DEP 3305 Final

Biological Treatments for Depression

-Antidepressant medication (address the neuroendocrine problem if one exists). -Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs).

Motivational Symptoms of Depression

-Apathy -Boredom

Chronosystem

-Sociohistorical changes that influence the other systems. -Environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child's life.

Status Offense v. Criminal Offense

-Status: NONcriminal act that is considered a law violation. -Criminal: A harmful act punishable by law.

Metalizing

-The ability to understand someone else's mental state.

Perspective Taking

-The ability to understand the thoughts/feelings of others. -Used as a bullying tactic. -i.e., Adolescents know what to say to upset someone.

Limbic System

-The area of the brain responsible for emotional reactions as well as reward/pleasure sensation, instinct, & drive. -Involved in memory formation. *Amygdala is assoc. w/ experiencing/processing emotions* *Dopamine (reward) plays a big role in amygdala/limbic system*

Problem Behavior Syndrome

The covariation among various types of externalizing disorders believed to result from an underlying trait of unconventionality.

The Forgotten Half

Those who do not attend college after high school.

Bystanders

Those who witness bullying instances.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

(Externalizing Problem) -A disorder of adulthood characterized by antisocial behavior and persistent disregard for the rules of society & the rights of others. -Individuals who have been diagnosed with conduct disorder and who persist in their antisocial behavior after age 18. -Some individuals with this disorder are psychopaths.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

(Externalizing Problem) -A disorder of childhood and adolescence characterized by excessive anger, spite, and stubbornness (not necessarily aggressive)

Conduct Disorder

(Externalizing Problem) -A repetitive and persistent pattern of antisocial behaviors in which the rights of others or age appropriate social norms are violated and results in problems at school or work, or in relationships with others. -6%-16% of adolescent males. -2%-9% of adolescent females. -Stable b/w childhood & adol.

Overt Antisocial Behavior

(Externalizing Problem) -A type of antisocial behavior characterized by aggression toward others. -First presents itself as fighting/bullying, escalates to things like gang fighting, ultimately to violent criminal activity.

Covert Antisocial Behavior

(Externalizing Problem) -A type of antisocial behavior characterized by misdeeds that are not always detected by others, such as lying or stealing. -Begins as lying or shoplifting, progresses to property damage (vandalism), and then to more serious property crimes, such as burglary.

Authority Conflicts

(Externalizing Problem) -A type of antisocial behavior characterized by stubbornness and rebelliousness. -Begins as stubborn behavior but escalates into defiance and disobedience, and then progresses to more serious signs of problems with authority. -i.e., truancy, running away from home.

Callous-Unemotional (CU) Traits

(Externalizing Problem) A cluster of traits as characteristic of psychopathic individuals, which includes a lack of empathy and indifference toward the feelings of others.

Psychopaths

(Externalizing Problem) Individuals who are not only antisocial but also manipulative, superficially charming, impulsive, and indifferent to the feelings of others.

Depression

(Internalizing Problem) -A psychological disturbance characterized by low self-esteem, decreased motivation, sadness, and difficulty in finding pleasure in formerly pleasurable activities.

First Phase (3 "Phases" of Romance)

-(11-13 yrs) -Socialize with romantic partners. -Focus on learning about themselves. -Relationships are short. -Can be a means of elevating social status.

Second Phase (3 "Phases" of Romance)

-(14-16 yrs) -Move toward more meaningful dyadic relationships. -Still in a group context. -More emotionally involved (less about status). -Slightly longer in duration (~6 months).

Crystallization (Super's Theory)

-(14-18 y.o) Move beyond fantasizing and consider how their personality & ability match with career. -Info gathering. -Identity development happens in conjunction with this. -Solidifying who they are and want to be.

Third Phase (3 "Phases" of Romance)

-(17-18 yrs) -Commitment, sharing, and togetherness. -Seek intimacy and compatibility. -Spend more time alone. -Long term discussions and goals. -Last longer (+ 1 year).

Specification (Super's Theory)

-(18-21 y.o) Choices become more focused. -Actual careers rather than just general fields (pediatrician v doctor). -Begin to pursue education for this.

Implementation (Super's Theory)

-(21-24 y.o) Completing the education or training required. -May have to reconcile what they want to do with what is available. -i.e., understanding what the availability of the job you trained for (?).

Stabilization (Super's Theory)

-(25-35 y.o) Establish themselves in a career.

Consolidation (Super's Theory)

-(35+ y.o) Focus on advancement, building expertise, and growing withing the current occupation.

Withdrawn-Rejected

-10-15% of rejected children. -Wary, timid, socially awk. -Often anxious. -WANT to engage with peers but lack the social skills to do so :( -NOT ALL socially withdrawn adolescents are rejected. -A single, high-quality friendship can buffer negative outcomes associated with withdrawal. -At-risk for anxiety, depression, loneliness. -Poor social competence & social adjustment.

Aggressive (Rejected)

-40% to 50% of rejected children. -Poor emotion regulation. -Difficult to be around & break rules. -Ineffectual aggressors (define), often reacting. -Poor social information processing ability (define). -Hostile attribution biases (define). -Difficulty finding constructive solutions to difficult situations. -Most at-risk (academic difficulty, more likely to drop out/be held-back, aggression, acting out, loneliness, anxiety, & depression).

"Feedback Loop"

-A cycle through which two or more bodily functions respond to and regulate each other, such as that formed by the hypothalamus, pituitary, and the gonads. -How your body knows how much of each hormone to produce.

Phase Preference Delay

-A shift in biorhythms during which adolescents become more alert later in the day and begin to fall asleep later.

Social Control Theory

-A theory of delinquency that links deviance with the absence of bonds to society's main institutions. -i.e., such as family, school, or workplace.

Abstract Thinking

-Abstract concepts: things you cannot see, hear, touch, or experience. -Begin to be able to reason and debate about abstract ideas and concepts. -i.e., time, good v. evil debate, religion, identity.

False Self

-Acting in a way that is knowingly inauthentic. -Common in dating situations. -More common with parents than with friends. -May be associated with lower self-esteem and lower social support. -Many adolescents endorse this as an acceptable strategy when trying to impress.

Identity v. Role Confusion

-Adolescence to early adulthood. -Stage 5 of Erikson's Psychosocial stages. -Explore their identity and develop a stable coherent identity or else end up with role confusion. -In other words, adolescent must discover identity to move on.

Adolescent Limited vs Life Course Persistent Delinquency

-Adolescent limited children exhibit antisocial behavior ONLY during adolescence, non violent in nature (within groups with peers). -Life course persistent children begin to behave antisocially early in childhood and continue into adulthood, more likely to commit crimes alone, much smaller percentage of adolescents.

Mood Changes During Puberty

-Adolescent mood fluctuates more throughout the day than it does for adults. -NOT solely due to hormones! -Greater impact on mood change and hormonal increases at the onset of puberty. -May increase sensitivity to environmental changes.

Alcohol Use and Abuse During Adolescence

-Alcohol is the most commonly used and abused substance (prevalence and recency of use), followed by marijuana and tobacco. -Moderate alcohol use during adolescence does not have negative long-term effects. -Adolescents that are frequent users of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs score lower on measures of psychological adjustment as teens & more likely to have been maladjusted as children. -Drug/Alc abuse during adol. is often a symptom of prior psychological disturbance. -More likely to experience problems at school, suffer from psych. distress & depression, become involved in dangerous or deviant activities (crime, delinquency, truancy), engage in unprotected sex.

Physical Risks/Signs Associated with Eating Disorders

-Amenorrhea (ceasing of menstruation). -Brittle hair & nails. -Loss of bone density. -Dehydration. -Lanugo (growth of fine body hair). -Low blood pressure, sensitivity to cold (especially in extremities). -Consequences of purging: dental & gum problems, esophageal/intestinal problems. !!EATING DISORDERS HAVE THE HIGHEST MORTALITY RATE OF ANY OTHER PSYCH. DISORDER (~10%)!!

Hostile Attribution Bias

The tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile.

3 Protective Factors Discovered by the Kauai Study

-At least average intelligence or socially desirable traits. ----Less likely to develop problems. -Relationships that encourage initiative and autonomy. -External support system (church, youth group, sports team, school groups).

Divided Attention

-Attending to more than one thing at once.

Selective Attention

-Attending to one thing while ignoring another.

Metaphors

-Begin to understand that metaphors have multiple meanings. -A figure of speech, a word/phrase applied to an object/action that is not literally applicable.

Optimistic Bias

-Belief that the negative consequences of risky behavior are more likely to happen to others than to you. -More pronounced during adolescence than during adulthood (but does not disappear in adulthood).

Factors Leading to Sleep Onset Initiation

-Body temp lowers -Melatonin rises

Frontal Cortex

-Brain region responsible for: motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgement, impulse control, and social/sexual behavior.

The Bioecological Model

-Bronfenbrenner's approach, in which the individual develops within and is affected by a set of nested environments, from the family to the entire culture.

Sarcasm

-Can begin to understand/pick up on/appreciate sarcastic humor during adolescence. -Understanding that the context and tone with which something is said impacts the meaning. -Adolescents may use as a coping strategy.

Consequences of Phase Preference Delay

-Causes social jet lag. -Weekend comes, they compensate by sleeping more.

Friendships During Emerging Adulthood

-Change in both structure and function. -Function: fill a central role of social support during this period. Provide more functional and instrumental support than in previous developmental period. Emotional support. -Structure: more cross-gender friendships than during adolescence.

Adult Plasticity

-Changes in brain circuit during adulthood, after the brain matures. -Brain is much less adaptable/amenable to experiences. -Not as sensitive to input. -Can still learn new things, but it's a lot harder and less easily molded. -Ways adults learn is different. -Can still learn/alter brain connectivity & create new connections among brain regions & b/w neurons by learning new info. (just less automatic in adults). -i.e., learning how to read v. reading a new book.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

-Changes that are not directly related to reproduction. -i.e., breasts, body hair, skin growth, and vocal changes.

Primary Sex Characteristics

-Changes that directly facilitate reproduction. -Growth/changes that allow for egg and sperm production.

Comorbidity

-Co-occurring, as when an individual has more than one problem at the same time. -i.e., substance abuse problems.

Psychosocial Treatments for Depression

-Cognitive-behavioral therapy --Addresses cognitive errors in thinking --Also includes behavioral components -Interpersonal psychotherapy --Focus: Improving problematic relationships -Prevention --Preemptive psychosocial care for people at risk *Has longer-lasting effectiveness than medication.

Imaginary Audience

-Comes from having such a heightened sense of self-consciousness that you imagine your behavior is the focus of everyone's attention. -i.e., "everyone is going to notice the stain on my shirt!".

Eating Disorders

-Commonly emerge during adolescence. -Body changes that accompany puberty can bring attention to body image and feelings about body dissatisfaction. -Prominent in girls. -90% of eating disorders occur among women.

Cross Sectional Design

-Comparing children of different ages, at the same time.

Rumination

-Compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.

Concrete Operational v. Formal Operational Stages

-Concrete operational: Children can understand by doing (hands on), classifying objects, but unable to think/reason systematically/scientifically. -Formal operational: Able to think/reason systematically/scientifically about possibilities and hypothesis. Abstract thinking. Complex thinking. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

3 Elements Comprised in "Storm and Stress"

-Conflict with parents & authority figures. -Mood disruptions. -Increase in risk-taking behavior.

Macrosystem

-Consists of widely shared cultural values, laws, customs, beliefs and resources.

Pituitary

-Creates LH (luteinizing hormone) which stimulates development of gametes. -ACTH > more androgen from the adrenal glands.

Super's Theory of Occupational Goals (Stages)

-Crystallization (14-18 y.o) -Specification (18-21 y.o) -Implementation (21-24 y.o) -Stabilization (25-35 y.o) -Consolidation (35+ y.o)

Emotional Symptoms of Depression

-Dejection -Decreased enjoyment of pleasurable activities. -Low self-esteem.

Authoritative Parenting Style

-High on demand. -High on warmth/responsiveness. -Best type of parenting. -Adolescent Characs: Well adjusted, responsible, socially skilled, academically successful, creating & intellectually curious.

Non Suicidal Self Injury (NSSI)

-Deliberate attempts to hurt oneself in nonlethal ways, including cutting or burning one's skin. -Nearly 25% of adol. have engaged in NSSI at least once. -Reasons: to reduce feelings of tension, anger, anxiety, or depression or to prompt feelings when non exist. -Adol. who engage in NSSI often have the same cognitive vulnerabilities associated with depression. -Likely to have friends that have attempted NSSI.

DTI

-Diffusion Tensor Imaging. -Maps connections among the brain (white matter). -Maps how regions of the brain are connected/interconnected. -Useful for comparing b/w people of different ages.

Adolescent Growth Spurt

-During puberty: the pituitary gland stimulates the thyroid, producing thyroxine, which stimulates growth. -Puberty is the second fastest rate of growth during lifespan (fastest is infancy-2 years).

Eric Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

-Each stage of development is characterized by a crisis. -Each crisis must be resolved in order to have healthy, normal development. -If unresolved, they will become "stuck" in that crisis forever. -Early experiences shape who we become later in life.

Mutual Perspective Taking

-Early adolescents begin to understand that both they & the person they are interacting with are able to take multiple perspectives. -Be able to think about how a third party could think about how they're thinking. -i.e., when arguing with a parent about bedtime, they can think about how their parent will react to what they say or how they'll react to how they behave.

EEG

-Electroencephalography. -Measures electrical activity/impulses firing in different locations on the scalp/regions of your brain. -Measures event-related potentials as changes in electrical activity in response to stimuli/events. -Can show how patterns of the brain change with age or w/ specific stimuli. -Useful technique, less expensive and less invasive.

Esteem Support

-Encouragement and congratulations. -i.e., show excitement and encouragement when they succeed and comfort when they fail.

Occupational Deviance

-Engaging in work place deviant behavior (i.e., stealing from employers, calling in sick when they aren't, lying about number of hours worked). -About 60% of adolescents report doing this. -More money spent on cigarettes and alcohol.

Disadvantages of fMRI

-Expensive & taxing for participants. -Uncomfortable for patients (claustrophobia). -Have to develop tasks that can be done in a machine without moving much.

Developmental Plasticity

-Extensive remodeling of the brain's circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence. -Sensitive period in which your brain is actually restructuring. -Certain periods of the lifespan that are more and less malleable (like soft clay!) -Periods of opportunity and risk. (ability to learn new things but increased vulnerability to negative experiences). -Stress could have a profound impact on the way our brains mature and structure.

Emotional Loneliness

-Feeling that relationship lack sufficient closeness to provide support. -Especially high during emerging adulthood and in college (1st year). -May be surrounded by people constantly (in the dorm, library) but may continue to feel lonely if they do not have rewarding social relationships.

Effects of Drugs and Alcohol on Adolescent Brain Development

-Frequent drug use during adol. interferes with the normal maturation of the brain's dopamine system. -Repeated exposure to drugs during period of heightened malleability in the limbic system can affect the brain in ways that make NECESSARY to use drugs in order to experience normal amounts of pleasure. -Adolescents don't feel the negative consequences of drinking as profoundly as adults do (due to increased vulnerability of the adol. brain to the addicting effects of alc.) -Short-term effects of alcohol are less severe in adols. than adults. -Lasting effects of alcohol on brain functioning are worse in adol. than in adulthood. -HIPPOCAMPUS is one area of the brain that is especially vulnerable to influences during periods of plasticity. -Harmful effects on the development of regions of the brain involved in higher-order cognitive abilities (i.e., planning/decision making/self-regulation).

Cliques

-Friendship groups that children voluntarily form or join. -Smaller in size (3-12 people). -Cohesive group. -Similar to one another. -Engage in shared activities together. -By end of high-school tend to become less structured and more diffused. -Unstable, 50% turnover rate across 8 months. -Hierarchy. -Antagonism occurs, those higher in the hierarchy being more antagonistic.

fMRI

-Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. -Uses really powerful magnets to produce colorful images that represent cerebral blood flow in different parts of the brain. -Blood flow increases to certain region when in use for a given task. -Useful way to understand how the brain is working during different types of tasks or activities

Changes in Gray & White Matter During Adolescence

-Gray matter decreases via synaptic pruning. -White matter volume increases (in speed/efficiency) via myelination.

Sample

-Group of people who participated in the research study.

Crowds

-Groups of people who have similar stereotype reputations among peers. -Membership is reputation based, involuntary. -Members often not even friends. -Can be members of different crowds, but changing crowd might be difficult. -Adolescents are accurate are assessing how they're perceived, but don't always tend to agree on how their rep is perceived by other (specially those in lower status crowds). -Locate and label adolescents within school structure. -Key role in identity development.

Adolescent Growth Spurt in Boys:

-Grow faster during growth spurt. -Surpass the other sex at the end of puberty.

Premature Affluence

-Having a lot of money to spend on luxuries before they have other responsibilities. -Unrealistic expectations about disposable income in low wage jobs bc they don't have other expenses.

Informational Support

-Help & guidance in solving problems. -i.e., talk about problems like school, friends, romantic relationships.

Instrumental Support

-Help with tasks. -i.e., help with homework, chores, responsibilities.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

-High on demand. -Low on warmth/responsiveness. -"rules exist because I said so". -Adolescent characs: dependent, immature, less socially skilled, low self-confidence, low self-esteem, less curious.

Identity Achievement

-High on exploration. -High on commitment. -"I have thought about and deeply explored my options, and I know what I want to do with my life." -Outcomes of prolonged status: highest on measures of achievement motivation, moral reasoning, intimacy, maturity.

Moratorium

-High on exploration. -Low on commitment. -"I'm actively exploring my options & thinking about what I want to do, but idk." -Trying on different roles to see how they fit. -The new "gap year" trend.

Adolescent Growth Spurt in Girls:

-Hit growth spurt 2 years earlier. -Tend to be taller from ages 9-19.

Identity Formation During Adolescence*

-Identity is like a patchwork in early adolescence and middle childhood. They haven't built a cohesive, completed self. -Ability to think abstractly, to internalize the perspectives of others leads to more cohesive self. -This is a difficult and taxing aspect of adolescence.

Structured Extracurricular Activities

-Improves performance in school. -Reduces likelihood of dropping out. -Deters drug use. -Decreases other types of risk taking behavior.

Treatments for Eating Disorders

-In or out-patient intensive hospitalization usually required (at least initially). --(1/3 of those in hospital programs remain chronically ill after treatment ends). -Family therapies may be especially helpful for adol. -Cognitive behavioral approaches are helpful for some. --Relapse is common, especially among those with bulimia. -Findings about drug therapies are inconclusive (don't appear to work for everyone)

Sensory Information

-Includes all things that your senses perceive. -We only notice the sensory information that we pay attention to. -i.e., temperature, ambient noise.

Synaptogenesis

-Increase in connections among neurons. -Overproduction/exuberance: very rapid increase in synaptogenesis. -Occurs in two periods of development: shortly after birth, during early adolescence.

Secular Trends can be affected by

-Increase in nutrition and food availability. -Rise in obesity rates. -Environmental changes.

Baumrind's Parenting Styles

-Indulgent, Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indifferent.

Types of Support from Friends

-Informational -Instrumental -Companionship -Esteem

Circadian Rhythm

-Internal biological clock. -i.e., sleep cycle.

Social Loneliness

-Lacking a sufficient number of social contacts. -More common in 1st year of college. -More rare in college settings. -May have many friends or contacts with a lot of people.

Unstructured Extracurricular Activities

-Leads to delinquency and problem behavior. -More arrests occur during school afternoons, the time when adolescents are least likely to be supervised.

Disadvantages of EEG

-Less accurate. -Gives general broad picture of the brain activity than can be measures from the scalp.

Cohabitation

-Living with a romantic partner. -Much more common than in previous generations. -Not all cohabitating relationships end in marriage. -Not always a positive aspects of romantic relationships (not less likely to get divorced than those who don't cohabitate before marrying). -Could be associated with heightened domestic violence incidence. -May be especially conflictual if they have a child.

Research Designs:

-Longitudinal -Microgenetic -Cross Sectional -Experimental

Physical Symptoms of Depression

-Loss of appetite -Difficulty sleeping -Loss of energy

Sternberg's Theory of love

-Love consists of three basic components; intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Indulgent Parenting Style

-Low demand. -High warmth/responsiveness. -Adolescent characteristics: low school achievement, drug/alcohol use, immature, irresponsible, confirming to peers.

Indifferent Parenting Style

-Low on demand. -Low on warmth/responsiveness. -Borderline neglectful. -Adolescent characs: impulsive, delinquent behavior, early experimentation with sex/drugs, low academic achievement, low social competence, poor self-regulation.

Foreclosure

-Low on exploration. -High on commitment. -"I have made a choice about who I want to be based on the values of others, without thinking through my options." -Outcomes of prolonged status: most likely to have authoritarian parents, and low autonomy.*

Identity Diffusion

-Low on exploration. -Low on commitment. -"Idk & idc what I plan to do with my life, and I'm not exploring any options". -Outcome of prolonged status: psychological, behavioral, and interpersonal problems. Low intimacy with peers.*

Prefrontal Cortex Changes

-Matures during adolescence. -Maturation continues throughout adolescence and is not complete until the mid 20s. -Adolescents use prefrontal cortex more efficiently to solve tasks as they get older (they don't use the brain regions that aren't necessary for a task).

Limbic System Changes

-Matures during early adolescence. -Adolescents may be more responsive to stress & more sensitive to rewards. -More likely to engage in sensation seeking.

Autobiographical Memory

-Memories for specific events or personally relevant occurrences. -i.e., memory of attending prom. -During adolescence we begin to be able to store these memories as well as retrieve them more efficiently. -Could explain why we are able to remember memories from our adolescence better than from earlier childhood.

Short-Term Memory

-Memory for information that's the current focus of your attention. -Short duration. -Limited capacity (7+- or 2 bits of info).

Cognitive Symptoms of Depression

-Negative cognitions about self, world, and future. -Sense of hopelessness -Frustration -Sadness

Adolescent Egocentrism

-Overthinking of self. -With the ability to think about other's thoughts comes a heightened awareness of the though of others. -Spend a lot more time thinking about self and how they're viewed. -Especially common in early adolescence.

The HPG Axis

-Part of the endocrine system. -The neuropsychological pathway that involves the hypothalamus, the pituitary glands, and the gonads.

Bulimia

-Periods of binge eating and purging. -Use laxatives or vomiting or excessive exercising to "get rid of" the food they consume. -Are often not underweight.

Types of Aggression

-Physical -Instrumental -Relational *All types can be either overt or covert.*

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

-Piaget proposed a series of stages through which children progressed in their thinking and reasoning abilities. -Sensorimotor -Peoperational -Concrete Operational -Formal Operational

Synaptic Pruning

-Process of eliminating unused neuronal connections, thus improving the efficiency of information processing. -Use it or lose it. -Might not be a good thing to have too many unused brain connections in the brain, crowding the space & creating less efficient connections.

Myelination

-Process of insulating and making neurons more efficient, increases connectivity among brain regions. -Increases in adolescence which alters the way our neurons communicate.

Co-rumination

-Process through which friends discuss feelings of depression, sadness, or hopelessness with each other, which heightens feelings of depression. -Adolescents tend to be friends with others that have more depressive type of thoughts and who express their depressive thoughts. -Girls more likely to engage in this and be at greater risk of experiencing depression.

Companionship Support

-Providing company to social events. -i.e., going with you to the movies, shopping, school dances, parties.

Risk Factors for Developing Substance Abuse Problems

-Psychological: individuals w/ certain personality characteristics (present prior to adolescence) are more likely to develop substance abuse problems than their peers. (Characs: anger, impulsivity, inattentiveness, and sensation seeking) -Familial: individuals w/ distant, hostile, or conflicted family ships more likely to develop subs. abuse probs. -Social: individuals w/ subs. abuse probs. are more likely to have friends who use/tolerate the use of drugs. -Contextual: individuals w/ subs. abuse probs. more likely to live in a social context that makes drug use easier. Important factors are availability of drugs, community's norms regarding drug use, the degree to which drug laws are enforced, & the way drug use is presented via the mass media.

Internalizing Disorders

-Psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms inward OR -Those in which the young person's problems are turned inward and are manifested in emotional and cognitive distress. -i.e., anxiety, depression

Externalizing Disorders

-Psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms outward, as in aggression or delinquency. OR -Those in which the young person's problems are turned outward and are manifested in behavioral problems ("acting out"). -i.e., delinquency, antisocial aggression, and truancy.

Social and Conventional System Perspective Taking

-Realization that social perspectives are influenced not just by interactions with each other but also by roles in society. -Think about how society would think about a given behavior/action. -i.e., debating whether or not a mother of a starving family should steal food for her family. *Adolescents with better perspective taking abilities are more popular with peers.*

Average

-Receive an average number of both positive & negative nominations.

Rejected (Aggressive/Withdrawn)

-Receive many negative nominations & few positive nominations.

Controversial

-Receive many positive & negative nominations. -Have characteristics of both popular and unpopular peers. -High in aggression. -High in ability to regulate emotions. -Effectual aggressors (use their aggression in ways that are effective and useful for social gain). -Viewed as arrogant & snobbish by some, cool & aloof by others. -At-risk for behavioral problems in young adulthood. (Perceived popularity txtbook)

Popular

-Receive many positive and few negative nominations. -Socially skilled & maintain positive relationships. -Confident & good leaders. -More attractive. -Cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others. -Funny/humorous. -Not prone to intense negative emotions & regulate themselves well. -Have the best outcome (better academic achievement, fewer psychological probs.)

Plasticity

-Refers to how our brain changes in response to experiences.

Hypothalamus

-Regulates Hormones -Increases GnRh during puberty which stimulates development of gametes. -Monitors androgen & estrogen production as a set point.

Longitudinal Design

-Repeatedly study the same children over a long period of time. Observe how they change/develop.

Microgenetic Design

-Repeatedly study the same children over a very short period of time, when you know/think something is going to occur.

Anorexia Nervosa

-Restriction of food intake and refusal to maintain a normal body weight. -Intense/persistent fear of gaining weight. -Disturbance in the way body weight and shape is experienced.

Exosystem

-Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development. -i.e., Mass media, community services, child's school, parent's workplace.

Personal Fable

-The belief in one's personal uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability to the consequences of risks -Maintaining a personal fable can enhance an adolescent's self-esteem; holding on to one can be dangerous (i.e., a sex. active teen who thinks she will never get pregnant). -i.e., "there must be something unique about me, otherwise, why would everybody be so preoccupied with me?" -i.e., "you can't possibly understand what I'm going through!"

Sociometric Status

-The extent to which and adolescent is liked/disliked by their peers as a group. -Assessed via sociometric nomination.

Population

-The group of people who are of interest in the study.

Mesosystem

-The interconnections among immediate, or microsystem, settings. -i.e., Home, school, neighborhood, work, etc.

Microsystem

-The people and objects in an individual's immediate environment. -i.e., Home, school, neighborhood, immediate family, etc.

Bullies

-The perpetrators of bullying behavior. -Socially adept & skilled (advanced cognitive reasoning). -Not socially rejected -Often have high self-esteem. -Socially dominant. -May be/not low in empathy.

Peer Contagion

-The process through which children reinforce and promote aggressive behavior among each other. -Adolescents in these groups learn how to engage in better forms of aggression, learned how to become more effective aggressors, and learned new and different strategies of aggression.

Information Processing Theory

-The study and analysis of the sequence of events that occur in a person's mind while receiving new information. -Changes as adolescents transition into adulthood.

Secular Trend

-The tendency over the past 2 centuries for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier. -Primarily because of improvements in health & nutrition.

Selective Association

-The tendency to choose friends who are more similar to (both in terms of attitudes and preferences, as well as risk taking behaviors). -May play a larger role in the development of risky behavior during adolescence.

Long-Term Memory

-Things from your short-term memory can be brought into your long term memory for storage. -An unlimited duration and capacity. -When one wants to recall information, it will be brought to the short-term memory or working memory.

Metacognition

-Thinking about thinking. -Get better at this type of reasoning across adulthood.

Bully-Victims

-Those who are both bullied by larges, more socially or physically adept/higher status peers, and who also bully others. -Tend to be socially rejected (disliked by peers). -Ineffectual aggressors. -Most likely to experience chronic victimization that exists across situation/context. -Have the worst outcomes.

Victims

-Those who were bullied. -Tend to have few/no high-quality friendships. -Cautious, sensitive, quiet. -Physically smaller boys and quiet, shy girls are more at-risk. -Depression & anxiety may put them more at-risk for being bullied. -May have maladaptive coping strategies or emotion regulation (show they are upset). -Not usually children who are neglected.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development (Don't need to know all)

-Trust v. Mistrust (1st year). -Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt (1-3 1/2 years) -Initiative v. Guilt (4-6 years) -Industry v. Inferiority (6-puberty) -Identity v. Role Confusion (adolescence-early adulthood) -Intimacy v. Isolation (early adulthood) -Generativity v. Stagnation (middle adulthood) -Ego Integrity v. Despair (late adulthood).

Working Memory

-Type of short memory. -Has to do with info currently using (to solve problem for example). -i.e., solving a multiple-choice question on a test.

Disadvantages of DTI

-Uncomfortable. -Expensive.

Complex Thinking

-Understanding the use of metaphors, sarcasm, and metacognition. -Ability to problem solve.

Sensory Memory

-Very short duration. -Very limited capacity. -One ear, out the other.

Experimental Design

-We can see what causes what. -We can compare groups with different experiences. -Random assignment of participants to groups.

Impact of Work on School Engagement

-Working +20 hr/week is associated with poor school achievement. -Less engaged. -Lower performance. -Lower school enjoyment. -Fewer career & college ambitions. -May drop out. -Correlation & causation: those who are disengaged to begin with may not want to work more.

5 Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood

1. Age of identity explorations -Freedom to try out different roles. 2. Age of instability -Constant changes. 3. Self-focused age -Spend a good deal of time thinking about themselves & who they want to be. 4. Age of feeling in-between -Feeling in b/w adulthood and adolescence. 5. Age of possibilities -Hope & expectations for the future.

Social Factors that Brought About the Presence of Emerging Adulthood as a Period of Development

1. Increase in age at first marriage (In 1950: F- 20, M-23. In 2008: F-25, M-27). 2. Increase in # of people seeking postsecondary education. 3. Beliefs & acceptability of cohabition.

The Transition to College

1. Increased risk for psychopathology & mood disorders (especially in the first year of college). 2. Parental & peer support may be especially important for adjustment. Having social support is associated with better academic performance retention. 3. Those with higher anxiety & depression symptoms prior to entering college may have a harder time adjusting & finding supportive relationships in college.

The Stages of Piaget's Theory

1. Sensorimotor (birth - 2 y.o.): Senses and curiosity. 2. Peroperational (2 - 5 y.o.): Symbolic thinking, imagination and intuition, conservation developed. 3. Concrete Operational (6 - early adolescence): Time, space, and quantity. Logical reasoning but limited to trial and error strategies. 4. Formal Operational (adolescence - adulthood): Hypothetical thinking, abstract thinking, think and reason systematically. Scientific reasoning.

Routine Activity Theory

A perspective on adolescence that views unstructured, unsupervised time with peers as a main cause of behavior.

Transitions During Puberty

Biological, cognitive, and social transitions.

Juvenile Offending

An externalizing problem that includes delinquency and criminal behavior.

Gonads

Androgens and estrogens are produced in both sexes.

Instrumental Aggression

Attempt to gain access to another person's belonging or possessions through force.

Relational Aggression

Attempts to harm the reputation, emotional well-being, or relationships of another.

Physical Aggression

Attempts to physically harm/threaten another person.

Cognitive Transitions During Adolescence

Changes in reasoning & thinking. Thinking faster and more efficiently.

Social Transitions During Adolescence

Changes in their social roles and status. i.e., going from child to legal adult.

Binge Drinking

Consuming five or more drinks in a row on one occasion, an indicator of alcohol abuse.

Exploration & Commitment

Determines which type of identity formation status they will have.

Protective Factors

Factors that maintain healthy development OR Factors that limit individual vulnerability to harm.

Intimacy (Sternberg)

Feelings of closeness and emotional attachment.

"Storm and Stress"

G. Stanley Hall described adolescence as a time of turmoil and difficulty.

Delinquency

Juvenile offending that is processed within the juvenile system.

Biological Transitions During Adolescence

Puberty, changes in height, etc.

Self-Esteem in College

Overall increases in self-esteem across college, with a slight decrease towards the beginning.

Passion (Sternberg)

Physical attraction & sexual desire.

Commitment (Sternberg)

Pledge to love someone for the long term.

Peer Victimization

Repeated acts of aggression against those who are unable to defend themselves or those of lower social standing (excludes acts of teasing among equal peers).

Resilience

The ability of an individual to continue to function competently in the face of adversity or stress.

Differential Susceptibility

The idea that some people are more vulnerable & susceptible to environmental input than others. -i.e., research suggests that people with histories of maltreatment are more likely to be convicted of violent offense later in life, but not everybody with this history is a violent offender.

Status Offenses

Violations of the law that pertain to minors but not adults. -i.e., truancy, running away from home.