaccuum

Earlier Applications

Studies of descent lineages helped illuminate basis of political and social organization in many societies: Nuer (Evans-Pritchard), Yanomamö (Chagnon)

Intimate Apartheid (Bourgois and Schonberg)

Studying homeless drug users to understand their lives...distinct variations in terms of race *Intimate Apartheid* *Apartheid*: a system of segregation based on race. *Agenda*: to demonstrate how historically engrained segregation and conflict operates at the interpersonal level among homeless addicts who survive on the street side-by-side. *Habitus (Bourdieu)* "The way society becomes deposited in persons in the form of lasting dispositions, or trained capacities and structured propensities to think, feel and act in determinant ways, which then guide them" (Wacquant 2005)...hint towards determinism but its more of a guiding Includes behaviors and bodily comportments that are associated with racial and cultural differences. *Habitus 1*: Income Generating Strategies *Whites*: Panhandling ("flying signs"). Off-the-books, part time labor. Scavenging for recyclables. Petty theft. *African Americans*: Panhandling by offering service (windshield wipe). Resistance to part-time labor. Scavenging for recyclables. Burglary. Income Strategies: Legacy of slavery and labor exploitation. African Americans less tolerant of subordination and humiliation in patron-client relationship. Whites more tolerant of exploitative day labor. Income Strategies: Legacy and persistence of racialized perceptions and racist attitudes. Whites: more able to garner sympathy when pan-handling (garner sympathy). "Dejected, their eyes on the ground, dressed in rags, with visible scars and scabs, the whites elicit pity and/or disgust precipitating gifts of spare change." African Americans: less able to garner sympathy when pan-handling (garner fear and distrust). "Rather than attempting to evoke pity from passersby through a passive demeanor, they are more likely to humor, cajole or even threaten potential contributors, sometimes demanding money." *Habitus 2: Injection Method* Whites: Give up on veins (overused). Inject into body fat. African Americans: Spend much time seeking vein. *The Generative Forces of Habitus* What structures of symbolic power give these patterns meaning? Kinship and Childhood Socialization African Americans: Juvenile gang involvement, time in juvenile correctional facilities. Respect as OGs (Original Gangsters). Enduring connections with family. Whites: Outcastes from families, pariahs from working-class society. Feeling of shame and humiliation. Pathetic rather than dignified. Injection Method: Ecstasy vs Depression African Americans: Triumphant, resilient outlaw self-image. Seek to be well-dressed, clean, walk energetically. Seeking pleasure through intravenous injection. Whites: Dejected, dressed in rags, malodorous. Despondent comportment: limp, eyes downcast. "Someone who feels like a failure will experience drugs differently." *Intimate Apartheid* "It helps us understand the production and maintenance of dramatic barriers between individuals of different ethnicities who otherwise survive together in close proximity, physically dependent on the very same drugs."

Genotype:

The genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Moving Away from Marital Violence (Jan Brunson)

Working with most conservative part of Nepal, doing peri-urban research, close to city *Dukha (suffering)* Brunson did not conduct research on suffering, yet the theme continually arose. To what extent is female suffering in marriage culturally sanctioned or expected? What impediments does a woman face if she wants to leave an abusive husband? *How accepted is domestic violence?* -DHS Survey: is a husband justified in hitting if... - around 20% of both people say yes its ok...thereby a bit sanctioned -the same survey repeated to ask about opinions and Experiences -Worldwide average is around 1/4 women experience domestic violence *Nepal: Marriage and Family System* Arranged Marriage. Woman has limited choice in selection of husband. Patrilocal Marriage. Woman transferred from natal family (guest who will depart) to marital family (outsider who must gain acceptance). Joint Family. New bride lacks power; under authority of husband, father-in-law, and mother-in-law *Vulnerability* Lack of Power: Husband and in-laws as decision-makers. Lack of Social Network: Own family, kin, and friends can be very far away. Isolation: Bride discouraged from interacting with others. "Double Outsider": New to the community and to the marital family. *Case Study: "Radha"* Poor family; neolocal residence. Refuses to have second child w/drunk husband. Feels divorce is impossible despite violence. Cannot earn enough to support self and daughter. Inappropriate for single woman to live alone. Returning home shameful for woman and parents. *Case Study: "Deepa"* Left husband due to his drinking, beatings, and forcing her to work shortly after giving birth. Moved back with natal family. Sympathetic father who experienced hardships. However, still vulnerable. If she remarries, what about daughter? Ambiguous status in household. What happens when younger brother marries? *Vulnerability* To whom can a woman turn to alleviate domestic violence? Father-in-law or mother-in-law? Other women in the community? Parents and siblings? Can a woman with little education or job skills leave a husband and become independent? Gender discrimination in job market. Inappropriate for single woman to live alone.

Everyday Resistance Defined

"... any act(s) by member(s) of the class that is (are) intended either to mitigate or to deny claims (e.g. rents, taxes, deference) made on that class by superordinate classes (e.g. landlords, the state, owners of machinery, moneylenders) or to advance its own claims (e.g. work, land, charity, respect) vis-à-vis these superordinate classes."

Say "Cheese" (Shearing and Stenning)

*Corporate social control* Mechanisms for social control built into park (Disney World) "Private corporate policing." "Control strategies are embedded in both environmental features and structural relations."...like parking efficiency: constant instructions, physical barriers, and employee surveillance (gentle prodding to direction) ...not free in the park, totally in boundaries...no grass (fences prohibit crossing, or flowerbeds that block grass off/symbolic barriers because don't walk on flowers...veiled control features) ...props and characters as agents of social control: Posing with characters...staged intimacy veils extraordinary control ...Managing the Disney image: photo spots and character rules ...most characters cannot speak but some go bad....BUT didn't complain for fear of getting kicked out! Therefore: *Control becomes consensual.* Inducing coercion by "depriving visitors of a resource they value." -fear of losing something they want Argument: "people today are seduced to conform by the pleasures of consuming the goods that corporate power has to offer." (i.e. Soup Nazi)

How Are Families Structured? Descent Systems

*Descent Group*: A social unit whose members claim common ancestry. *Unilineal* (*matrilineal, patrilineal*): Traced through either paternal or maternal lines. *Bilateral*: Traced through both paternal or maternal lines. -US kinship is generally bilateral with strong patrilineal overtones in terms of surnames ex) Matrilineal descent: trace it to mom, her siblings, and their mom ex) patrilineal descent is the same with dad -A lot of societies are way more patri or matri focused

The Perseverance of Racialized Science

*Eugenics* From Greek, meaning "of good stock." Study and practice of selective breeding in order to improve the quality of the human species. -see this with dogs *Sir Francis Galton 1822-1911* Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection. Reasoned that, by protecting the weak, humans are acting against natural selection. If those with less intelligence outbreed those with more intelligence, result is "reversion toward mediocrity."...those with less intelligence shouldn't breed *Eugenics Movements, USA* IQ tests developed, early 1900s (first "scientific" tests to determine intelligence.) Eugenics became prominent, early 1900s. Compulsory sterilization practiced against those deemed unfit to breed (e.g., those with low IQ). Whereas, Heredity plays a most important part in the trans-mission of crime, idiocy and imbecility...genetically determined problems solved by Penal surgical operations to stop fertility -who were the targets? African-americans disproportionately targeted *The Pioneer Fund* Founded in 1937 "to advance the scientific study of heredity and human differences." Connections with eugenics in Germany; advocates of Nazi's racial ideology and racist policies. Influenced/inspired by Madison Grant, promoter of scientific racism and Earnest Sevier Cox who pushed legislation to "repatriate" all blacks to Africa. -Grant's book: concerned that Nordic racial type is intellectually superior and shouldn't be diluted...Hitler's "bible" -Cox want to protect the "blood integrity" so he was against interracial marriage/procreation *The Pioneer Fund's Agenda* Support for research on "racial betterment." -Changed to "human race betterment" in 1985...obscure the agenda but still Fund scientists whose research would "prove" that blacks are inferior to whites. Provide subsidies so results of research could be widely disseminated to people in positions of power...not only biased in research, but spread it *Pioneer Fund Charter* Original Mission: to aid *"parents of unusual value as citizens"*. Defined as parents whose children "are deemed to be descended predominantly from white persons who settled in the original thirteen states prior to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States . . ." "white persons" changed to "persons" in 1985

Downsizing Masculinity (Broughton and Walton)

*Gendered Family Ideal* in Blue Collar America Father as the "breadwinner." Mother as the "homemaker" (peaked 40s-80s). Powerful cultural symbol of working and middle class families in USA. How do men "reconstitute and refashion once-sturdy identities in the face of global economic changes?" -Steel Belt has vanishing blue collar jobs, must change the dynamics *Work and Masculinity* Work has moral value. Good worker = good man. Success in life defined by work ethic, responsibility, sobriety and thrift. Distinguish one from less worthy 'others.' *Fatherhood and Masculinity* *Providing*: Food, clothing, shelter plus holidays, gifts, etc. *Protecting*: Secure family environment. *Endowing*: Providing/protecting leads to emotional closeness which leads to endowment of moral character...enculturate kids into ideal of man -Steel belt is now the Rust Belt -most steel industry is gone *Research Setting* Galesburg IL, site of former Maytag refrigerator factory. Employed 1,600. Relocated to Mexico. Interviews w/25 former employees. *Longitudinal Perspective* Hegemonic masculinity (breadwinner/homemaker) only attainable for those with means. Blue collar men already blurred public/domestic boundaries out of necessity, not choice. -couldn't afford the ideal Relatively low pay = flexible (gender) strategies. -with loss of job, shift from almost breadwinner to almost homemaker *Post-Industrial Economy and Gender Identity* Retraining as *Opportunity*: New opportunities to continue traditional breadwinner role. Retraining as *Emasculation*: Not "men with jobs", but "kids in school." Competing with younger people for work that is not as "masculine" (more brain, less brawn). Growth fields = traditionally feminine occupations. *Key Insight*: Case demonstrates continuity and adaptability of gender roles and identities. *Continuity*: Blue-collar moral discourse: hard work, "playing by the rules", sobriety, responsibility = core values. -core values have not changed *Adaptability*: Teach kids same moral discourse, but apply to education/white collar path to middle class. -it is not fixed, change happens -steer kids towards education because blue collar isnt the route to middle class any more

Where Does Racism Exist? (Smedley2)

*Individual level?* Easy to identity? *Institutional Level?* o More subtle and difficult to prove. o Access to capital? Housing? Employment? (Baugh) o Sporting images of Native Americans? (Strong)

Why Do People Marry?

*Marriage* (Affinal relationships formed thru marriage) Difficult to define (varies cross-culturally). "A union (usually socially recognized thru ritual) between a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of both partners."(Royal Anthropological Institute, 1951). -excludes same-sex and plural marriages *Rules of Engagement* *Endogamy* is the custom of marrying within a social group to which a person belongs. Social class/caste endogamy; ethnic endogamy. -groups you belong to that you *prefer* to marry within...age, race, religion, SES, education level *Exogamy* is the custom of marrying outside a social group to which a person belongs. Lineage/clan exogamy; village exogamy. -groups you belong to that you *prefer* not to marry within...kin group (incest), gender? -Age group: tend to think about ulterior motives of gold differ...in both cases apply derogatory terms to the women -again, preference not a rule *Incest* Marriage/sexual relations with close relative. Incest taboo is a human universal! Details of taboo differ (cultures define who is or is not kin differently). -Cultural definition of brother-sister and cousins -Cousins are legally not allowed in 25 states Ex) Patrilineal descent and incest in Nubri -don't marry someone in your lineage -cousin on partilineal side is not good, but cousin outside your lineal is OK and encouraged! -maintains long term family relationships this way, happens about 15%

Post-Marital Residence Rules

*Patrilocality*: when couple marries they move to husband's household/community. *Matrilocality*: when couple marries they move to wife's household/community. *Neolocality*: when couple marries they establish new, independent residence. -US norm is neolocality!

Magic and Rituals in Sports

*Perspectives* What are the functions of sporting rituals? Fans perspective? Participants' perspective? How do athletes use magic and rituals to mitigate uncertainty? *Superstition* A belief or practice resulting from ignorance, fear of the unknown, trust in magic or chance, or a false conception of causation. -resembles how we define magic -ad: it isn't weird if it doesnt work *Team Entrance Rituals* More emphatic in sports where physical strength and domination are keys to success. Purposes: team bonding, energize team (and supporters), gain psychological edge over opponents -Clemson entrance: death valley -The Maori: indigenous New Zealanders, fierce and warlike, strong sense of cultural identity, darn good rugby players -- the Haka, pre-battle ritual

The Challenges of Advocacy in Anthropological Research on Intimate Partner Violence (Karin Friederic)

*Politicization of Violence* How has political discourse made some forms of violence more visible while obscuring other forms of violence? - possibly answered How does naming and de-naturalizing violence both empower women and put them at risk? How does the researcher balance ethical responsibilities (don't put people at risk) with advocacy (intervene on behalf of people)? *A Discernable Shift* Initial Research: Domestic violence couched in folk idioms (evil eye) & embodied suffering (flu-like symptoms). Subsequent Research: Via local NGO and human rights discourse suffering takes a name: violencia doméstica. - used to not talk about that in those terms *Methodological Issue* In casual in-depth interviews women reluctant to provide details. In formal survey + in-depth interviews women willing to provide details. - if asked yes/no they say no -- but with a survey then she gets WAY more info, reveals she actually has been through sexual violence *Changing Perceptions* Previously: Husband's use of physical force was not deemed violent. Accepted as legitimate. Today: Considered unacceptable if man beats wife for pleasure (por gusto). Considered acceptable if man beats wife due to suspicion of infidelity (and other reasons). *Manuel Whips Carla* *Extended family violence*. Cousin Manuel whips Carla in main plaza. She claims unruly son. He claims public insult. Reassertion of Manuel's authority in public eye seen as legitimate. *Role of Anthropologist?* Wanted to help; provided minimal help. Manuel = collaborator, friend, man of influence. Dilemma illustrates "how deep immersion and an orientation to long-term collaboration can complicate efforts to ensure protection and practice advocacy." *The Activist-Anthropologist* Author reflects on how her efforts affect advocacy and protection. *Advocacy*: Domestic violence denaturalized through naming it and making it visible. *Protection*: Advocacy puts people at risk (e.g., women who help run training programs) and obscures larger structural problems (lack of legal protection).

Linguistic Profiling (John Baugh)

*Racial profiling* usually based on visual cues. *Linguistic profiling*: based on auditory cues. Linguistic patterns (phonetics, grammar, vocabulary) vary by ethnic group. People judge intelligence (and other characteristics) based on linguistic patterns. People treat others according to judgments made on the basis of linguistic patterns. - Video: Call screening to houses, banks, or jobs - leave a message on the answering machine - neutral white accent gets significantly more callbacks *Race and Social Class* "Is that race? Or economic class?" "It's both. Race in and of itself will not be the factor that excludes one from a particular neighborhood or a house for sale in an affluent community." Race strongly associated with economic class. - Video of Housing Discrimination Law

Society and Sex (Actually Gender) Roles (Ernestine Friedl)

*Society and Gender Roles* 1970s - Anthropologists at the forefront of gender studies. Recognition that women and gender roles have been relatively neglected in ethnographic research. *Focus on Gender roles...division of labor...men hunt, women gather* *The Main Issue* Male domination, although it varies in degree, seems to be a human universal. Source of male power is "control of a scarce, hard to acquire, but necessary nutrient—animal protein." Food acquisition and distribution: vegetable foods kept within immediate family, meat distributed beyond immediate family (honor, social links through reciprocity). -have seen examples of this so far: Netsilik hunters sharre the meat of a seal, and !Kung hunters share the meat of the giraffe *Friedl's Focus* • Hunter-gatherer societies with small-scale social organization (band)...majority of how humans lived for most of history • "These conditions permit the anthropologist to observe the essential bases for inequalities between the sexes without the distortions induced by the complexities of contemporary industrial society." *Why Do Men Hunt and Women Gather?* • Women begin childbearing at time when they become old enough to hunt. -Pregnancy and childcare limits mobility and therefore ability to hunt. *Male Dominance Scale* -More dominant: Eskimos - men hunt large animals and provide the most -Tiwi = men hunt, woman gather, work apart but share -Hadza = men and women collect own food on own -Less Dominant: Washo = men and women work together to hunt *Key Point* Male power resides in ability to control meat distribution. Requires returns, creates obligations. - Think about it, at Thanksgiving, then man cuts up and carves the turkey to serve it out...the man takes on the symbolic role *Gender Stereotypes* Oversimplified but strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females. -men like cars, tools but are impractical, wasteful, and overconfident in their abilities -women are bad drivers? nope - insurance rates are higher for guys *Gender Stratification* -often related to stereotypes Unequally distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, etc.) reflecting men's and women's different positions in a social hierarchy. - What men do is often valued more highly (education; economic activities; politics; etc.). - Gender ideology legitimates stratification. --stereotypes are part of ideology *Culture Is Dynamic* How are gender roles, stereotypes, and stratification inter-related?...all part of one system that interacts and reinforces each other -we can see this in our own society How have gender roles, stereotypes, and stratification changed in US society? -when you change one part, consequences follow -look back at pop culture and the American family --breadwinner dad and homemaker mom --domestic contentment with well-defined gender roles ---Video: Father knows best, leave it to beaver, the munsters: domestic roles are clear -The Good wife's guide in 1955: be happy to see him, warm smile, listen to him as his conversation topic is more important, don't question judgment...a good wife always knows her place -What jobs were appropriate for women? Secretary, nurse, teacher in the 50s-60s with male boss and no upwards mobility -girls actually can do math and science --WashU anthropology 17 males, 15 females for professors, 20 male grad students, 40 female --WashU engineering: 96:9 faculty, way more men grad students *Changing Gender Roles*...only career path in medicine?...doctors and nurse now changing the dynamics More and more married women with kids under 6 are working outside the house (81% to 36%) Who is generally employed in professional child care? women...is there a class-based manifestation of gender roles? yes Do gender stereotypes continue to reinforce domestic role of women? men are dumb and messy - message is that its best to leave domestic work to women? - Clorox ads

Focus on the Fridge (Margaret Blackman)

*The Refrigerator*: From luxury to necessity. Today, nearly universal in US households. -used to be "Ice Box": used to be a large ice industry -Fridge was $714, $$$ relative to Model T -1950s, symbol of middle class modernity with strong gender roles and domestic containment...realm of the woman -Video: Old fridge ads = dancing girl around the Kelvinator, strong family ties with longevity, mentions the kids names a bunch, everything in it's place *The Refrigerator and American Ideas of "Home" (Maschio)* Middle-class refrigerator as "ritual space". Place where objects acquire special qualities and convey special meanings. *Refrigerator Functions*: A place to display family history and familial affection. A command and control center for organizing the family's domestic routine. *Refrigerator Rights* Would you walk into another person's house, go to their refrigerator, open it up and help yourself? Who is allowed inside is a measure of relationship and age. - when are you old enough to help yourself? not having to ask permission means you've crossed an age threshold - edgy nocturnal fridge raid Now: Gender Role inversion: all about beer and the man

Expressions of Religion

*Totemism* The system of thought that associates particular social groups with specific animal or plant species. Sacred emblems symbolize common identity. Functions to create solidarity among groups of people. *Magic* An explanatory system of causation that does not follow naturalistic explanations, often working at a distance without direct physical contact. Can involve actions, offerings, spells, formulas, incantations. Most prevalent in situations of chance and uncertainly. Reduces stress, creates illusion of control. - Context: Gambling: high level of uncertainty, so use magic for stress reduction - Magical Incantations (Spells) --verbal action that one believes can bring about a positive or negative result --Positive or negative: health or death -"I put a spell on you" = love magic -Incantations in everyday life *Taboo* Strong social prohibition against words, objects, actions, discussions, or people that are considered undesirable by a society. Often backed by supernatural sanction. Breaking a taboo is considered objectionable and has social consequences. *Taboo Examples* Incest: Every society has incest taboo; details differ. Menstruation: In many societies a menstruating woman cannot have contact with religious items, food, etc. Food: Some animals considered unclean (pigs for Muslims and Jews), sacred (cows for Hindus), or inappropriate to eat (dogs for Americans) Taboo words: severity of which is age dependent, diminishes over time: F---

Transgender vs. Transsexual

*Transgender*: does not ID with gender assigned at birth or does not express it *Transsexual*: person who assumes the physical characteristics of the opposite gender Neither male nor female? -Spectrum of Navaho Spectrum: Feminine males, masculine females, and Nadleehe in middle

The Notion of Witchcraft Explains Unfortunate Events (E. E. Evans-Pritchard)

*Witchcraft* Beliefs widely distributed (nearly universal). Incorporates non-human powers. Witchcraft as "innate, inherited ability to cause people misfortune or to kill them." (Evans-Pritchard) Witches become socially important during times of crisis (e.g., drought, plague). Witchcraft accusations more common during times of stress and social upheaval. -directed at socially marginal people, social control *Colonial Context* British extending control over parts of Africa. Opinion that beliefs in witchcraft and other "superstitions" evidence that "primitive peoples" were inferior. Evans-Pritchard sought to demonstrate otherwise. *Azande Witchcraft* = men witch doctors Classification of misfortunes that are harmful to people. A mechanism for explaining unfortunate events. Accepted as common, routine, and part of everyday existence. - pot breaking? Witchcraft. Festering wound? Witchcraft. -Collapsing Granaries...why did it collapse when the man rested inside? Witchcraft! *Two Independent Chains of Causation*: Why do they intersect in time and place? *Proximate (Secondary) Cause*. An event which is immediately responsible for causing an observed result. -sun was hot, termites weaken structures -witchcraft is not these indepdendently *Ultimate Cause*. The real reason something occurred. The reason two events coincided in time and place. "Witchcraft brings a man in relation with events in such a way that he sustains injury." - explains why it collapsed the very moment of concern...explains why multiple events come together to cause harm *Caveats* Witchcraft does not explain all deaths and other unfortunate events...Not all witchcraft accusations are credible....Incompetence, laziness, ignorance, stupidity. Witchcraft does not exclude natural causation. Belief is consistent with human responsibility and "rational appreciation of nature" (i.e., empirical knowledge of cause and effect).

Caricatures and Consequences

Caricatures have consequences: *Portrayal of Native Americans* denies historical injustices. "They are savages; we brought them civilization." *Portrayal of Jews* complicit in genocide. "They are parasites; we need to kill them." *Portrayal of African-Americans:* Lazy, uncultured, stupid (Coon Caricature). Natural propensity for violence and crime (Coon Caricature, Brute Caricature - preys on white women). Content in role of servitude (Mammy Caricature "Aunt Jemima"). Hyper-sexual and promiscuous (from young age...disturbing) (Jezebel Caricature). -characterized by the racial science *Caricatures in Cartoons* Media is a means of enculturation. Cartoon audience = children. Potential to internalize racial stereotypes while being entertained...normative entertainment -portrayal as such complicit in maintaining inequality

Constructing Gender: Four Examples

Center on Gender as a social construct Learning through enculturation (Urla & Swedlund). Employment and male identity (Broughton & Walton). Gender in an all-male environment (Coggeshall). A third gender (Hijras of India).

Key Contrasts

Open Defiance Openly challenges property relations. Seeks formal, de jure gains. Examples = tax riot, labor strike, open insult. Everyday Resistance Does not openly challenge property relations. Seeks tacit, de facto gains. Examples = evasion/concealment, shirking, slowdowns, spoilage, gossip, nicknames, character assassination.

Politics

Relationships and processes of cooperation, conflict, social control, and power that are fundamental aspects of human life. Key Question: How is power acquired and transmitted in a society? *Power*: the ability to exercise one's will over others. *Authority*: the socially approved use of power. no power between friends, parent-child diminishes with age and independence, police have high power/authority

Anthro of Religion

Religious Studies: Textually oriented, the origins of the different passages of the bible; what are the main tenets of the religion; enlightenment? Anthro of Religion: society and religion; how to dirutals create common identity; changing landscapes and modernization affecting geneder religious roles and opportinoes

Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (James Scott)

Seminal writing by a political scientist. Theoretical framework for studying class relations and resistance. Major impact on anthropology. "Real Resistance": Organized, systematic, and cooperative. Principled or selfless. Revolutionary consequences. "Incidental Activities": Unorganized, unsystematic and individual. Opportunistic and 'self-indulgent.' Have no revolutionary consequences.

Racialization:

Social, economic, and political processes of categorizing populations into races and creating racial meanings. (Welsch and Vivanco)

How Is Political Power Associated With Inequality?

Socioeconomic Status: Political power derives from wealth. Heredity: Some families have political power. Political power can be inherited. Racial Classification: Racial ideologies can justify segregation and privileging one group over another. Gender: Gender ideologies can justify barriers to accessing to political power.

Neo-Evolutionary View of Political Systems

Socioeconomic stratification exists in most societies. Differential power and authority. Differential access to resources. Stratum endogamy (people encouraged or tend to marry within socioeconomic class). Abandoned terms but people use the relationships again in a band, the leader is the most qualified

Race: What It Is Not (Ruth Benedict)

Student of Franz Boas at Columbia University. Proponent of Culture and Personality school that posits enculturation shapes individual's personality; overlap with psychology. Contemporary and close companion of Margaret Mead. Excerpt from Race: Science and Politics (1940). Historical Context: WWII. Nazism and notion of pure and dominant Aryan race. Emphatic warning that racial politics are misguided and dangerous. Problems Linguistic category (Aryan = Indo-European languages) conflated with racial category. Those who speak Indo-European languages have no phenotypical ("racial") unity. Racial features are hereditary traits whereas cultural practices are learned behaviors. -there's no way you can say blonde hair led to technological invention If race determines behavior, how to explain Nordics transition from aggressors to pacifists? Japanese transition from pacifists to aggressors. -can't explain complete 180s Benedict's Message: Many different "races" contributed to the growth of European culture. Cannot attribute one's cultural achievements to racial superiority. Nazi's notion of a "Master Race" is nonsense

Rituals

Stylized performances involving symbols (See Geertz) that are associated with social, political, and religious activities. Performed in special (sacred) places and at set times (typically) Transmit enduring cultural messages and values. Can be *religious* or *secular*. - i.e. Sports

The Social Construction of Race

Tell me: who is being denigrated...The Irish What Is a "Social Construct"? A *category* (e.g., "race") created and developed by people in a society. A *perception* of a group (e.g., "Negroid Race") that is constructed through cultural and social practice. How do we know that "race" is a social construct rather than a biological reality?

"Tribalism" Gets a Bum Rap (Lawrence Rosen)

The Bum Rap Why do we associate tribes with being closed, territorial, pre-modern, and pugnacious? Why do we refer to anything with those qualities as "tribal?" Anthropological Perspectives Devised then rejected neo-evolutionary scheme. Many forms of political organization exist. Cannot divide them into meaningful categories. Should abandon any classification scheme. Rosen: "tribes may share certain orientations rather than structural forms." Tribal Ethos Adaptability: Can include people of diverse origins (not exclusionary). Can modify genealogy for strategic purposes (identity flexible rather than fixed). Ambivalence toward Power: Conventions to prevent domination by one individual or group. Egalitarian ethic. Stereotypes Have Consequences Vilifying tribes as a basis for discrimination, forced assimilation, dispossession. Resistant to change? Need to bring them into the modern world. Naturally violent? Need to pacify them

Case 3: Desertion

Conscripts from poor farming families. Resentment that wealthy families escape conscription. Economic needs of family during crisis times. Little stake in defending slavery (didn't own them). Massive desertions, sustained by consensus, prevent authorities from stopping it. Who to target? No open rebellion; not organized or coordinated by anyone. Result: thousands of small, self-serving acts deprived socioeconomic elite of manpower needed to fight the war.

Hijras

Considered an official third gender in India. "Man minus man": born intersex, ambiguous genitalia, or undergo castration. "Male plus female": dress and talk like women, exaggerated female acting. Males and females exist in complementary opposition: most powerful when combined. -template in Hindu societies, so combo is best Form own communities outside of caste boundaries and with unique family structures. -when ID as hijra, they move out and into hijra community Social role to provide blessings when boy is born and to perform at weddings to ensure couple's fertility, and ensure longevity of children -Video: wearing a sari marks womanhood, history of 4000 years, pushed to fringes and get fewer rights/shame/prostitution/begging -Video: weight room cover video, juxtaposition

Gender as a dichotomy or a continuum

Couple decades ago, more or less a dichotomy -Tomboy vs. Sissy = disparaging Rocky Horror Picture Show: first thing that caught on in pop culture, first exposure to transgender issue...shift to now being cool/acceptable example: Facebook gender options Now - a continuum

What is a Family?

Difficult concept to define because it varies cross-culturally. "A social group characterized by *common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction*. It includes *adults of both sexes*, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more *children*, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabitating adults." (Murdock 1949). -who they are: sexually active adults with own kids -what they do: reproduce and share $$ *Murdoch's definition excludes* societies where spouses do not co-reside (Mosuo of China, see Yuan and Mitchell; Nayar of India, mentioned in Kottak), same sex couples, single parent families, couples without kids. US Census Bureau's Definition: "*a group of two people or more* related by *birth, marriage, or adoption*, and *residing together*." -again, who thy are, how they're related, what they do? -a bit more inclusive, but no mention of gender, legal marriage, and long-distance

Racism

The repressive practices, structures, beliefs, and representations hat uphold racial categories and social inequality it is one basis for social stratification

Phenotype:

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Marriage in Cross-Cultural Perspective

The way people form marriages varies from one society to the next Today's Examples: Lack of Formal Marriage (Mosuo), Polyandry (Tibetans, China and Nepal), Polygyny (Bambaran & Fulbe, Mali; USA), Arranged Marriage (India)

When Brothers Share a Wife (Goldstein)

Tibetans' Perspective on Polyandry Means to ensure family unity. Means to conserve household resources. -means to maintain a relatively wealthy status -survive and thrive by engaging in diversified HH economic strategy Corollary and Consequence: many women excluded from marriage. Low fertility and low population growth. *The Tibetan Family System* *Patrilocal post-marital residence*: women marry out of native houses, men stay at home, bring brides in. *Patrilineal inheritance*: inheritance at marriage, not at parental death. Men inherit land and animals from their fathers (all boys eligible to get all the inheritance). Women inherit (dowry) jewelry, some animals. -Who do the kids call father? Does it matter? Some acknowledgement...the eldest brother husband is termed father, and the younger is agu = uncle-father Hypothesis: Goldstein (1970s) predicted that people would abandon polyandry when other income earning opportunities become available: Younger brothers (agu) would earn wages, gain ability to split out and form own monogamous union. Did this prediction come true? -predicted that polyandry will vanish -Tibet Autonomous Region (china 2006-2009) --*Household Diversification Strategy* Rural urban connections and multiple income sources, some polyandry for elder kids, and send the younger out for education --farming for eldest, second eldest does jobs for money for corporate household, youngest get more education and more money - send it back --*Adaptability of Polyandry* ---viable economic strategies, families, multiple income, corporate family ---the demise of polyandry is fertility decline

How Should We Understand Religion and Religious Beliefs?

Understanding Religion 1: Edward Tylor (1871) As society evolves humans become more "rational". (Unilineal Evolution) -All societies started animistic, then polytheism, then monotheism, then atheism -Predicted as science and atheism increases, religious beliefs decreases -Evolution is a sin! Friend of god, lots of kids *Why Was Tylor Wrong?* Religion transmitted through enculturation (part of a group's core cultural values). Religion does more than explain the mysterious, it also creates and maintains group identity and solidarity (social benefits), and provides solace in dealing with uncertainty (psychological benefits). -evolution yes, but yeah afterlife no *Understanding Religion 2: Wallace (1966)* Rejected idea that other religious systems are somehow primitive and simple-minded. Linked beliefs with rituals. Religion is "beliefs and rituals concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces." *Understanding Religion 3: Geertz (1966)* Religion as a cultural system. "Religion is (1) a system of symbols which act to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic." Focus on symbols that seem "intensely real and factual." Symbols generate systems of meanings the create meanings and motivations in people's lives. *Understanding Religion 4: Religion as a Socially Enacted Symbolic System* There exist things more powerful than humans. Beliefs and behaviors support and promote acceptance that there are more powerful things than humans. Symbols that constitute these beliefs and behaviors seem both intense and genuine. People share the power of these symbols in social setting (usually involving rituals).

Do "Everyday Forms of Resistance" Constitute Political Resistance?

Unorganized, unsystematic, and individual? No revolutionary consequences? Implies accommodation with the structure of domination?

Johann F. Blumenbach 1752 - 1840

Used skull measurements and skin colors to divide humans into five "principle varieties." Caucasian, Mongoloid, Malayan, Negro, and American. Designated Caucasian as closest to representing God's image...DAMN -*Explicit hierarchy*

Race

a concept that organizes people into groups based on specific physical traits that are thought to reflect fundamental and innate differences.

Ethnic Group:

a group of people distinguished by cultural similarities (shared among members of that group) and differences (between that group and others); ethnic group members share beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms, and a common language, religion, history, and geography

Plural Marriages (Polygamy)

Monogamy: 1 man/1 women Polygyny: one man with more than one wife. Polyandry: one woman with more than one husband...rarer

Measuring Up To Barbie (Urla and Swedlund)

Are American Women Discontent with their Bodies? Evidence of Discontent: Drugs, Cosmetics, Dieting, Cosmetic Surgery *The "Beauty Myth"* Fueled by profitable industries (cosmetic, weight loss, fashion, etc). Feminine bodies "never feminine enough". -constant bombardment of messages from the industry to reshape things Constant need for refining, reshaping. Barbie's influence: "an incredibly resilient visual and tactile model of femininity for pre-pubescent girls." -playing with it, dressing it, posing it - learn about beauty myth through play *Birth of Barbie: Historical Context* -prostitute doll Developed during Cold War. Symbolized aspirations of prosperity, domestic containment, rigid gender roles. -very first barbie commercial: promoted as teaching girls as something to aspire to - make believe you are barbie Continued success by adapting to times. *Gendering Kids* Learning connection between personal appearance and "happiness", connection between appearance and acceptance among peers, lessons about grooming for social events (proms, dates, weddings). -Ken thinks you shimmer - get popular *Accessorizing Barbie* Socializing into consumer culture: learning "cultural capital" of name brands, learning connection between fashion/taste and social status. -very much a consumer thing: Barbie boutique with fake money...I love shopping...never run out of money *The Anthropometry of Barbie* Barbie and Shani deviate significantly from "Army Norma"...Army norma is the average of well-fit women Taller and thinner ("clinically anorectic"). Similar to runway model ideal. *Points* (Conjectural) Choosing body type is pervasive feature of consumer culture. Keeping control over body (i.e., conforming to gendered norms) has become sign of "individual's social and moral worth". Playing with Barbie *can lead* to internalizing values of ideal body size/shape. Girls *can link* Barbie's body shape (and accessories) with her popularity and glamour. Inability to realize the ideal can have negative effects on self-esteem. -hard to prove because you need to follow over time *Contested Message?* Does Barbie represent tyranny of fashion industry and uncritical acceptance of gender norms? Does Barbie represent female empowerment: an independent female with a body shape that is distinctly non-reproductive? -Barbie Careers Collection: game developer, chef, astronaut -but also...gendered professions --pediatrician, kindergarten, domestic pets -STEM Barbie Kit --still rooted in domestic overtones

Learning the Nightmare (Henry): Schools as Institutions for Enculturation

*Jules Henry*: school systems and authority PhD Anthropology, Columbia. Student of Franz Boas and Margaret Mead. Wash U Sociology 1947-1969. Later work "questioned the authority of, and rationale behind, cultural institutions" (e.g., the school system). *Schools as Institutions for Enculturation* "American classrooms . . . express the values, preoccupations, and fears found in the culture as a whole." -greater purpose is social control "Drilling" (rote learning) replaced by less rigid forms of teaching. Function of education is not to foster creativity, but to instill conformity (i.e., social control!) "The function of education has never been to free the mind and spirit of man, but to bind them." -turn individuals into SHEEPLE -ex) Spoede ROCKS program: makes a competition for conformity, where students get rewards and staff gets manageable students --> classroom management video --while there is a practical function, its awkward because it feeds into Henry's point: conformity *Classroom Management* Lessons learned in name of "classroom management" instill conformity outside of the classroom. Classroom management thus has tremendous impact on children's enculturation (more than parents?) -kids spend more time at school than home during a day, so school's enculturation matters -Learning Multiple Lessons --how to spell as well as manage social skills = the social noise --learning competition: success predicated on the failure of others...learning not to dream of success, but to fear failure Question Are you primarily motivated to study for an exam because of a desire to succeed or a fear of failure?...do you ever have nightmares about going to an exam totally unprepared?

Best of Friends and Worst of Enemies (Sangeetha Madhavan)

*Key Questions* Does polygyny foster competition or collaboration among women (co-wives)? What economic and cultural factors shape tendencies toward competition/collaboration? ~45% polygyny in Mali *Bamanan* Largest group in Mali. Agriculture = labor needs. Marriage/Family System: patrilineal, patrilocal, clan exogamy, extended family residence. Polygyny is common. *Fulbe* 10% of Mali's population. Pastoralists = less labor needs. Marriage/Family System: patrilineal, patrilocal, clan endogamy, nuclear family preference Polygyny is not common *Data and Methods* 48 Life-History Interviews: 24 Bamanan (17 polygyny, 7 monogamy), 24 Fulbe (5 polygyny, 19 monogamy) *Factors Influencing Co-Wife Collaboration* *Economic* B: Farmers have labor force needs. Co-wife reduces workload. - large incentive to collaborate F: Pastoralists have less labor force needs. Co-wife not as beneficial. - little incentive to collaborate *Transition to Household* B:"Why should I fight with her? I taught her everything about this household before she moved in." - Senior wife instructs junior wife - transition = collaboration F: Pullakou (code of ethics): emphasis on self-isolation and reticence in asking for help - senior wife resists junior wife - no transition = conflict *Maternal Recognition* B: "I can treat children of co-wife as my own. I can stop having kids and let her carry on." - collective maternity F: "I can take care of co-wife's kids, but I don't consider them my own." - competitive maternity *Jealousy* B: Co-wife jealousy common but looked down upon (expectation to accept co-wife). - "deal with it" F: Shameful to have co-wife so jealousy expected and accepted (fight to keep husband). - acceptable form of resistance *Madhavan's Insights* "It is not obvious that women necessarily suffer as a result [of competition]." Fulbe: women risk compromising status through collaboration with potential or actual co-wives. That is, competition makes sense and can be beneficial under certain circumstances. Degree to which co-wives compete or collaborate shaped by numerous factors (economic, social organization, cultural norms and expectations). Social recognition is key. Bamanan: show of co-wife harmony applauded. Fulbe: show of co-wife competition expected. *Culture Does Not Determine Behavior!* Expectation of cooperation, but some do have competitive relationships. Expectation of competition, but some do have cooperative relationships.

How Do We Classify Family? Kinship Terms

*Kinship*: The social system that organizes people in families based on descent and marriage. *Consanguineal Kin*: "blood" relatives. Related through descent....*Parents?* But not step-parents or adoptive parents. *Brothers and Sisters?* Providing one common biological parent. *Uncles and Aunts?* But not all of them. *Affinal Kin*: spouses and in-laws. Related through marriage. Step-Parents, Step-Brothers/Sisters, Some Uncles and Aunts...through marriage only, Wife or Husband, In-Laws *Kinship Diagrams basic symbols:* -Male Triangle, Female Circle, = Married to, Branch - related to -Birth order: left is older, right is younger -often much more consanguineal than affinal represented in the family tree - our most simplistic kinship terminology: don't distinguish between aunts/uncles by blood or marriage...structurally very different...we think of these kin very differently (if divorce, the affinal one is removed from the family, whereas the consanguineal stays) - Tibetans, for example, have distinct terms for uncles/aunts by blood or marriage *"Fictive" Kin*: "godparents", special friends. Related through affection. A term used to refer to individuals that are unrelated by either birth or marriage, who have an emotionally significant relationship with another individual that would take on the characteristics of a family relationship. (adoption.com) God-Parents, "Uncle" Charlie, Adoptive Children, Foreign Exchange "Parents", Sorority "Sisters" and Fraternity "Brothers". *American Field Service* -encourage to bond with exchange family, clear kinship terms with the relationship -just because fictive, it's important because there's life long relationships -major star in indonesia -funny french kid in home movies -still visit them both

Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies

*Margaret Mead (1901 - 1978)* Student of Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict. *Culture and Personality*: How does culture determine personality of the individual? Popular writer; public face of anthropology (1930s-70s). *Perspectives on Sex and Gender, 1930s* Male/female differences are innate (biologically determined). Feminine = passive, responsive, willingness to cherish children. Masculine = dominant, aggressive, less attuned to needs of others. *Mead's Starting Point* If male/female differences are innate, they should be universal (found in all societies) and they should be invariable (remain same over time). *Mead's Comparative Approach* - 3 Societies in PNG *Arapesh*: Men AND women socialized to be co-operative, unaggressive, responsive to needs of others. *Mundugumor*: Men AND women socialized to be ruthless and aggressive. *Tchambuli*: Women socialized to be dominant and in leadership roles. Men socialized to be less responsible and emotionally dependent. *Mead's Conclusion* Human nature is malleable, not biologically determined...not sex-linked, socialized in different ways = shaped through enculturation Differences can be attributed to childhood conditioning (enculturation). "The forces that make children born among the Arapesh grow up into typical Arapesh personalities are entirely social."

Frederick Douglass

1854: It's nurture, not nature. Social environment, not biology, explains unfortunate conditions of blacks and other impoverished peoples. Race science is "anti-Negro propaganda." -can't be biology if there's social -doing this in a time when slavery existed

Polygyny in the USA

1890s: Mormon Church denounced polygyny and Utah outlawed the practice (condition of statehood). 20,000 - 60,000 today people live in polygynous families. - an estimate that varies this widely means secretive - practiced in 4 corners region, mostly Utah - Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints -- polygamous offshoot *Opponents of Polygyny * Lack of female autonomy. Appointed marriages often have large age differences between spouses. "Incestuous" unions (e.g., first cousins). Early (child) marriages = pedophilia (and statutory rape) -Video of FLDS *Supporters of Polygyny* Men are evolutionarily wired for multiple sex partners; have natural urge for diversity of mates. Polygyny keeps sex within marriage, legitimizes offspring. Polygyny offers "sense of security" and "sisterhood" for modern women (+ sharing of domestic duties). - see this in case of Bamanan - Lots of TV shows *Pros and Cons* - Pro: it can and has worked many places, choice and agency - Con: abusive relationships and lack of autonomy

Franz Boas

1908 Study: Anthropometrics shows that Immigrant kids had different skull dimensions than parents. Skull dimensions cannot be immutable marker of race because they adapt to different conditions (diets, habits, environments, etc.) -human biology is plastic, can even adapt in one generation to enviro things

Totemism and the American Expeditionary Force (Ralph Linton)

Are there fundamental differences in mental processes of civilized (modern) and uncivilized (primitive) humans? If so, how can we explain totemic complexes found in contemporary society? -Rainbow division: men of many places Totemic Complex Conditions 1. Division of people into groups conscious of their individuality. - i.e. emblems of various US army regimens 2. Groups possess distinctive names derived from animal, object, or natural phenomenon. - i.e. Rainbow 3. Name used as personal appellation in conversation with outsiders. - "which unit are you?" "I'm a rainbow = 42nd" 4. Symbol of group namesake adorns persons and property; taboo against outsider usage. - equipment and tanks - must be a member or mess them up 5. Reverential attitude toward group namesake and its representation. 6. Belief that group namesake is a guardian and/or provider of omens. Divergences: Absence of marriage regulation. No belief in descent from totem. No rites to propitiate totem. -Totenism in sports: mascots, Uga the bulldog

Georges Louis Leclerc 1707 - 1788

Argued that all humans are the same species. Interested in process, not just classification. *Geography* determines human characteristics. Ideal = central Europe; degeneration from there. -the further from Europe, the less superiority -not hinting at it like Linnaeus, but a matter of fact

Transformative Speech-Acts

An effect (e.g., status transformation) is carried out via an utterance (speech-act). -i.e. defendant + guilty verdict utterance = convict -Naturalization Oath Can be a key component of a rite of passage. Direct and immediate relationship between utterance and effect providing all social and linguistic conventions are met. What happens when things go awry? -i.e. Oath of Office: must say exact phrase -out of synch: had to retake the oath of office or else have constitutional crisis

How Do We Construct Racial Categories?

As a scientific category, race is meaningless. As a social category, race is meaningful. What phenotypes do we use to construct racial categories? Are we consistent in the way that we construct racial categories? *Hypodescent* The principle that a child of mixed descent is automatically classified as a minority. White = the standard in USA. Any variation classified as non-White 50% White + 50% Black = Black. 50% White + 50% Asian = Asian Which Phenotypes Determine Racial Categories in USA? Black = Skin Color. White = Skin Color. Asian = Eye Shape (Epicanthal Fold) + Hair Color (Black). *Social Construction of Race* "Races" defined in "culturally arbitrary, rather than scientific, manner." Why do we use skin color to define some "races" and eye shape/hair color to define other "races"? If the primary basis of race is biological, then why do our ideas about race change over time? Why do our ideas about race vary across cultures? (i.e. in Japan) Why doesn't our perception of a person's race change when his/her phenotypes change? *Important Point* Just because there is no scientific validity to the taxonomy of people grouped as "races" does not mean that "race", as a concept, is meaningless or unimportant. As a social construct race influences how we view ourselves and others. Race is a social construct that can be used as a basis for social stratification. Social Stratification Hierarchical ranking of individuals and groups in any given society. Inequality patterned in such a way that people of one group tend to get more rewards or have higher status than others.

Baseball Magic (Gmelch)

Baseball permeated by rituals, mana (fetishes), magic, taboos, etc. practiced by fans and players alike. Examples: Rally Squirrel: fetish is an object that's supernatural, Black Cat curse of the Chicago, Curse of the Billy Goat: like a magical incantation - may the cubs never win a World Series at Wrigley Field.. Steve Bartman tried to catch the ball *Gmelch's Focus* How do players manage risk and uncertainty associated with pitching, hitting, and fielding? -used the be a baseball player, now an anthropologist *Magic* Supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims. Most prevalent in situations of uncertainly. Reduces stress, creates illusion of control. *Taboos* Strong prohibition against words, objects, actions, discussions, or people. Breaking baseball taboos leads to misfortune. Most are idiosyncratic (held by individuals). Some are part of baseball culture: don't step on white lines, don't mention no-hitter to pitcher. *Fetish* Material objects believed to embody "supernatural" power that can aid or protect the owner. Fetishized objects aid and protect owner. *Routines as Rituals* Comforting, bring sense of order to the world. Help with concentration. Intended to manipulate odds of success. Much more common in situations of uncertainty. Essential Activities Pitching, hitting, and fielding. -most uncertainty: most magic -lots of magic in pitching and hitting, fielding is low level magic Which activities are most closely associated with magic and rituals? Why? -See this in Basketball also

Victor Turner: Rites of Passage

British anthropologist who also taught in USA. Fieldwork in Africa. Focus on ritual as social process. Major figure in Symbolic/Interpretive Anthropology (like Geertz). *Rites of Passage* Rituals associated with transition from one place or stage of life to another. Change in social status affected through ritual. Help create (and maintain) group identity. *Separation* - withdrawal from group symbolically or physically *Liminality* - betwixt and between, neither one status nor the other...cut off from normal social life *Incorporation* - come back with new status *Normal Social Structure: Liminality* Heterogeneity:Homogeneity Inequality:Equality Names:Anonymity Dress Distinctions:Naked or Uniform Dress Conditional Obedience:Total Obedience Moderation:Excess (restraint or indulgence) Avoiding Pain and Suffering:Accepting of Pain and Suffering *Communitas* Collective liminality, an intense feeling of social solidarity among initiates. Communitas acts as a *leveling mechanism* (a custom or social action that operates to reduce differences). *Incorporation* Re-Integrated in Society with a New Status Military Boot Camp: from "recruit" to "soldier". Islamic Pilgrimage: from ordinary Muslim to "Haji"/"Haja" which is name that marks them as having done pilgrimage. Sepik River scarification: from "boy" to "man". (Video: PNG, no age but must do it to become a man, scarred with the mark of the crocodile, which can be deadly, must experience pain to be a man, controlled infection and washing to make the bumps they want) College Graduation: from "student" to "graduate".

Sex / Gender

Expression of masculinity in warfare example: from cross-dressing to Rambo style *Sex*: biological differences that are somewhat unalterable (e.g., Y chromosome in males, different genitalia). Sex = biology. *Gender*: The traits that a society assigns to males and females. Cultural expectations of how males and females should behave. Gender = cultural expectation. *Nature or Nurture:* A Biocultural Perspective Are male/female differences in attitudes, temperaments, and aptitudes biologically determined or socially influenced? How much of the difference is shaped by sex (biology)? How much by gender (culture)? -- BOTH matter *Hormones and Behavior* Testosterone: hormone produced in higher quantities in males than females. Popular Conception: testosterone causes male aggression and the drive to gain social dominance. Reality: testosterone is associated with aggression. But, how do we explain why male aggressions is more common in some societies than others?

Social Control

Formal Means Expressed through law as rules and regulations against deviant behavior. Conducted by governments and organizations using law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and imprisonment. Usually used by governments or other organizations that hold power (ability to exercise will over others) and authority (the socially approved use of power). Explicit "contract": government and people. Informal Means Expressed through custom and norms using informal sanctions such as criticism, disapproval, guilt, shaming, discrimination, etc. Exercised without explicitly stating rules. Includes moral injunctions, gossip & ostracism, satire, education/propaganda, shaming/humiliating. -Tobacco "education campaigns" -old timey advertisements with glamour, and a LOT of doctors -nowadays the campaigns have switched in tone -health, death, PSA's (Video: children incorporated and now intergenerational, pregnancy, etc.) -The Point: people with political/social agendas understand the pwoer the media can exert as an informal means of social control, the intent of the PSAs are not education but behavioral change Threat of Ostracism: Who do you invite to parties, weddings, holiday dinners, and other family events? Who do you invite to join groups with approved membership (e.g., fraternities, sororities, clubs)? Satire Publicly ridiculing powerful or influential people and organizations. Intended effect: erode status. Education (Propaganda) Campaigns Designed to change peoples' behaviors. No formal means are used to enforce compliance. Shaming, humiliation, and fear tactics are common strategies. The Point People with political or social agendas understand the power of the media as an informal means of social control. Intent of much advertising (e.g., public health) is not to educate people, but to shame, scare, or humiliate them to changing behavior.

Racialized Science: A Brief History

Imperialism and colonialism brought Europeans in contact with disparate peoples. -why is there so much difference Scientific/evolutionary attempts to explain human differences (see McGee and Warms) led to a new concept: *discrete racial categories.* Carolus Linnaeus, 1707 - 1778 One of the first attempts to classify the human species. Four basic races of humans based on skin tone, temperament, and behavior. Influence still evident in racial categories used today American (red) Obstinate, merry, and free. Regulated by customs. Asian (sallow) Haughty, avaricious. Governed by opinion. European (white) Sanguine, muscular. Governed by laws. African (black) Crafty, indolent, negligent. Governed by caprice. - Setting up a superiority hierarchy -and that races are associated with characteristics

'Ladies' Behind Bars (Coggeshall)

Individual's gender redefined or reconstructed in prison context. Male and female gender roles emerge in all male society. Males create females (the ones who are weaker), then dominate and subjugate them. *The Gender Hierarchy* in hardcore prison *Real Men* defined by ability to fight to protest/resist sexual advances, ability to keep and protect women. *Ladies/Queens*: Those who come out voluntarily. High status, control over self-concept. *Kids*: Kept in servitude by others. Signifies owner's power and prestige. *Gumps & Punks:* Kept in servitude by gangs, prostituted for money. Gumps "turned out" willingly. Punks "turned out" unwillingly. *Dykes:* female guards. Position of power and authority over men. Defined in non-feminine terms....the only actual women there The caricatures of men/women that are created reflect gender concepts (an extreme version) in society at large. -Richard Speck: murdered 8 women, video of him in jail: breasts, female underwear to keep himself alive and coked up...not only survive but gets provisioned as he reforms himself

Trademarking Racism (Pauline Strong)

Posing as the Ethnic or Racial "Other" - there's a history of caricatures...blackface - minstrel shows, language and body language transformation during the act - with physical transformation, behavior changes ...so why are we OK with sports *Divergent Opinions* *Native American mascots are good*: Honor native cultures, embody team traditions, intensify pleasure of sports. *Native American mascots are bad*: Perpetuate stereotypes. Revive historical oppression. Cause pain to Native Americans. - Video: Pro and Con of Chief Illiniwek --Pro: honor, respect, tradition, heritage of institution, they don't understand portrayal, it's not a slur its a compliment --Con: drums should be like heartbeat not the hollywood sound, they sincerely believe its honoring, but it triggers ridiculous antics that make fun of living peoples...4000 movies have villainous, bloodthirsty savages...saw Chief for the first time and sank in their seats and become invisible - got angry for the hurt *Respect? Honor?* Defenders of mascots claim to be respecting and honoring Native American peoples and traditions. Honoring reality? Or reproducing a stereotype? What is the origin of the costumes, music, and behaviors (tomahawk chop)? *Defending "Redskins"?* - Team owner Dan Snyder says its honorable, NEVER will change...fans love tradition...80% of country think its ok...again honor and respect Term historically linked to "treachery, warfare, displacement, extinction and sexual violence." Must consider the intent of the act ("I do not intend to be disrespectful") but also the effect of the act (disparaging and dehumanizing Native American people and culture). *The "Mascot Slot"* 17th - 19th CE viewed as part of wilderness that needed to be subdued and tamed. Today mascots = totemic images, still connected with nature (not culture). Effect is "objectifying, appropriating and signaling the inferiority of Native American cultures and peoples." - Indian Mascots book by Sherman Alexie -- lived very closely with his Reservation, 1st generation indigenous immigrant, went to all white high school, end up feeling lost squared, Indians have no cultural power and are placed in the past -Mascots get discussed with Indians: perpetuate stereotypes, racial slurs, Cleveland Indians is the worst, depersonalizing, show up to games in stereotypes, maybe not intentional but still stop, nobody feels honored...just hurt -*National Congress of American Indians* made a video about the redsk*n name *A Question* If the very people you claim to be honoring are offended by the way you portray them, why would you continue portraying them that way? - is it a matter of *political correctness* or *common decency*

Case 2: Peasant Tax Resistance

Purpose: to defeat or minimize direct appropriation. Context: Islamic tithe (1/10 of harvest) in Malaysia. From local to regional collection (1960s) with increasing surveillance to force compliance. Refuse to register acreage with tithe agent. Underreport acreage and/or grain yield. Deliver less grain than what one reported. Deliver poorest quality grain or adulterate it with water, stones, etc. (increase weight).

Joking Relationships (A.R Radcliffe Brown)

Radcliffe-Brown's *Functionalism* Departure from evolutionary perspectives ("pure conjecture, why bother"). Rather than theorize how kinship system arose, focus on how it *functions*. Marriage involves kin networks, not just two individuals. - looked at it because of social structure Joking Relationships and Marriage *Disjunction:* Husband is outsider to wife's family. Divergent interests = potential conflict. *Conjunction*: Wife's continuing relationship with own family. Interest in her welfare = potential conflict. Disjunction and Conjunction necessitate conflict avoidance. *Conflict Avoidance: Two Methods* *Formal Relationship*: Extreme mutual respect. Limitation of direct contact. Example: if a man avoids his in-laws he avoids potential conflicts with them...elders *Joking Relationship*: Mutual disrespect. Playful antagonism prevents hostility....younger people - formal and joking relationships are common methods for preempting conflicts *Joking Relationships*: "Permitted Disrespect" Asymmetrical: A required to tease B, B required to take no offense, B not permitted to tease A. Symmetrical: A and B tease each other, neither takes offense. *Who to Respect? Who to Tease?* Formal Relationship: Elder in-laws (wife's father, mother, elder brother/sister). Joking Relationship: Younger/same aged in-laws (wife's siblings). *Theoretical Insight* Joking relationships "are modes of organising a definite and stable system of social behaviour in which conjunctive and disjunctive components . . . are maintained and combined." That is, joking relations have a function.

Samuel Morton 1799 - 1851

Ranked intelligence by measuring skull capacity (size, volume). Implies connection between race and intelligence. Caucasian, Mongoloid, Malaysian, American, Ethiopian -Methodology: Anthropometrics

Race without Color (Jared Diamond)

The Logic Skin color makes it easy to distinguish native Europeans from native sub-Saharan Africans. Therefore, they constitute distinct races that can be named White and Black. Objective Criteria? Why use skin color instead of other visible or non-visible traits? Why not Sickle cell gene (Swedes and Xhosa are same race) or lactase (became unnecessary after weaning...adapted it back if use domestic)? Race without Color Humans have many differences besides skin color, hair texture, and facial features. Many traits reflect evolutionary adaptations to different environments. Natural Selection Which traits are advantageous in a particular physical environment? Cold Environment: short and stout better for heat conservation. Hot Environment: tall and thin better for heat radiation. Advantageous traits passed on because more with that trait survive to reproduce. Skin Color and Evolution Ultra-Violet radiation: Harm: disrupts cell division; causes cancers. Benefit: Vitamin D synthesis. Melanin (pigmentation) blocks UV radiation. Block too little? Cancer risk. Block too much? Vitamin D deficiency -ultra-violet radiation: harms and benefits -Melanin blocks UV radiation -maybe a recent adaptation -Dark skin and light skin develop independently -categorizing is relative and hard to do...makes it more apparent its a continuum...any division for purpose of grouping is arbitrary --shows up in terms of skin light reflectance --variations between and within populations --if we split it up 50:50, how do you group people? Do some and some? Consensus of the Scientific Community People cannot be dividing into discrete "types" based on skin color. Human variation is *clinal* (i.e., variations don't have sharp boundaries). Nobody has discovered a reliable way to distinguish one race from another because there is no such thing as a homogeneous race.

Carleton Coon 1904-1981

The Origin of Races (1962): final attempt (in anth) to identify discrete races and theorize about racial superiority. -pretty well debunked as soon as it came out Hypothesis: each race evolved independently, but then mixing began in 1500s with European expansion. -Wrapping up: lots of attempts to classify humans by race -many rationales used to argue superiority