Delta Module 1 Terminology -duplicate
false cognates
pairs of words that seem to be cognates because of similar sounds and meaning, but actually have different etymologies. Ex. to have (English with proto-Germanic origin) haber (Spanish with Latin origin)
top-down processing
using [either pre-existing] knowledge/information/experience [or of discourse or topic/culture/social norms] to understand (reading/listening) texts [Cambridge] - used to activate schemata - differentiated from bottom-up processing - most researchers regard reading/listening as a combination of bottom-up processing and this Ex. Using visuals, prediction or brainstorming activities (before reading a text about New York, the learner creates a mental picture of related ideas such as yellow cabs, The Statue of Liberty and crowds of people)
conjunction (aka linker)
a part of speech that connects words, sentences, phrases, or clauses
cohesion
- the unifying of individual sentences or utterances into a connected text through use of grammatical or lexical devices such as referencing, linkers and lexical chains e.g. John felt ill *so he* took the day off. *As a result he* lost a *day's* pay. [Cambridge] - the use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text, either spoken or written. These include: reference words e.g. this, the, it; linkers, e.g. However and topic-related lexis. [Cambridge]
fortis
unvoiced consonants (produced with a strong breath force) Ex. /k/; /p/
schema (plural = schemata)
1. the way knowledge about a topic is represented and organized in the mind. Ex. At check-in they told me my flight had boarded. (a listener would need air travel knowledge to understand) 2. the temporary mental picture a reader/listener contructs when processing a text. Ex. the sequence of main events in a story - crucial in top-down comprehension
affricate
a consonant sound in which the airflow is initially stopped but is then released slowly with friction [Cambridge] Ex. English has two: /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
plosive (stops)
a consonant speech sound that is produced by stopping the airflow completely using the lips, teeth, or palate, followed by a sudden release/explosion of the built up air pressure Ex. the basic ones in English are t, k, and p (voiceless) and d, g, and b (voiced).
corpus (plural = corpora)
a database of real language samples (either spoken or written texts) stored on a computer and which can be used for investigating language use and structure [Cambridge] Ex. COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English); BNC (British National Corpus)
subordinating conjunction (aka subordinators)
a conjunction that joins an independent (main) clause and a dependent (subordinating) clause - also introduces adverb clauses - unlike coordinating conjunctions, they do not join two clauses of equal status Ex. after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while
assimilation
a feature of connected speech when a sound changes to another sound because of a neighboring sound [Cambridge] - /t/, /d/ and /n/ at the end of words often change to the place of articulation of the consonant at the beginning of the next word Ex. handbag /hæmbæɡ/; green park /griːmpɑːrk/; ten boys /tembɔɪz/; bad guy /bæg gaɪ/; this shop /ðIʃ ʃɒp/
curriculum
a general statement of educational beliefs, values, theory and objectives concerned with the planning, implementation, evaluation, management and administration of education programs - larger and more general than a syllabus
input hypothesis (aka the monitor model)
a group of five hypotheses of SLA developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s: 1. the input hypothesis 2. the acquisition-learning hypothesis 3. the monitor hypothesis 4. the natural order hypothesis 5. the affective filter hypothesis
lexical set
a group of words that share a meaning relationship because they relate to a particular topic or situation Ex. school: classroom, whiteboard, teacher, students
lingua franca
a language that is adopted and used widely as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different Ex. Latin during the Middle Ages in the Roman empire
syllabus
a long-term overview and item-by-item description of the teaching content of a course - one way the beliefs, values and theories of a curriculum are operationalized - its design involves selecting and grading content - British linguist, Alan Waters, criticized these by saying their linear, segmental and pre-determined nature doesn't reflect the holistic, developmental and unpredictable nature of language learning.
morpheme
a meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided Ex. mean, ing and ful are three examples.
compound word
a new word created by combining two or more words [Cambridge] Ex. seashore; website; moonlight; grandmother
countable noun
a noun that can be counted - has both singular and plural forms - in the singular, it can be preceded by 'a' or 'an' - all nouns in English have the potential to be this: snow the stuff and snow the event (Thornbury) Ex. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries
allophone
a phonetic / sound / pronunciation variation of a single phoneme [Cambridge] - the difference in pronunciation does not affect meaning - determined by position in a word - the same phoneme may be aspirated / unaspirated / released / unreleased - all phonemes have this Ex. the aspirated 'k' in kit and the unaspirated 'k' in skit are both examples for the phoneme /k/; /p/ of pin and the /p/ of spin; the /l/ at the beginning of little and the /l/ at the end /.
glottal stop
a plosive produced by a complete block of airflow in the thrat that blocks the previous sound, then is suddenly released with the onset of the following sound. Can also come at the end of a word. The IPA symbol is /ʔ/. Ex. uh-oh; bʌʔɜː/(butter); What?/wɒʔ/
lexical chain
a sequence of related words in writing, spanning short (adjacent words or sentences) or long distances (entire text) Ex. gets home, eats dinner, goes to bed; (time expressions) 5:30pm, 6:00pm, 9:00pm
approach
a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, language learning and teaching (Edward Anthony 1963) - refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching (Richards and Rogers 2001) - it is the source of the way things are done in the classroom and provides reasons for doing them
diphthong
a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and glides toward another Ex. coin /ɔɪ/; loud /aʊ/
consonant
a sound in which the air flow is restricted or blocked and then released -can be combined with a vowel to form a syllable - /w/ and /j/ are exceptions and are considered semi-vowels Ex. m, t, k
interjection
a sound, word or phrase used to express a strong feeling Ex. tsk-tsk; ugh; phew; Wow!; No way!
text-based syllabus
a syllabus based around the discourse needs of the learners - associated with genre-driven approaches to teaching
situational syllabus
a syllabus based on contexts the learner is likely to encounter and language needed to make that encounter successful Ex. shopping for groceries, renting an apartment, visiting the doctor etc.
negotiated (process) syllabus
a syllabus in which content and direction of the program are jointly and continuously decided between the learners and teacher
task-based syllabus
a syllabus in which instruction is programmed around a series of tasks such as planning an excursion or designing a logo
thematic syllabus
a syllabus organized around a series of topics like weather, family, food and drink
functional syllabus
a syllabus organized around items like requesting, narrating, apologizing, giving advice etc.
structural syllabus
a syllabus which is based around a series of grammatical structures sequenced according to assumed level of complexity [Cambridge] - most coursebooks are still organized this way - form-based legacy of Audio-lingualism Ex. verb 'to be' -> present simple -> present continuous [Cambridge]
proficiency test
a test taken to assess candidates' language ability *independently/regardless of any course of study* [Cambridge] used as an indicator of whether a learner is capable of carrying out a certain job or is able to participate in a (i.e. university) course of study. Ex. IELTS, TOEFL [Cambridge]
direct test
a test that requires a learner to perform the actual skill, often an authentic, real-life activity, that is being measured - contrasts with indirect test - often integrative, which means that the student has to apply several skills at once. Ex. role playing a job interview; writing a letter of complaint; reading and completing an application form [Cambridge]
indirect test
a test where the tasks do not reflect real language use, and learners' abilities are inferred [Cambridge] - assesses knowledge about a subject without authentic application or requiring the student to demonstrate the ability to use it -contrasts with direct test Ex. multiple choice questions; cloze items; paraphrasing; sentence re-ordering; matching words with their vowel sounds
genre
a type of text distinguished by specific features [Cambridge] - ...features you would expect to find in a particular place, with particular people, in a particular context, using a particular channel (phone, email, face-to-face) to achieve a particular result. - - characterized by specific choices about style, manner, tone, quantity, volume, directness, choice of words, formality, type of content etc. - "any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and recognized by members of a particular culture or sub-culture" (Thornbury) Ex. advertisement, poem, anecdotes, magazine articles, informal telephone conversations, academic lectures, jokes, military orders
transitive verb
a verb that can take a direct object - the action is done to someone or something - most verbs are this type Ex. throw, eat, read
stative verb
a verb which can be used to describe a condition, state, belief, emotion, possession or sense [Cambridge] - not normally used in the continuous tense - differentiated from dynamic/action verbs Ex. I like it. I smell bread. I doubt it.
intransitive verb
a verb which does not take an object [Cambridge] Ex. He runs everyday [Cambridge] Ex. die, arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, snore
vowel
a voiced sound produced with no closure or friction in the vocal tract so there is no restriction to the flow of air from the lungs. Ex. a e i o u
monophthong
a vowel that has a single perceived auditory quality Ex. /e/
anaphoric reference
a word or phrase that refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text (written or spoken)...it makes a text cohesive... the second word or phrase is different in some way from the first [Cambridge] - uses pronouns to refer back to things already mentioned - contrasts with cataphoric reference Ex. 'Where are my keys?' 'You left *them* on the kitchen table.' Them refers back to keys in the first utterance. [Cambridge] Ex. I saw Pema on Friday. *She* looked great.
complement
a word or words necessary to complete the meaning of an expression - often renames or describes the subject - most phrases and clauses include this - in clauses with linking verbs (be, seem, become), when these follow the verb and add information about the subject, it is a subject ___________________: Ex. Sheila is *a nurse*. John is *weak*. When it adds more information about an object it's called an object ____________________: Ex. He makes *me very angry*. (adding information about me)
homonym
a word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but different a meaning Ex. trunk - elephant or car
synonym
a word that means nearly the same as another word in the same language Ex. buy/purchase; big/large
coordinating conjunction
a word which connects / links (independent) clauses words / phrases of equal importance/status/rank / have the same grammatical structure [Cambridge] - usually no comma after - differentiated from subordinating conjunction - common in spoken English Ex. (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
homophone
a word which has the same pronunciation as another word but a different spelling and meaning [Cambridge] Ex. sea and see; steak and stake
antonym
a word which is opposite in meaning to another one [Cambrige] Ex. big-small; arrive-leave; bad-good; strong-weak; optimist-pessimist
adjunct
an adverbial / word or phrase used to amplify or modify the meaning of another word or words in a sentence - It's not essential to complete the verb like a complement is - it just adds extra information. Ex. We usually go away *in the spring*.
conjunct (aka linker)
an adverbial that adds information to the sentence and connects the sentence with previous parts of the discourse or connects clauses within a sentence. Four types: 1. *additive*: also; too; as well; moreover; for example; likewise; in addition 2. *adversative*: but, though, however, on the other hand, in fact, alternatively; on the contrary 3. *causal*: this is why, so, therefore, as a result 4.*temporal*: first, next, then, finally, in the meantime, ever since differentiated from conjunction, which connects units within a sentence.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
an area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by someone with a skill set higher than that of the learner [Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, 1896-1934] Vygotsky's words: "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving and adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers"
procedure
an ordered sequence of techniques. Can be described as "First...then..." Smaller than a method, bigger than a technique. Ex. steps of running dictation
method
an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based on an approach (Edward Anthony 1963) - includes decision about types of activities, procedures, techniques, roles of T and S, kinds of material and syllabus model Ex. the direct method, Audio-lingualism, total physical response, community language learning, suggestopedia; the Silent Way
tone unit (aka tone group)
any collection of sounds or words with a nucleus (prominent syllable where there is a pitch change) - it defines where one pitch pattern ends and the next begins - the minimal unit which can carry intonation - it can be one syllable long, but usually extends over a few syllables Ex. YES, thank you; WONderful; MY umbrella.
critical period hypothesis
argues that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skills at specific times in life - suggests that children not given access to language in infancy and early childhood will never acquire language
bottom-up processing
attending to the individual elements (ex. knowledge of words and grammar) in order to comprehend a whole text Ex. using understanding of affixation to guess meaning
monitor hypothesis
claims that consciously learned language can only be used to monitor language output; it can never be the source of spontaneous speech [Krashen]
contrastive analysis hypothesis
claims that errors are the result of transfer from the learners' first language [Robert Lado 1957] - note: many studies show this isn't true and that errors are better explained in terms of the way language develops naturally irrespective of L1 - in the classroom, this can be used to raise awareness of the differences and similarities between the L1 and L2 and to correct fossilized language Ex. Juan it saw (Spanish speaker translating Juan lo vio)
natural order hypothesis
claims that language is acquired in a particular order, and that this order does not change between learners, and is not affected by explicit instruction [Krashen]
input hypothesis
claims that learners progress in their knowledge of the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. With this level of input, "i+1", "i" is the learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language acquisition [Krashen, 70s and 80s] Note: this is also the name of a group of five SLA hypotheses by Krashen, aka the monitor model
affective filter hypothesis
claims that learners' ability to acquire language is constrained if they are experiencing negative emotions such as fear or embarrassment [Krashen]
acquisition-learning hypothesis
claims that there is a strict separation between acquisition (a purely subconscious process) and learning (a conscious process) and that improvement in language ability is only dependent upon acquisition and never on learning [Krashen]
lexical phrases (aka language chunks or chunks)
collocational combinations of words in larger multi-word units (like pre-fabricated building units) that behave as if they were single words - many have idiomatic meanings - sometimes these are phrasal verbs Ex. in the black; by the way; on the other hand; an only child; can't afford to; I'll see what I can do
correlative conjunctions
conjunctions that work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. Ex. *either...or* - You either pay the farmer now or the doctor later. *not only...but (also)* - He's not only handsome, but also kind. *whether...or* - Only you can decide whether you stay or you go.
deictic (noun = deixis)
describes words or expressions whose meaning is dependent on the context in which they are used or that refer directly to people, things or activities in the immediate environment Ex. here, you, me, that one there, or next Tuesday
situational presentation
language is introduced via a context that the teacher has created - used in the oral approach and situational language teaching Ex. drawings or photos for "used to"
pitch
the degree of highness or lowness of a tone Ex. (high) sirens or train whistles; (low) fog horn
stress
the emphasis given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence - typically signaled by increased loudness and vowel length, more energy, full, purer articulation of the vowel, changes (often higher) in pitch and larger jaw, lip and facial movements Ex. ˌsɪnguˈ*lar*ity
larynx
the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box
uncountable noun
refers to abstract ideas or qualities, or physical objects that are too small or too amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc.) - used with a singular verb - usually does not have a plural form - all nouns in English have the potential to be this (snow the stuff and snow the event) Ex. water, music, information, love
ellipsis
the omission in speaking or writing of individual words, or parts of a sentence, which are not needed to convey the meaning. For example, it can be used to avoid repetition. [Cambridge] - a cohesive device used when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated Ex. 'Got a pen?' 'Yes, I have.' [Cambridge] Ex. A: Where are you going? B: To dance.
elision
the omission of a sound or syllable in connected speech - often happens to /t/ and /d/ in English, particularly when they are between two consonants Ex. first floor /fɜrs flɔr/; I don't know /ai dəʊ 'nəʊ/
concordance
the output of a corpus in the form of an index of all instances of the search word along with their contexts and information about the frequency and location of each
glottis
the part of the larynx consisting of the vocal cords and the slitlike opening between them - it affects voice modulation through expansion or contraction
articulators
the parts of the mouth and throat used to make speech sounds Ex. lips, tongue, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, velum and vocal cords
washback (aka backwash)
the positive or negative impact of a test on classroom teaching [Cambridge]
intonation
the rise and fall pattern of pitch variation in speaking. Can indicate: *the attitudes and emotions of the speaker *signal the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of questions *signal whether or not a point is finished *contrast new information with that already known. Ex. high when frightened; ending yes/no questions high; ending wh- questions low; falling tone at end of statement = finished/rising=will continue
syntax
the rules, patterns and principles that govern the structure and word order of well-formed sentences Ex. In English, S-V-O (Subject-Verb-Object)
phoneme
the smallest unit of sound that can differentiate the meaning between two words - there are 44 in RP (received pronunciation) Ex. 'mine' changes to 'pine' when the /m/ is changed to /p/
liaison
the smooth linking or joining together of words in connected speech... concerned with the way sounds are fused together at word boundaries [Underhill] - often used for vowel + vowel linking whereas catenation is used for consonant + vowel linking - intrusive sounds are often inserted such as /w/, /j/ or (British) /r/ Ex. you are (ju wɑr/); he is /hiː jɪz/; (British) law and order /lɔː r ən ɔːdə/
discourse analysis
the study and analysis of the structures, features, purposes and uses of whole texts (beyond the sentence level)
pragmatics
the study of how language is used in context to express things like politeness, humor, requests, directness and deference and of how the literal and semantic meanings don't match Ex. "Is that your dog?" can express admiration or be a request to get it out of the speaker's garden Ex. "Thank you for not smoking" looks like gratitude but is actually a request/prohibition
morphology
the study of the formation and structure of words (stems, roots, prefixes, suffixes)
etymology
the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history
phonetics
the study of the production and perception of sounds of human speech in any language (often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken)
paralinguistics
the study of the vocal and physical features of communication that take place outside of normal (lexical and grammatical) systems of communication Ex. *vocal*: whispering, breathy or nasal voices, tone *physical*: facial expressions (smiling to welcome, raising eyebrows to show surprise, biting lip to indicate uncertainty); gestures (shrug shoulders to show I don't care); waving hello or a 'go away' gesture *proximity* (closeness can indicate intention, intimacy or threat) *posture* (hanging head = mood) *echoing* (two people keen to agree adopting the same posture)
phonology (aka phonemics)
the systematic organization, patterns and interpretation of sounds in a particular language - deals with phonemes (smallest unit of sound)
universal grammar
the theory which claims that every speaker of a language knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within set limits [Cambridge] - Noam Chomsky adopted this term to argue that humans are genetically programmed with an innate language learning faculty and that all languages share certain fundamental principles
lexical cohesion
the ties created between words and phrases that contribute to the continuity of meaning. Ex. direct repetition; word families; collocations; synonyms; antonyms; lexical chains; lists; substitution
grammatical cohesion
the ties created with structural content that contribute to the continuity of meaning Ex. pronouns; anaphoric and cataphoric references; articles, substitution (that long =30 years); ellipsis of clause elements; conjuncts; comparatives; tense agreement
use
the typical contexts, conversations and situations in which target language might be utilized
back-channel
the verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc. [Cambridge] Ex. really, uh-huh, yeah [Cambridge]
discourse
the way (a process) that spoken or written text (a product) is used for communicative effect in real world situations - "any connected piece of speaking or writing" (Thornbury)
cognates
two words which have the same (or similar) form and meaning in two different languages [Cambridge] - can help Ls because the meaning is clear Ex. telephone (English) and teléfono (Spanish)
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
using the medium of English to teach a subject such as geography, natural science or history, to learners whose first language is not English [Cambridge] - term coined in 1994 by David Marsh - benefits: cultural awareness, internationalization, language competence, preparation for both study and working life, increased motivation - issues: a dearth of materials; lack of programs that prepare teachers to teach both language and a subject; questions remain about how theory translates into classroom practice
lenis
voiced consonants (produced with a weaker breath force) Ex. /g/ /b/
coherence
what makes a text make overall sense - achieved through: -the use of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a logical tense structure, as well as presuppositions and implications connected to general world knowledge - lexical clues and implicit logical connections bind texts. The logical connections don't necessarily have explicit conjuncts but have same functions: - additive: following sentences give details or specifics about previous sentences (movement from general to specific) - adversative: show contrasts (even if linkers like "however" aren't present) - causal: the subsequent sentence provides a reason for the situation or request in the first - temporal: chronological order of events can be implied rather than explicit - 'theme and rheme' (topic and comment) signal the evolving argument of a text. Topic is brief launch pad that occurs at the beginning of a clause and the comment is new, longer information that occurs at the end of a clause. - nominalization via the use of key words like process, situation, problem, answer or way
false friends
words in two different languages that look or sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning Ex. embarrassed (=shame in English) and embarazada (=pregnant in Spanish); sensible (=reasonable in English but sensitive in Spanish)
metalanguage
words used to talk about or describe language Ex. gerund; noun; adverb