cultural anthropology midterm short answers

Define and then explain what is meant by a holistic approach to the study of humankind.

A holistic approach to the study of humankind means analyzing humans in both scientific, or biological focus, and humanitarian, or cultural and linguistic terms, and connecting all the findings back together.

Evaluate whether you think anthropology is a science.

According to Oxford dictionary, science is defined as "the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment". Anthropology gathers data and observes humans, including its variety of cultures, to understand humans better. It uses both humanistic and scientific methods to observe and analyze their findings. Therefore, anthropology is a science because it requires skills similar to the general scientific method such as observation and analysis.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of intensive agriculture.

Although societies with intensive agriculture have complex understanding of technology, their social structure results in a difference between the rich and the poor. For the rich, a variety of nutritious food may be accessible thanks to the generally stable food production. On the other hand, the poor cannot afford such diversity and may suffer health problems. Additionally, the fertilizers and chemicals used may degrade the soil and harm the environment.

How are anthropological methods applied outside of academia?

Anthropological methods can be applied in business, medicine, agriculture, and economic development programs. (CH 14)

What ethical standards do Anthropologists use when they are doing fieldwork?

Anthropologists use the AAA code of ethics during fieldwork. The code outlines guidelines for making ethical choices and establish ethics as the highest priority to gain trust from locals.

Discuss how anthropology is unique compared to other disciplines.

Anthropology is a unique discipline because it has a holistic approach that combines science with humanities with a combination of fieldwork, comparison, and cultural relativism.

What are the background preparations for doing fieldwork?

Before doing fieldwork, an anthropologist must secure funding for research projects and propose a project plan. Then, budgeting must be completed before entering the new culture. At the location, a fieldworker must adapt to the environment and establish rapport.

Compare and contrast foragers (from chapter 5) and horticulturalists with respect to technology, subsistence, division of labor, and systems of distribution. Cite specific examples to illustrate your discussion.

Compared to foragers, horticulturalists have extensive knowledge in technology about their environment. Foragers are nomadic while horticulturalists are sedentary, but they both revolve around kin-based communities. However, in foraging, there is flexible division of labor, whereas with horticulture, the roles of men and women are distinct. In both cases, generalized reciprocity is used between families while balanced reciprocity is maintained with strangers or non-family members of the community. GIVE EXAMPLES

Define and then explain in your own words the terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Cite a specific example of each.

Ethnocentrism is judging a culture or tradition by comparing it to an individual's own cultural background. An example of ethnocentrism is thinking it is wrong for people from India to eat with their hands, because that is considered bad manners in Western culture. Cultural relativism is examining a cultural aspect in the context of that culture. For example, eating with your hands in Indian culture is respectful to those who prepared the food and to god because there is a physical connection.

Describe foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture as a subsistence strategy.

Foragers are nomadic and collect wild plant, fruit, and animal foods rather than growing their own food. Horticulture is cultivating crops without fertilizers or irrigation systems, and are sedentary and often practice slash and burn to clear fields. Pastoralism is relying mostly on herding as a food source. Therefore, pastoralists are nomadic and consume high-protein and nutritious foods. Agriculture uses high technology such as fertilizers, irrigation systems, and other methods to optimize harvest. It requires intensive and continuous production on the same land.

Describe the differences between generalized, balanced, and negative reciprocity. Cite specific examples of each of these from your readings, and make comparisons with these forms of economic distribution in our society.

Generalized reciprocity does not keep records and no immediate return of favor is expected, while in a balanced reciprocity, gifts and favors are expected to be returned with something of equal value in a reasonable time period. In negative reciprocity, one party receives more than it gives. (P113-114)

What is the difference between generalized and balanced reciprocity?

Generalized reciprocity is between families or parties with close relationships that has stopped keeping track of favors and returns, while balanced reciprocity is used amongst less intimate relationships where gifts or favors of equal value are expected within a reasonable time period.

Cultural relativism is an important concept in anthropology. What are the potential problems that may occur if it is taken too literally?

Having a perspective that is cultural relativism does not necessarily mean that an individual must personally and strictly follow the habits of the culture. It is just a method to become aware and respect other cultures.

Describe the features of horticultural societies, and cite specific examples showing how the Yanomamo fit these features.

Horticulturalists rely on crop production without fertilizers or irrigation systems. The Yanomamo survive mostly on their garden and supplement their food intake by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants and insects. Horticulturalists lead a sedentary lifestyle, and the Yanomamo stay in the same villages for decades.

How is human language different from the communication system of wild chimpanzees?

Human language covers displacement, or the concept of distant time and place, as well as syntax and ever-changing symbols such as silent language. On the other hand, animals have limited vocal signals and have closed system calls so that there are limited creation of symbols and no displacement.

Identify the strategies common to foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture.

In all methods, advanced knowledge in the environment you work with is essential, and the community members must rely on each other to supplement for materials or tasks that they cannot obtain or complete on their own.

Compare and contrast foraging, horticultural, pastoral, and agricultural subsistence strategies.

In all methods, advanced knowledge in the environment you work with is essential, and the community members must rely on each other to supplement for materials or tasks that they cannot obtain or complete on their own. However, foraging and pastoralism supports nomadic lifestyles while horticulture and agriculture are sedentary.

Explain the anthropological concept of culture.

In anthropology, culture is an abstract idea that encompasses the cognitive process, behavior, and material creations expressed through language of the culture being described. It is a generalization because even in a small community, its cultural tradition may just be a majority behavior that is not necessarily accepted by everyone in that community.

Define the following data gathering methods, and give an example when you might use one approach over another when conducting anthropological fieldwork: formal interviews, informal interview, questionnaire, photography, genealogical method, life history method, and participant observation.

In formal interviews, scripted questions planned ahead of time are asked to the informants, thus allowing easy comparison between interviews. However, the questions asked may not be the most important or relevant to the informant's culture, and the informant may edit his/her respond to reflect ideal culture. Often employed after several informal interviews, when the fieldworker has some familiarity with the culture. In informal interviews, informants are asked open-ended questions and can talk about what aspect about their culture they consider important. The results may reflect actual culture rather than ideal because the interview is given in a natural situation, rather than a controlled or structured one in formal interviews. However, as a result, data is hard to compare with each other. This method may be used at the beginning of a fieldwork to gather relevant data. Questionnaires gather data from individuals, similar to a formal interview, because the questions are structured and the responses are comparable. It may be used to gather a large amount of data in a short period of time. Photography is a way to describe a culture in a nonverbal method. It can be easily understood universally and is an effective way to capture a cultural moment. It may be used at a specific event or during daily life to share the culture with others around the world or to ask informants questions that cannot be explained easily in words. Genealogical method is the ethnographic method of using symbols and diagrams to record information about family relationships. It is used when field ethnography focuses on kinship and the observed society revolves around kinship. Life History method is the ethnographic method of using extensive interviews about individuals' memories of their culture as they grew up to record data. This is used to gather data on events that had happened before the fieldworker's visit. Participant Observation is learning about culture and living in it as the fieldworker observes others around him/her through the eyes of the local. This is used at all times in fieldwork to provide data that is as objective as possible.

What is the importance and limitations of participant observation in the field?

Participant observation is important because it provides an anthropological perspective of a culture and records events as if you were a member. However, gender or ethical issues may limit one's accessibility to daily life in the native community, and it is impossible to record data with no subjectivity.

Describe the features of pastoralists, and show how the Nuer fit this designation.

Pastoralists herd animals as the main food source, therefore they are nomadic and have few possessions. Their foods are generally high in nutrition, as they can obtain protein through animal products. The Nuer from southern Sudan herd and cultivate gardens. They live in large populations and consumed milk and other dairy products, as well as meat and blood from animals.

Why do anthropologists argue that race is a social construct and there are no biological races in the human species?

Race is a social construct and there are no biological races in humans because culture is the primary adaptive mechanism in humans rather than biological adaptations. Furthermore, culture is ever-changing and therefore, people can't be labeled as one culture. Also, the idea of race disregards the diversity within each regional group.

What is the difference between reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange?

Reciprocity is trade between people of equal social status. On the other hand, redistribution and market exchange are more common in large, state-organized communities. Redistribution collects taxes or tributes from members and allocates that money towards maintaining that government and offering aid to the community. Market exchange, similar to reciprocity, is exchanging items and services, but with currency.

What is silent language?

Silent language is nonverbal communication including kinesics, proxemics, cultural time, words and its intended meaning, silence, and material culture. Oftentimes, one silent language can mean different intentions in different cultures.

Discuss the pros and cons of a world wide adoption of sustainable agriculture.

Some advantages to world wide adoption of sustainable agriculture is minimal chemical use can reduce pollution and soil erosion with better nutrition results. However, it may result in lower yields, which is less profitable to producers and expensive to consumers.

What is the adaptive strategy of technology?

The adaptive strategy of technology means technology learned in one field can be transferred to other situations. This can be true for the four subsistence strategies, where knowledge from one method may apply to another.

What are the economic systems associated with the evolutionary-ecological model?

The evolutionary-ecological model is associated with both cultural evolution and cultural ecology. Economics relates to how resources are used to produce food and items, and the analysis, such as the division of labor and technology, describes evolutionary-ecological models.

What are the four fields of anthropology, and what kinds of things do anthropologists working in these areas study?

The four fields of anthropology are cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and biological anthropology. Cultural anthropology is based on ethnographic and ethnological research, where anthropologists rely on fieldwork and compare different cultures. In archaeology, anthropologists study the remains of previous cultures, such as artifacts, features, ecofacts, and sites. Linguistics include descriptive linguistics that focuses on the mechanics of language, and historical linguistics, that studies the history and development of a language. Finally, biological anthropology studies humans as biological species.

What are the models of cultural evolution and cultural ecology?

The model of cultural evolution is the development of society's cultural change over time, whereas cultural ecology is how culture adapts to the environment.

Compare and contrast the social, political, and economic systems of bands and tribes.

Tribes value equal and shared opportunity and wealth for everyone in the group. It is based on horticultural and pastoral economies and grouped together by blood ties. Bands are common in foragers, but not in pastoralists. They also have egalitarian social structures and are tied together by kinship.

How can an understanding of the culture concept be useful in solving problems in business, health care, and development programs?

Understanding of the culture concept allows narrowing down targets and audience group and identifying their specific need for business, health care, and development programs.