dep3103 chapter 12
high-quality child care
*child-to-caregiver Ratio* -3:1 for children 12months and younger -4:1 for 13-35 moths -7:1 for 3 y.o.s -8:1 for 4-5 y.o.s *maximum group sizes*: -6 for 12 month olds and younger -8 for 13-35 month olds -14 for 3y.o.s -16 for 4-5 y.o.s formal training for caregivers: -bachelors degree in ECE, school-age care, child devel, social work, nursing; or assoc. and working toward bach -at least 1 year of on-the-job training in providing a nurturing environment quality highest in nonprofit centers that aren't religiously affiliated, lowest in for-profit chaims children in ____ ___ ___: score higher on tests of preacademic skills; readiness for school, fewer behavior problems, predicted mother's greater involvement
never-married single parent families
10% of American children live w/ this parent 85-90% mothers mostly young parents In recent yrs, more single women over 30 in high-status occupations, but they're still few in #. largest group = african american young women -60%+ births to black moms in 20s = women w/o partner (13% white women) ** In the United States, the largest group of never-married parents is African-American young women. ** risks: -job loss -persistent unemployment -consequent lack of opportunity for many black men to provide economically for their families to contribute to # -lots of help from extended family -1/3 marry later risks: poverty and poor child outcomes: Children of never-married mothers who lack a father's warmth and involvement achieve less well in school & engage in more antisocial bx than counterparts in low-SES, first-married fams. *bad partner worse than no partner* -Marriage to child's bio dad only benefits children when he's a reliable source of economic & emotional support; if he's antisocial, children = at greater risk of conduct probs than when reared by mother alone. Single mothers find it harder to overcome poverty. - 50-60% have 2nd child while unmarried - far less likely than divorced mothers to receive paternal child support --> Many children in single-mother homes display adjustment probs assoc'd w economic hardship
effectiveness of authoritative style
Authoritative style and children's competence correlated ¤Affected by children's temperament: kid's characteristics, such as cooperative disposition, contribute to the ease w/ which parents can use the authoritative style; neg. children evoke inconsistent, coercive discipline ¤Predicts maturity and adjustment: in children of diverse temperaments Parent-child relationship more *bidirectional* with time -each participant modifies the actions of the other, forms expectancies for others' behavior style regarded by children as a well-intentioned parental effort to increase competence and, as a result, gradually respond w/ increased cooperation and maturity *Positive emotional context* ¤Affection ¤Appropriate control ¤Respect for self-determination a. Warm, involved parents who are secure in the standards they hold for their children provide models of caring concern and of confident, self-controlled behavior. b. Children are far more likely to comply with and internalize behavioral control that appears fair and reasonable, not arbitrary. c. Authoritative parents make demands and engage in autonomy granting that fits with children's ability to take responsibility for their own behavior. A few theorists claim that parents' genetically influenced child rearing merely enhances children's built-in propensities, but this view—that parenting has little impact on children's development—has been rebutted by a host of research findings.
changes in family structure
More single adults, postponement of marriage, decreased childbearing, more single-parent families, more children living in poverty, more same sex parents in 1970, 73% of children lived w/ parents in first marriage -in 2014, only 46% inc. in # of births to unmarried women first time parents are older than in past more children live w/ grandparents: -10% of all children in USA do -poorer bc parenting on fixed incomes -difficult for many reasons -children have emo and behavioral problems families = smaller: -women delay pregnancies bc of careers; access to BC -fewer children have siblings family structure more fluid -high divorce rates > repeated changes in family structure -1/5 of all children experience change in family structure as a result of separation, divorce, remarriage, cohabitation, parental death over 3 year period --> behavioral problems from ppt: Children were much more likely in 2014 to be living with single parents or with unmarried cohabitating parents then in 1960.
divorce
US rate = 45% -half have children -2/3 remarry --half divorce again highest rate in world -25% US children live in single-parent households -children of ____ live in single-parent home for 5 yrs on avg not a single event in the lives of parents and children but, rather, a transition leading to a variety of new living arrangements, accompanied by changes in housing, income, and family roles and responsibilities. that marital breakup is stressful for children, but great individual differences exist, depending on factors such as the custodial parent's psychological health, the child's characteristics, and social supports within the family and surrounding community. more from txtbook
features of child rearing styles
acceptance and involvement, control, and autonomy granting a. Acceptance of the child and involvement in the child's life, which establish an emotional connection with the child. b. Control of the child, which promotes more mature behavior. c. Autonomy granting, which encourages self-reliance. combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate. **
adolescents effects of growing up w/ siblings
adols more involved in relationships outside the family, invest less time & energy in sibs --> sib relationships often less intense in both pos & neg feelings. - most attachments remain strong, esp btw sisters overall, sibs w/ positive bond in early childhod continue to show greater affection & caring during adolescence - linked to more favorable emotional and social adjustment
influence of same sex parents on children
basically the same
Family and Medical Leave Act (1993)
caring for baby takes time and energy of both parents -infants wake up often, eat often -early months of life = important time for establishing bonds inc. amount of women in workforce --> necessitated policy -allows parents to take 12 weeks off work -guarantees job will be back for them when they get back --however, does not require that companies pay their employees when they take leave, and exempts small businesses. as a result, many parents can only take leave if: -can afford loss of income -have saved sick/vacay days -file for disability payments -live in one of few states that guarantee pay (3) USA is one of only countries that doesn't provide paid family leave -most countries provide 1 year, 6 provide 2 children whose mothers can stay home for 12 weeks: -more likely to be breast-fed -taken to regualr checkups -have all recommended immunizations leave can also be taken when member is ill, or has to take care of close relative this can prevent a family from falling into poverty from a medical emergency, linked w/ higher immunization rates
baumrind's typology of parenting styles
every parent falls somewhere on the dimension of control and warmth. grouped parents into four potential parenting styles high both: authoritative high warmth, low control: permissive high control, low warmth: authoritarian low both: uninvolved
origin and function of family
family = first, longest-lasting, context for development -there are other contexts that mold devel, but none are as powerful as family most common family form: -lifelong commitment of man & woman who care for children until mature evolutionary origins: Enhance survival -balance male hunters & female gatherers in social group: diversifies food options - inc. male certainty that he's the father: motivate him to invest in providing for them -larger kin networks: inc. chances of successful comp. for vital resources, provide assist. w/ child rearing -emotional bonds evolved: foster long-term commitments
uninvolved parenting
few rules, no monitoring, little active support low acceptance and involvement -little control -indifference to autonomy parents often emotionally detached/depressed --> overwhelemd, little enery for kids -respond to immediate demands, but give little attention to long-term goals & strategies assoc. w/ -stress factors assoc. w/ poverty can lead to --*stress* --most likely? single mother of 3 living in poverty extreme cases = child maltreatment, *neglect* , disrupts all aspects of development overall, negative outcomes -Even children whose parental disengagement is less extreme display many problems (poor emotional self-reg, school ach difficulties, antisocial bx).
long term consequences of parental divorce
improved adjustment after 2yrs overall, children score lower than children of marreid parents in: -academic achievement, self-esteem, social competence -show more behavioral/emotional problems if mother has custody, *father-child relationship* is important -lower levels of defiance and aggression -girls: protection against early sexual activity & unhappy romantic involvements worse to be in bad married household than divorced -if get marreid over moderate dissatisfaction, child = confused positive adjustment after divorce requires *effective co-parenting* -esp. how well parent w/ custody handles stress & shields child from famly conflict -and extent to which each parent uses authoritative child rearing à Parents who can set aside their disagreements and support each other in their child-rearing roles increase the chances that their children will grow up competent, stable, and happy.
relation between adoption and pos/neg outcomes
infertile, avoid genetic disorders, older/single, choice fewer US mom's giving up babies for adoption -more adoption from other countries book says they try to match children and parents by background, but now they just want to make sure they're good parents Adopted children & adol have more learning & emotional difficulties than other children, diff increases w age of adoption. -bio. mom pass along genetic probs, or experience prenatal stress, poor diet, inadequate medical care -Children adopted after infancy = more likely to have hx of conflict-ridden fam relationships, lack of parental affection, neglect & abuse, or deprived institutional rearing. Basically, a lot of conditions that lead to adoption are bad and longer in bad situation, worse off. - Adoptive parents & children = genet unrelated =less alike in intelligence & personality than bio rels - may affect family harmony. most adoptees fare well -By adolescence, adoptees' lives are often complicated by unresolved curiosity about their roots; nevertheless, most adoptees appear optimistic and well-adjusted as adults. -As long as their adoptive parents help children learn about their heritage in childhood, young people adopted into a diff ethnic grp/culture generally dev IDs of healthy blends -birth & rearing backgrounds. An early warm, trusting parent-child relationship fosters development even when children are not genetically related to their parents. -Children w troubled fam hx who are adopted at older ages also develop feelings of trust and affection for their adoptive parents. -- Adoptees develop much more favorably than children growing up in foster families or returned to their birth mothers. SCENARIO: Swedish longitudinal study looked at 600+ infant adoption candidates... Some adopted shortly after birth, some foster care, some not adopted (changed mind, stay w bio mom) ** When researchers followed 600 infant adoption candidates into adolescence, they found that adoptees developed more favorably than children returned to their birth mothers or reared in foster homes. ** -Relationship of type of rearing to maladjustment among a sample of Swedish adolescents who had been candidates for adoption at birth.
immediate consequences of parental divorce
instability, conflict, drop in income -conflict rises over settling disputes for children, possessions -mothers typically drop in income (most divorced mothers w/ young children live in poverty) -instability in many areas, one = dad's presence drops over time parental stress, disorganizatino -transition from marriage --> divorce = high maternal stress, depression, anxiety -disorganized family situation - rountines disrupted, discipline harsh & inconsistent -parents permissive and indulgent on short visits, harder on other parent ~20-25% of children in divorced families display severe probs (compare ~10% nondivorced); reactions vary with children's age, temperament, and sex. AGE: -differing difficulties based on age & understanding (young blame self, older understand why but still react strongly, esp. w/ low parental supervision & high conflict) TEMPERAMENT: -problems of 'difficult' children = magnified by exposure to stressful life events & inadequate parenting -easy children, less often targets of parental anger, cope better w/ adversity SEX: - Both sexes frequently show demanding, attention-getting, acting-out behavior. - In mother-custody families, boys are at slightly greater risk for academic, emotional, and behavior problems.
low-income families stress
less than 14k per child per year -less quality time w/ children -parents = stressed, lead to: depression, irritability, harsh parenting --stress caused by material hardships & struggling to make ends meet -children live w/o basic necessities: food, medical care, shelter, safe schools, neighborhoods. --development suffers across a range of domains --at risk of becoming homeless lower academic achievement, more mental health problems, more behavioral problems more at risk for drug problems, and for being physically abused
authoritarian parenting
low acceptance and involvement: cold and rejecting high direct & psychological control; low autonomy granting: make decisions for child, expect unquestioning obedience; force and punishment when disobedience -exert control by yelling, commanding, criticizing, threatening -use *psychological control* (1) When dissatisfied, these parents withdraw love. (2) They hold excessively high expectations for their child. (3) Children subjected to this parenting style exhibit adjustment problems involving both anxious, withdrawn and defiant, aggressive behaviors. children of ______ parents: anxious and unhappy, are low in self-esteem and self-reliance, tend to react with hostility when frustrated, and typically do poorly in school. - Boys show high rates of anger and defiance. - Girls are often dependent, uninterested in exploration, and overwhelmed by challenging tasks. ** Gina is dependent, lacks interest in exploration, and is overwhelmed by challenging tasks. She is exhibiting characteristics consistent with girls raised by
childcare and financial resources
majority of working parents can't find high quality but affordable childcare -partly bc most don't meet guidelines -also because of cost --in some regions, it can cost up to 1/3 of family's budget, so it's *cost prohibitive* tuition for 1 year for a 4yr old is more than tuition at a public university, sometimes by 200%
high-income families stress
more than 14k per child per year -parents have to spent long time away from home for high income -parents pressure children to overachieve --children experience psychological stress higher rates of drug use, delinquint behavior, and mental health problems
authoritative parenting
most successful approach -high acceptance & involvement -firm, reasonable control -gradual, appropriate autonomy granting 1. warm, attentive, sensitive to child's needs 2. establish an enjoyable, emotionally fulfilling parent-child relationship that draws the child into close connection. 3. exercise firm, reasonable control, insisting on appropriate maturity, giving reasons for their expectations, using disciplinary encounters as "teaching moments" to promote the child's self-regulation, and monitoring their child's whereabouts and activities. communication = important: listen to & encourage child to express self, share own viewpoints - this style makes kids more likely to listen to parents, esp helpful when vital for kids to listen to parents directives positive outcomes: -linked to competence in childhood and adolescence (upbeat mood, self-control, task persistence, cooperativeness, high s-e, maturity, smart) Children of ________________ parents exhibit high self-esteem, social and moral maturity, achievement motivation, and strong school performance. ** highly accepting and involved with their children. They are warm, attentive, and sensitive to their needs
child maltreatment
physical abuse sexual abuse neglect emotional abuse
parent's work contexts
provide parents w/ sense of accomplishment, enhances mental health and quality of parenting work is rewarding for many -however, work-related conflicts can cause stress that can be brought into home harm caused by conflict from stressful job causes behavioral problems and emotional issues, not made up for by income research does not support the *negative effects on children of working mothers* -less time overall, but more time interacting
child-rearing styles
regardless of family structure, family's function = *socialization* -present from birth, but takes off during 2nd year when children comply w/ directives lots of variability in child rearing, 4 diff styles -authoritative -authoritarian -permissive -uninvolved
permissive parenting
responsive to needs and wishes of child, but overly so high acceptance, very warm -uninvolved / very little control: makes few or no demands engaging in little control --> style when kids run the show --no chores, rules, manners, bed time.... mixed involvement: overindulgent or inattentive very little control lack of gradual autonomy granting: allow children to make decisions for selves before ready children = are impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious; are overly demanding and dependent on adults; and show less persistence on tasks and poorer school achievement. teens: do less well academically, are more defiant of authority figures, and display more antisocial behavior than do teenagers whose parents communicate clear expectations
middle childhood effects of growing up w/ siblings
sibling rivalry increases -children participate in wider range activities, parents make more comparisons between them more common for same-sex siblings who are close in age, resulting in more quarreling and antagonism, especially when parenting is cold or harsh despite conflict, siblings still *provide companionship* and assistance
early effects of growing up with siblings
siblings = source of support and learning, but also rivalry and conflict can be difficult transition for newborn -preschoolers often threatened by arrival of new baby, realize they must share M&D --esp. bad if sib is 2+y.o., old enough to feel *displaced* infants find older siblings comforting -older children show affection and sympathetic concern for them toddlers imitate and play w/ older siblings (by 2nd year) sibling interactions = context in which social competence expands, esp. as younger sib takes more active role in play (2-4y.o.) -The skills acquired during sibling interactions contribute to the understanding of emotions and other mental states, perspective taking, moral maturity, and competence in relating to other children. ** temperament and parenting affect relationship
effects of growing up w/ no siblings
siblings not essential for healthy devel only children at not very spoiled, but are advantaged in some respects: -higher self-esteem and achievement motivation -do better in school -attain higher level of education than children w/ siblings closer relationship w/ parents; just as many close, high-quality frienships can be less accepted in peer groups -perhaps because they have not had opportunities to learn effective conflict-resolution strategies through sibling interactions
individual differences in sibling relationships affected by temperament and parenting
sometimes like peer interactions, when close in age other times like parent-child interactions, older sibling has more influence over younger quality differs based on the way that parents interact w/ each child, w/ each other & children's perceptions of their treatment by other family members neg: temperament: high emotional reactivity/activity level --> high sibling conflict --maternal harshness and lack of involvement --> antagonistic relationships positive: maternal warmth toward both children closer relationships if parents treat them the same -differential treatment = esp. influential in early/middle childhood also affected by: -differential treatment -cultural values -nature of parent's relationship --divorce, remarried, etc.
family structure
the number of and relationships among the people living in a household alterations in ___ ___ due to death, remarriage, etc. can influence interactions among family members & affect routines, norms shared by fam; and children's emo well-being functions: ssocializtion - teach child to be competent, participating member of society.
socialization
the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society
types of families
traditional gay and lesbian single divorced blended extended
family size
trend for smaller families (used to be bigger) -in 1960, avg=3.1 -today, avg = 1.8 --> "cheaper by the dozen" = extremely rare these days smaller families = recommended, save the resources of parents: -time & attention -affection -material resources per child --lack of attention and resources = explanation for lower IQs on AVERAGE in large families money = issue, other resources easier to share smaller families due to women waiting longer to have kids, accessibility of BC, ...
Child Sexual Abuse - grossly under reported victims, abusers, consequenes...
victims: often female, reported in middle childhood abusers: usually male, parent or known by parent consequences: emotional reactions, physical symptoms, effects on behavior prevention/treatment: prevent w/ education, treat w/ long-term therapy
childcare context- adjustment and social behavior
§Studies find no difference in problem behavior between children in day care and those reared at home. quality of care decides the behavior of children: -hours spent: longer hours = better adjustment --unless low-quality care -most children in day care never develop behavioral issues -background important too: --low SES: longer time = better adjustment, esp. in high-quality facilities switching childcare facilities a lot --> inc. behavior problems, lower levels of positive behavior
gay and lesbian families
¨Children similar to children of heterosexuals in ¤Mental health ¤Peer relations ¤Gender identity ¤Sexual orientation frequently adopt, but... -most through prev heterosexual marriages, some through adoption, and a growing number through reproductive technologies Mississippi is now the only state with a gay adoption ban; it doesn't allow adoption by same-sex couples though individuals ostensibly should have no problem. Utah prohibits adults who co-habit — gay or not — from adopting and so does Arkansas, though its law is under appeal. -fl changed in 2010 Findings show gay & lesbian parents = as committed & effective at child rearing as heterosexual parents. -- Children of homosexuals not found to differ from children of heterosexuals in mental health, peer relations, or gender identity. Children don't differ on sexual orientation - majority=heterosexual. - Some evidence suggests that more adol from homosexual fams experiment w partners of both sexes - perhaps bc highly tolerant community (vs. others who might be tempted by don't bc fear of ridicule). à Probs w children/fams stem from intolerance of others. A major concern of gay and lesbian parents is that their children will be stigmatized by their parents' sexual orientation, but most studies have found that teasing and bullying are rare because parents and children carefully manage the information they reveal to others.
consequences of child maltreatment
¨Family circumstances often impair: ¤Development of attachment ¤Emotional self-regulation ¤Empathy and sympathy ¤Self-concept ¤Social skills ¤Academic motivation ¨Central nervous system damage and response to stress
preventing child maltreatment
¨\Strategies needed for family, community, and society ¤Family social support ¤Improved parenting practices -Healthy Families America -Nurse-Family Partnership ¤Combating poverty ¤Government intervention ¤Legal termination of parental rights