Developmental psych 160 - Exam 2

How do boys and girls differ in terms of play?

Toy preferences Activity level Aggression

Three aspects that matter for parenting

o *Warmth* ♣ Support, encourage, accept o *Structure* ♣ Setting limits, monitor, firm enforcement ♣ Value standards and behavior ♣ Limit exposure to risky situations ♣ Parental knowledge ♣ Require self-control ♣ RESULTS: Low externalizing and High Achievement o *Intrusiveness* ♣ Dominate, pressure, intrude>>> bug the heck out of 'em ♣ Undermines sense of autonomy ♣ Interferes with sense of competence and worth ♣ Conveys rejections ♣ RESULTS: HIGH INTERNALIZING

8. Distractability

- ability to focus attention - notice every distraction (high) vs. extreme concentration (low)

What are "cliques"?

Definition: friendship groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves - same-sex peers - Small group of friends (3-9 members) - More formal structure - More peer pressure - Give sense of identity, belonging - often similar in their aggressiveness and orientation towards school.

What are "crowds"?

Definition: groups of adolescents who have similar stereotyped reputations. - starts when adolescents belong to more than one group or individual relationships rather than to social groups. - girls and boys associate with one another. - Among American high school students, typical crowds may include the "brains," "jocks," "loners," "burnouts," "punks," "populars," "elites," "freaks," or "nonconformists." - Large reference group With similar stereotyped reputations

What is hostile attributional bias?

tendency to interpret the behavior of others across situations as threatening, aggressive or both which happens at the interpretation stage. EXAMPLE >>> why do you think the kid bumped into you? Normal Response: it was an accident HAB Response: they wanted to spill the milk all over me Example of hostile attributional bias : Why do you think the kid bumped into you? - It was probably an accident. - S/he wanted to spill her/his milk all over me. (Hostile)

What are the major premises of the *socialization* perspective of gender development?

the process through which children's biases to behave in accord with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvement with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender.

Why does intrusive parenting have negative implications for children's internalizing problems?

- The child fears the idea of rejections or lack of acceptance from the parent whenever he or she feel the need to express their emotion so they end up bottling it up inside, and keeps adding more and more pressure never able to free express without fear of rejection. - Intrusiveness undermines sense of autonomy, interferes with sense of competence and worth, conveys rejection → high internalizing problem - "Just remember, son, it doesn't matter whether you win or lose - unless you want Daddy's love."

Permissive

- a parenting style that is high in responsiveness but low in demandingness. Parents are responsive to their children's needs and do not require their children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways. - relationship indulges the child entitlement, little control exercised

Uninvolved/Neglectful

- a parenting style that is low in both responsiveness and demandingness. Rejecting-neglecting parents do not set limits for or monitor their children's behavior, are not supportive of them, and sometimes are rejecting or neglectful. They tend to be focused on their own needs rather than their children's. - relationship is non-existent, no communication, no parenting, children are left to fend for themselves

Baumrind's parenting style; classification along the *warmth/responsiveness* dimensions

- accepting and affectionate - Communication - nurturance They allow their children considerable autonomy within those limits, are not restrictive or intrusive, and are able to engage in calm conversation and reasoning with their children. They are attentive to their children's concerns and needs and communicate openly with their children about them. They also are measured and consistent, rather than harsh or arbitrary, in disciplining them.

Authoritative

- parenting style that is high in demandingness and supportiveness. Parents set clear standards and limits for their children and are firm about enforcing them; at the same time, they allow their children considerable autonomy within those limits, are attentive and responsive to their children's concerns and needs, and respect and consider their children's perspective. - relationship is about building mutual trust and respect, both perspectives honored, communication flows both ways

separation anxiety

- peaks 13-15 months then starts to decline. - response to being away from caregiver - Related to attachment • feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached • the degree to which children exhibit such distress varies with the context. For example, infants show much less distress when they crawl or walk away from a parent than when the parent does the departing. • occurs across many cultures.

Procedure of the Puzzle study

Aggressive and non-aggressive boys PROCEDURE (2nd-6th graders) • Work on a puzzle in one room, were told that another boy is working on puzzle in another room • During break, switch rooms to check on each other • Intercom (speaker): heard voice of the peer who was checking their puzzle (FAKE) o Hostile intent (purposeful): "he's got a lot done. I will mess it up" o Benign intent (accidental): "I'll help him. Oh no! I didn't mean to drop it" o Ambiguous intent (unclear): "gee, he's got a lot done!"

Which parenting style is the best?

Authoritative → best (high in achievement and social skills, low in drug use and internalized distress)

In what ways is the *behaviorist perspective* inadequate in explaining human attachment?

Behaviorism states that since the baby needs food, gets food, they will like this connection and form a bond between food source, so reinforcement schedule of feeding leads to forming attachments..... Such view was not considered true after the Zimmerman findings.

What strategies do *infants* (0-2 yrs) use to regulate their emotions?

By 6 months show first signs of self-regulation *- Limited capacity for control (e.g., turn away, suck finger) - Depend on caregiver for soothing - Arm restraint experiment -> self-distraction*

Protective function of friendships for rejected children

Higher number of friends allows for children feeling less loneliness.

SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

Encoding >> Interpretation >> Goal Formulation >> Response Generation >> Response Evaluation >> Behavioral Enactment

Why should researchers pay attention to the non-W.E.R.I.D. populations?

White, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic societies are mainly used in studies. A big portion of the world does not fall into these categories and it is not good scientific practices to assume the results of W.E.I.R.D. studies applies to all people.

Why do Taiwanese parents focus on children's transgression in their "personal storytelling"?

35% focused on transgression (misbehaving) - Use these stories to teach moral and social standards, as well as developing respect for parents and elderly

How many subtypes of aggression are there? What are they?

Instrumental vs. Hostile *Instrumental*: (to achieve an explicit goal and requires no anger just like grabing a toy away from another child) *Hostile*: to intimidate, harass, or humiliate another child like calling names • Two hostile subtypes: Overt vs. cover *Overt Aggression*: direct, physical aggression out in the open, bullying ((more in boys)) *Covert Aggression*: indirect hidden, like lying or stealing - *Physical* (punching, hitting, kicking) vs. *verbal* (teasing, insults) vs. *relational* (try to hurt others by undermining their social relationships; slandering by gossiping and such) ((more in girls)) All these subtypes are not mutually distinct and can be combined together

Which parenting style is the worst?

Neglecting → worst (low in achievement and social skills, high in drug use and internalized distress)

What does the ability to understand others' emotion predict?

Once a child develops a sense of emotional understanding toward others, they develop *Empathy* where they start to relate to others feelings. Also they develop *prosocial behavior* where they start to do actions that benefit others without any real or tangible benefits to themselves which finally all lead to better relationship with others or friends, peers, family, etc.

What is a meta-analysis?

Statistical technique used to summarize average effect size and statistical significance *across several research studies*. It simply sums up all the research done on a particular effect and evaluates the number of studies that reflect such an effect and how big of an effect they show.

What are the major premises of the *biological* perspective of gender development?

the biological perspective on gender development points to the impact of sex hormones on the developing fetal brain during prenatal development. Such biological influences seem to contribute to gender identity as well as to behavioral gender differences. - Such discrepant gender identity usually appears very early in development, mostly occurs in boys, and can be difficult to alter even with intensive therapy and parental socialization efforts.

Negative functions of peers

~ can be hurtful - aggressive friends - Friends who participate in delinquent behavior - direction of effect

"Goodness of Fit" Model

- how children ultimately adjust depends not only on their temperament but also on how well their temperament fits with the particular environment they are in. - "Child development outcomes will be optimized when environment is sensitively adapted to child's temperamental characteristics." - the degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment

What is the Strange Situation?

A procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants' attachment to their primary caregiver. - conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and likely to heighten the child's need for his or her parent.

Insecure/avoidant attachment

(20%) - Show little to no distress upon separation. - Avoid contact with caregiver upon reunion. - May show positive behavior with stranger. a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. In the Strange Situation, they seem indifferent toward their caregiver before the caregiver leaves the room and indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns. If they get upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent.

6. Intensity

- strength of emotional reactions - extreme highs/lows vs. mellow

"prototype" of children with an *difficult* temperament

10% - negative mood - active - irregular/arrhythmic " unadaptable - withdraw from novelty - very intense emotional reactions Longitudinal profile later in childhood: - most at risk for maladaptive outcomes - slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions.

results of the Puzzle study

Hostile intent condition -Responded aggressively- most retaliated (pay back) Benign intent condition - Not aggressive- few retaliated Ambiguous intent condition - Only aggressive boys responded aggressively → Hostile attributional bias

"prototype" of children with an *average* temperament

remaining 35% - not particularly high or low on any dimensions

What strategies do children in *early childhood* (3-8 yrs) use to regulate their emotions?

*- Gains in language lead to communication with caregiver - Develop new strategies - Emotional outbursts decrease* - Occasionally 6 months *self-soothe* — engage in repetitive rubbing or stroking of their body or clothing—or distract themselves by looking specifically at neutral or positive persons or objects rather than at what has upset them. - By age 1-2 can increasingly distract themselves from distressing stimuli by selectively averting their attention probably made possible by their growing ability to control both their own attention and their movements. - playing on their own when distressed. - less likely to seek comfort from their parents when they must delay gratification or are upset. - children are more likely to discuss upsetting emotional situations with parents rather than simply crying.

9 Dimensions of Temperament

- Activity - Biological rhythm - Approach/withdrawal - Adaptability - Mood - Intensity - Sensitivity/Threshold - Distractibility - Persistence

What factors account for these differences between boys and girls? How do researchers know?

- Biology - Parents' Assistance (Mothers' Assistance) - Peers (gender segregation, group norms, co-rumination) - Researchers know these things from doing many studies.

positive functions of peers

- Companions - Models - Instructors & critics (positive and negative) - Social comparison (can be good and bad) - Confidant : source of emotional support - Skill-building : perspective-taking, emotional regulation

What is co-rumination?

- Excessive discussion of problems within dyadic relationships - Focusing of negative feelings - more common among girls than boys. - fosters feelings of closeness between friends - appears to increase depression and anxiety in girls (not boys).

Sociometric measures of peer status and classifications

1. Nominations technique: positive nominations (who do you like most?) and negative nominations (who do you like least?) - Categories: + Popular (ranked high on sociometric measures) + Rejected (aggressive and withdrawn) + Controversial (bullies; cool + mean) + Neglected (not nominated as either liked nor disliked) + Average 2. Rating-Scale technique: rate every child on a "likability" scale

Insecure-disorganized child

1. Parent & child • child plays, but suddenly freezes his/her posture (i.e., not moving at all). 2. Stranger enters the room • Child looks at the stranger. • Stranger initiates play with child. Child plays with the stranger a little bit. 3. Parent leaves the room • Child continues to play. • Get upset for a little while then return to normal. 4. Parent's return! • Child shows fear at the parent. • Stranger leaves. The child follows the stranger out of the room.

Insecure-resistant child

1. Parent & child interaction • child plays a little bit but will not be play well on his/her own. He/she will be sitting there passively. 2. Stranger enters the room • Child is a little weary of the stranger. • Stranger initiates play with child. Child doesn't really want to play. 3. Parent leaves the room • Child is upset at parent's departure. The stranger tries to comfort him/her but is not successful. The child keeps on crying. 4. Parent's return! • Child keeps crying and does not go to parent. Parent goes to the child and picks the child up (difficult to do it in a skit. What about a hug?). The child arches the back and resists the hug. He/she is clearly angry and is crying at the same time and throwing a fit. The child is not comforted and cannot return to play!

"prototype" of children with a *slow-to-warm-up* temperament

15% - "shy" - withdraw from novelty - slow to adapt - reactions mild/moderate in intensity - low in activity Longitudinal profile later in childhood: - moderate risk (sometimes) - somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations.

Insecure attatchment

A pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be classified as insecure-resistant (ambivalent), insecure-avoidant, or disorganized/disoriented.

What strategies do children in their *middle/late childhood* use to regulate their emotions?

Adaptive by Age 10 - Develop *problem solving* skills - Rely on *social support* like close friends or peers - Tend to *distract themselves* from the emotional triggers - *Redefine Situations* where they tend to explain the emotional trigger as something completely different, so from reality to lala land. Spider is not a spider it is a piece of chocolate or clump of hair. ~ able to use cognitive strategies. ~ may rethink their goals or the meaning of events so that they can adapt gracefully to the situation. ~ realize that it is better to try to find alternative ways to obtain a goal rather than simply give up in frustration. *Emotional self-efficacy* - Feeling of being in control of emotional experience.

How do researchers use the SS to assess attachment security (pay attention to "separation" and "reunion")?

Ainsworth's study on 1-2 years old where they undergo a series of separations and reunions with their caregivers, and then the child's reactions (stressful) is coded. (7 episodes) ~ observers rate infants' behaviors, especially with *reunions*, including their attempts to seek closeness and contact with the parent, their resistance to or avoidance of the parent, their interactions with the stranger, and their interactions with the parent from a distance using language or gestures. *1) Parent and child interact* 1. Intro with experimenter 2. Caregiver & child alone (parent as secure base) *2) Stranger enters the room* 3. Stranger talks w/mom and interacts with child. (Reaction to stranger) *3) Parent leaves the room* 4. Mother leaves child with stranger (separation distress and reaction to stranger comforting) *4) Parent comes back* 5. Parent returns and pauses by door & stranger leaves. (Reaction to reunion) 6. Parent leaves infant alone in room (separation distress) 7. Stranger enters (ability to be soothed by stranger) 8. Parent returns (reaction to reunion)

Differences between American vs. Japanese ideals of a "good person"; why would there be such differences?

American 1. Needs constant attention & "boosting" 2. Needs to be differentiated from others ("everyone is special") Japan 1. Is de-emphasized 2. Needs to attend to & fit in with others 3. Needs to maintain harmonious with others.

How do boys and girls differ in terms of emotional distress?

Anxiety: Females have higher anxiety than males after (roughly) age 3. Depression: Females have high depression than males after (roughly) age 15.

Developmental changes of aggression from childhood through adolescence. What underlies such developmental changes? Also pay attention to differences between boys and girls

Early- onset (life-course persistent) 1. Begins in childhood and worsens through adolescence and adulthood 2. Neurological deficits 3. Family risk 4. Attentional and academic problems 5. Boys > girls Adolescence-limited 1. Begins in adolescence and fades by adulthood 2. Less violence, less overall psychopathological risk factors 3. Associated with negative peer influence - Younger children are more likely to be physically aggressive - Older children engage more in relational aggression - Boys are more likely than girls to be physically aggressive - Girls are more likely than boys to be relationally aggressive

How do boys and girls differ in terms of school performance?

Engagement: Girls have high engagement than boys in 5th and 7th grade. Grades: Girls have higher grades in English, History, Science, & Math than boys.

What did Harlow and Zimmerman find in their study with baby rhesus monkeys (pay attention to where the baby monkeys run to get food and comfort)?

Harlow and Zimmerman and little monkeys o All the monkeys whether fed By the wire(1/2 of them) or the cloth mother(1/2 of them), under stress, ALL RAN TO THE CLOTH MOTHER o So feeding is not basis for attachment

What did the Lansford et al.'s cross-national study find in terms of the effects of physical discipline?

Physical discipline is generally associated with heightened anxiety in children However, in countries where physical discipline is not "normative" (e.g., Thailand and China) → High levels of physical discipline exacerbates children's anxiety Kenya -> no change in anxiety China -> high anxiety

In what ways is the *psychoanalytic perspective* inadequate in explaining human attachment?

Psychoanalytic theory based on the work of Sigmund Freud stating that the first relationship that forms is because it serves the purpose of feeding; without feeding, there is no attachment.

Morelli et al.

This study examines the decisions of middle-class U.S. and Highland Mayan parents regarding sleeping arrangements during their child's first 2 years and their explanations for their differing practices. All 14 Mayan children slept in their mother's' beds into toddlerhood. None of the 18 U.S. infants slept in bed with their mothers on a regular basis as newborns, although 15 slept near their mothers until age 3 to 6 months, when most were moved to a separate room. The Mayan parents explained their practices in terms of the value of closeness with infants; the U.S. parents explained their practices in terms of the value of independence for infants. The U.S. families, but not the Mayan families, used bedtime routines and objects to facilitate the transition to sleep.

In the Morelli et al. study, which type of sleep arrangement is endorsed most by US and Mayan parents respectively? Why?

U.S. 1. Separated bed, mom room - Focused on developing independence and self reliance - More independent in the future - Own space and territory Mayan 1. Mother & Father with siblings - Sleep is seen as a social event & should be enjoyed as a family - Parental separation from child is seen as child abuse

Why would some children be proactively aggressive? What are they thinking (stage 5)?

What they are thinking at stage 5: - Positive evaluation of aggression - High self-efficacy (capability) for aggression - Positive outcome expectancy for aggression

Why is authoritarian and authoritative style equally effective for externalizing symptoms?

both types of parenting are equally effective for externalizing symptoms (i.e. low drug use) because BOTH SHARE A HIGH CONTROL/DEMAND - Both have low incidences of externalizing symptoms like drug use because rules and boundaries are explicit and enforced

Parallels between changes in children's play and their peer interactions

infants and younger toddlers prefer solitary play, and as they progress to preschool years they engage in more cooperative play. Parallel play: playing next to each other without influencing each other. 2-2.5 yrs are highest 2.5-3 4-4.5 3-3.5 3.5-4 don't want to play alone

Features of the quality of friendships among children of different ages

- Intimacy : sharing personal info. and (usually) more valued by girls. - Companionship : time spent together/shared activities and (sometimes) more valued by boys. - Help and guidance - Rejected children's friendships lower in quality. *Young children: kids around them Older children: kids who offer help Early adolescents: help & trust *

Authoritarian

- Parenting style that is high in demandingness and low in responsiveness. Parents are non-responsive to their children's needs and tend to enforce their demands through the exercise of parental power and the use of threats and punishment. They are oriented toward obedience and authority and expect their children to comply with their demands without question or explanation. - relationship is about control, differing perspectives are not allowed, meaningful communication generally flows one way

Insecure-*Resistant* (or ambivalent) attatchment

(10-15%) - Thoroughly distress upon separations - Don't settle easily upon reunions - Mix proximity - seeking and angry behavior A type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the strange situation, insecure-resistant infants tend to get very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room, and they are not readily comforted by strangers. When their caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist effort by the caregiver to comfort them.

disorganized/disoriented attachment

(~5%) - Confused, contradicting behaviors - Dazed fearful expressions - Frozen postures - Lack of coherent strategy A type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.

Secure attachment

*(65%) - Explore freely in caregivers presence - Often visibly upset when caregiver leaves - Greet caregiver warmly at reunion* A pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with their attachment figure. In the SS, a securely attached infant, for example may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, the can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration.

3 things influence emotional regulations

*Cultural norms:* what seems appropriate for emotional expressions depending on the culture? *Temperament:* early emerging individual differences *Parent child interaction:* what mom does, baby does. Children tend to pick up on parents' strategies. Like the mother baby dance the mother and the child where in synchrony or in tune.

What is attachment?

- Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival. • Emotional connection between two people through time • Infants form attachments with caregivers • Serves two functions: o *Secure base*: refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment. o *Safe haven*: caregiver serves as a haven of safety when the infant feels threatened or insecure, and the child derives comfort and pleasure from being near the caregiver.

What is the classroom structure and teacher-student interaction like in Kyoto, Japan?

- Create a sense of "oneness" during morning calisthenics - Egalitarian (equality) views - Children expected to know how to read before attending class - No discipline by teacher - Older children take care of younger children, helps instill responsibility at an earlier age.

What are some examples of self-conscious emotions?

- Embarrassment - Shame - Pride - Guilt - Envy - relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us. - Require adult and cultural instruction *Parental/adult*: Children are more likely to feel guilt rather than shame if their parents help them understand the consequences their actions have for others, teach them the need to repair the harm they have done, avoid publicly humiliating them, and communicate respect and love of their children even when disciplining them. *cultural*: Indian and Japanese cultures tend to avoid bestowing praise on the individual because they believe that it encourages a focus on the self rather than on the needs of the larger social group. In comparison with U.S. children, are less likely to experience pride as a consequence of personal success.

stranger anxiety

- peaks 8-10 months - response to unfamiliar people - survival mechanism • In general, the fear of strangers intensifies and lasts until about age 2. • Young children who were not afraid of strangers at 6 months of age often suddenly show fear of them at 7 or 8 months of age. • This shift likely reflects infants' growing attachment to their parents and their recognition that unfamiliar people do not provide the comfort and pleasure that familiar people do. • depends on both the infant's temperament (i.e., how fearful the infant is in general) and the specific context, such as whether a parent is present and the manner in which the stranger approaches (e.g., abruptly and excitedly or slowly and calmly).

5. Mood

- predominant quality - positive or negative

1. Activity

- proportion of time active vs. inactive - can't sit still vs. lethargic

2. Biological Rhythm

- regularity of biological cycles - predictable vs. unpredictable

9. Persistence

- response to challenges and obstacles - gives up vs.keeps at it

4. Adaptability

- response to environmentalchanges - "roll with the punches" vs. slow to acclimate

3. Approach/withdrawal

- response to novelty - bold vs. shy

7. Sensitivity/Threshold

- sensitivity to stimulation - notice (low) vs. doesn't notice (high) small changes

Baumrind's parenting style; classification along the *control* dimensions

- setting limits and high expectations - Control - Maturity demands They set clear standards and limits for their children, monitor their children's behavior, and are firm about enforcing important limits. - want their children to be socially responsible, assertive, and self-controlled.

Baumrind's parenting style

- two dimensions of parenting style that are particularly important: (1) the degree of parental *warmth, support, and acceptance*. (2) the degree of parenting *control and demandingness*. - differentiated among four styles of parenting related to the dimensions of support and control. These styles are referred to as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and rejecting-neglecting.

Securely attached child

1. Parent & child interaction • child plays on his/her own. 2. Stranger enters the room • Child looks at stranger, then looks at parent for social referencing. • Child then initiates interactions with stranger (gives a toy to the stranger and smiles.) • Stranger initiates play with child. Child plays comfortably with stranger. 3. Parent leaves the room • Child becomes upset and starts to cry. The child goes to the door. • Stranger comforts the child and redirects the child back to the toys. The child feels a little better. But the play quality decreases because the child wants the parent. May look at the door from time to time. 4. Parent's return! • Child immediately goes toward the parent and wants to be picked up. • Easily soothed. Child returns to play.

Insecure-avoidant child

1. Parent & child interaction • child plays well on his/her own. 2. Stranger enters the room • Child looks at stranger. Gives the stranger a smile. • Stranger initiates play with child. Child plays with stranger with no problem. 3. Parent leaves the room • Child ignores the parent's departure. He/she continues to play with the stranger. It seems like the child is not upset at all!! 4. Parent's return! • Child ignores the parent and continues to play.

"prototype" of children with an *easy* temperament

40% Positive mood Regular/Rhythmic in body functions Adaptable Reactions mild/moderate in intensity Low Threshold

Patterson et. al

A developmental model of antisocial behavior is outlined. Recent findings are reviewed that concern the etiology and course of antisocial behavior from early childhood through adolescence. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that the route to chronic delinquency is marked by a reliable developmental sequence of experiences. As a first step, ineffective parenting practices are viewed as determinants for childhood conduct disorders. The general model also takes into account the contextual variables that influence the family interaction process. As a second step, the conduct-disordered behaviors lead to academic failure and peer rejection. These dual failures lead, in turn, to increased risk for depressed mood and involvement in a deviant peer group. The thirst step usually occurs during later childhood and early adolescence. It is assumed that children following this developmental sequence are a high risk for engaging in chronic delinquent behavior. Finally, implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.

When do self-conscious emotions first appear?

Complex emotions start to develop around 18-24 months along with the child's sense of self.

What was the goal of Lansford et al.'s cross-national study?

To see the effect of the frequencies of physical violence and the level of anxiety and aggression in children. Usually physical discipline is generally associated with heightened anxiety in children, however in countries where physical discipline is not common or used (due to either religious reasoning or if they believe that logical reasoning skills with their children to discipline children) using physical discipline in these countries like Thai or china, results in exacerbating the children's anxiety. While the countries that use it constantly showed no extreme effect if used or not used in terms of anxiety from children ( like Kenya, or India)

Implications of the "goodness of fit model" - buffering effects of positive vs. exacerbating effects of negative environment on children with particular temperamental disposition

good "fit" -> positive child outcomes bad "fit" -> negative child outcomes - Child development will be optimized when the environment is sensitively adapted to the child's temperamental characteristics (the 9 dimensions or the 4 types) - children with difficult temperaments have better adjustment if they receive parenting that is supportive and consistent rather than punitive, rejecting, or inconsistent. - children exposed to suboptimal parenting do worse if they have unregulated or reactive temperaments. - the child's temperament and parents' socialization efforts also seem to affect one another over time.

At which stage of the social information processing model is hostile attributional bias formed?

occurs at stage 2 (interpretation) of the social information processing model.