developmental psych. ch12

Victimization is associated with long-term:

adjustment problems, including loneliness, anxiety, low self-esteem, and depression (Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Victims often blame themselves for the bullying

Longitudinal studies of rejected children reveal a cycle of rejection and ____ that leads to externalizing and internalizing behavior problems.

aggression Socially rejected children tend to show less prosocial and more aggressive and disruptive behavior.

relational aggression

aggression that involves gossiping, spreading rumors, or social exclusion in order to damage a child's social relationships

During middle childhood, there is an increase in the expectation that friends will share their values and _____________________.

be loyal and stick up for themDuring middle childhood (by the ages of 10 to 11) children start expecting friends to share many of their values, to be loyal, and to stick up for them.

growth mindset

belief that ability comes with effort and practice

fixed mindset

belief that one has a fixed amount of ability

Data from a variety of national surveys conducted since 1960 reveal an upward trend for.

births to single mothers and higher rates particularly among black women

According to surveys, births to single, unmarried mothers continue to be common in the United States, particularly among ____________.

black females The largest percentage of children born to single mothers is found among black women (71.5 percent in 2013).

The best outcomes in stepfamilies are observed on average for ___________.

boys in a mother/stepfather relationship with an authoritative stepfather Boys may benefit from the presence of an authoritative stepfather and from a reduction of the cycle of misbehavior and coercion some of them established with the mother.

The finding that some children attribute their successes to ability and their failures to insufficient effort or an overly difficult task is thought to reflect an attitude toward achievement known as _________.

growth mindset A growth mindset is the belief that ability comes with effort and practice.

Parents who adopt an authoritative parenting style (warm but firm) generally have children with _ self esteem because _

higher self-esteem, most likely because children are raised in a general atmosphere of affection and acceptance and children perceive parents' praise as fair and accurate

distributive justice

how to distribute earnings based on fairness to all who have worked together

Allie understands that her friend is sad to move away but looking forward to living closer to her grandparents. Allie is most likely ______________.

in late middle childhood, about age 9 to 11 Children 9-11 recognize that individuals can feel two opposing emotions, such as Allie feeling both sad and happy about her move.

A field study of children randomly assigned to have a video game in the home revealed that playing video games seems to lead to declines in all of the following except ________.

mathematics scores Mathematics scores were not found to decline based on the amount of time children spend watching videos.

Longitudinal studies reveal that children who bully tend to come from families in which: Children who bully others tend not to have close relationships with: Children who bully often feel confident about:

-it is common for parents and children to get their way by using aggression and in which the child's aggression is tolerated by the parent. -their parents and view their parents as authoritarian, punitive, and lacking in supportiveness. -using aggression, view it as an acceptable way to achieve one's social goals, and expect positive outcomes when they engage in bullying

Although children can apparently coordinate different points of view with one other child at age 6, they have difficulty coordinating more than two people's points of view, based on their responses to stories about characters who had to consider what two other characters might think about their actions. Performance tends to improve on these three-way coordinations of perspectives by age _

10 to 12 years of age

2nd sex difference in self esteem

A second sex difference is that physical appearance contributes more heavily to overall self-esteem among girls. The ideals of beauty promoted in the U.S. media are impossible for most girls to achieve, leading them to feel lower self-esteem. Efforts by some media critics to show more realistic images of girls and women in the media may have a positive impact

The graph shows the cumulative rate of any externalizing diagnosis among a high-risk sample of first graders followed for 11 years. The intervention began in grade 1 and was continued through grade 8. The rate of externalizing diagnosis was based on clinical interviews of either child or parent at four age levels.

A year after the intervention began, children in Fast Track were less aggressive, were stronger academically, had better social and emotional skills, and were rated more positively by their peers than control group children. Benefits of the program extended through the fifth grade, including a reduction in aggression and conduct problems (Foster, Jones, & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2006). Follow-up interventions with children, parents, and teachers were carried out in grades 6 through 10 (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2011). The overall impact of the program on externalizing behavior (aggression and conduct problems) among the group at highest risk in first grade is shown in Figure 12.6

Cultural values influence the kinds of attributions children make about learning.

Asian parents and teachers are more likely to communicate a growth mindset to children than American parents and teachers. For example, Asian parents and teachers make more comments about failure than success in learning, and their comments are generally oriented toward making a stronger effort or toward the inherent value placed on learning, whereas American parents make more comments about success and greater mention of mental activities (thinking, remembering). Types of parental comments have been found to be linked to children's performance in laboratory-based puzzle-solving tasks

new picture of bullying:

Bullying is an often successful strategy for increasing one's status in the peer group. It is deeply rooted in the peer culture and will tend to occur whenever status-conscious, aggressively minded children can find children with weaker standing in the social group. The new picture suggests it might be difficult to reduce the incidence of bullying, and this has indeed proved to be the case

changing expectations of friendship: 11-13

By early adolescence (ages 11 to 13), children think friends should share similar interests, attempt to understand each other, and be willing to disclose sensitive

changing expectations of friendship: 10-11

By the ages of 10 to 11, in addition to these features, children start expecting friends to share many of their values, to be loyal, and to stick up for them.

Emotional Regulation

Children may sometimes regulate emotions as they experience them ("in the heat of the moment"). If they are able to reappraise their emotions ("The reasoned approach"), they may come up with better coping methods (emotional-such as expressing a milder label for their emotion, cognitive-such as redirecting their attention away from the distressing situation, or behavioral-such as avoiding a touchy subject).

_ competence is central to the development of _ competence

Emotional competence is central to the development of social competence

Age 5-7 and racism

Ethnic/racial bias emerges by about age 5 in every country or region where multiple racial and ethnic groups live, including the Middle East, Canada, Europe, Australia, and the United States, and appears to reach a peak at about ages 5 to 7. After age 7, children outwardly express more nuanced views of racial and ethnic groups.

1 sex difference in self esteem

Girls have lower general self-esteem than boys beginning in middle childhood and continuing into adolescence. The difference may arise in part because children of both genders who participate in sports have higher overall self-esteem than those who don't. However, across many countries, girls see themselves as less competent than boys in athletics

age 6 and racism

In one cross-sectional study of 3- to 10-year-olds, children developed an explicit understanding of racial constancy (a belief that one's race does not change from birth to adulthood) at about age 6. Age 6 was also the age at which the children showed a strong tendency to apply stereotypes about the behavior of different racial groups. The two factors in the study that were most predictive of stereotype usage were the ability to group photos of people by race and an understanding of race constancy. Children's stereotypes included both positive and negative psychological traits (for example, African Americans are musical, Asian Americans are shy)

list of the skill domains covered in the classroom intervention

Learning school rules How to be successful in school Emotional literacy, empathy, and perspective taking Interpersonal problem solving Anger management Social skills Communication skills

Self Perception Profile for Children to measure children's self-perceptions in five specific domains: scholastic competence, physical appearance, social competence, behavioral conduct, and athletic competence.

Making use of children's tendencies toward social comparison, the questionnaire asked them to answer questions such as "Some kids feel like they are just as smart as other kids their age, BUT, some kids aren't so sure if they are as smart." Children answered whether one of the two alternatives was "sort of true for me" or "really true for me." Children also rated themselves on global self-esteem ("Some kids are often unhappy with themselves, BUT, some kids are pretty pleased with themselves").

Effects of a Mindset Intervention on Math Grades of Low-Achieving Sixth- and Seventh- Graders

Over an eight-week period, the experimental group received short group lessons focused on the themes of "learning makes you smarter" and "you can grow your intelligence." The control group received lessons focused on improving study skills and memory strategies. The control group's math grades declined over the period from sixth to seventh grade, whereas the experimental group showed an increase after the intervention began, suggesting that a growth mindset can have a powerful and continuing effect on school achievement

How do mindsets and attributions of success and failure originate, and what can be done about them?

Parents may inadvertently foster a fixed mindset by focusing praise on the person ("you are smart," "you are good at math"). Praising children for working hard and for coming up with specific strategies for solving problems may promote a growth mindset. There is longitudinal evidence that parents who praised the child's effort more at ages 1 to 3 years tended to have children who expressed beliefs that success or failure is due to effort and that psychological traits such as intelligence are malleable at ages 7 to 8 years. Teachers may also promote either a fixed or growth mindset depending on how much they emphasize scores and grades versus the learning process. Students' perceptions of teachers' supportiveness are related to their level of engagement and achievement in the classroom

Emotional Regulation secondary appraisal: "The Reasoned Approach"

Regulate behavior --> cope emotionally, cognitively, and behaviorally

In an interesting field experiment, researchers attempted to change the mindsets of low-achieving math students, identified at the end of sixth grade. As the seventh-grade year got under way, they assigned half of the students at random to an experimental group and half to a control group. Over an eight-week period, the experimental group received short group lessons focused on the themes of "learning makes you smarter" and "you can grow your intelligence." The control group received lessons focused on improving study skills and memory strategies.

The results are shown in Figure 12.1. You can see that the control group's math grades declined over the period from sixth to seventh grade, whereas the experimental group showed an increase after the intervention began, suggesting that a growth mindset can have a powerful and continuing effect on school achievement

Which of the following statements characterizes children raised by same-sex parents?

They develop in similar ways to children raised by heterosexual parents. Research has consistently revealed that children raised by gay or lesbian parents develop in similar ways to children in heterosexual families. For example, in both types of families, authoritative parenting is the most effective parenting style.

changing expectations of friendship: 7-9

Younger children (ages 7 to 9) tend to think a friend is someone who is available and fun and has nice toys.

A trend with age in self-esteem is ________________.

a general decline in self-esteem as children attend elementary school followed by a rise later in middle childhood There is a general decline in self-esteem as children attend elementary school. Later in middle childhood, general self-esteem rises again, as children adjust their personal goals toward areas in which they rate themselves more highly.

In addition to stresses associated with changes in the family's circumstances, one of the most important sources of problems for both boys and girls undergoing a family divorce is thought to be _________.

a reduction of warmth, support, and structure provided by the custodial parent Researchers have shown that in the short-term, divorcing parents provide less warmth and affection and less consistent discipline, and some parents may shift from an authoritative parenting style to a more authoritarian or more permissive style.

By 6 to 7 years of age, Harter (1999) found that children had formed a global sense of self-esteem, with four or five subcategories of self-evaluation:

academic, social, physical, athletic

sociometric ratings

technique in which peers name children they like and dislike

path analysis

an analysis of longitudinal data that allows researchers to infer whether a characteristic at time 1 influences behavior at time 2

Two factors influencing the changes in self-evaluations are:

an improved ability in children to understand the views that other people (such as teachers, parents, coaches, and peers) have of them and the process of social comparison, in which children compare themselves to other children.

According to a study by Turiel (2008), children's ability to tell whether a character in a little story has violated moral rules (such as hitting another person) or social-conventional rules (such as interrupting the teacher in class) develops __________________ their ability to understand moral and social-conventional rules in real-life situations.

at about the same time as In a study by Turiel, children were interviewed about hypothetical situations resembling the types of issues raised by the real-life events. Their reasoning was quite similar across real and hypothetical moral issues.

learned helplessness

children who attributed their failures to lack of ability and their successes to external factors such as luck. The children in this latter group were identified as having a fixed mindset, or a tendency to view ability as something that cannot be improved by trying harder.

Mindsets appear to involve bidirectional influences. That is:

children with growth mindsets tend to take on more challenging tasks and, because of their persistence, experience more success, thereby building a more positive view of their own abilities and efforts (close to what Erikson meant by a sense of industry). By contrast, children with a fixed mindset tend not to take on challenging tasks and even interpret failures at easy tasks as reflections on their ability (Erikson's sense of inferiority)

socially rejected children

children with many "dislike" and few "like" ratings

socially accepted children

children with many "like" and few "dislike" ratings

self-esteem is intimately related to _

children's goals, the progress they make toward achieving them, and how they evaluate their progress.

When parent and child work together to manage the child's behavior and responsibilities, this is termed _________.

co-regulation Co-regulation is the process in which parent and child share control of the child's responsibilities and activities.

Analyses of media time diaries indicate that children who engage in more video game play, computer game play, and television watching tend to __________________.

do less reading and studying Children who engage in more video game play, computer game play, and TV watching tend to do less reading for pleasure and less studying with non-screen materials.

Bullies tend to select victims they can:

dominate in front of other children in keeping with current views that bullying is a way of increasing or maintaining social status

Children's relationships with siblings are often characterized by a high degree of _________.

emotional intensity In middle childhood, siblings generally spend more time together than they do with parents or peers, and their relationships are marked by a high degree of emotional intensity, which can be strongly positive, strongly negative, or vacillate between the two.

In middle childhood, children develop greater independence and flexibility in managing their emotions, a process known as _________.

emotional regulation Older children can initiate strategies to manage their emotions on their own, and they can flexibly shift between thoughts or behaviors to manage emotions.

Parents may contribute to a fixed mindset by telling children they are good at schoolwork, and teachers may do so by ________________.

emphasizing scores and grades Teachers may inadvertently foster a fixed mindset by emphasizing scores and grades, which implies that something cannot be improved by trying harder.

Meta-analyses (which statistically analyze the results of many prior studies) show four main areas of child behavioral difficulty that may result from divorce

externalizing behavior problems (aggression and noncompliance) internalizing problems (anxiety, withdrawal, and depression) lower academic achievement problems in social relationships with peers and parents (particularly fathers)

Researchers conducting the Fast Track intervention worked with high-risk children and achieved a long-term reduction of _________________ in grades 6 through 10.

externalizing problems Follow-up interventions with children, parents, and teachers carried out in grades 6 through 10 showed a reduction in externalizing behavior such as aggression and conduct problems.

Kecia's mom takes her after school to dance classes and softball. The term for her mother's behavior is ____________________.

gatekeeping Parents act as gatekeepers for children's opportunities by exercising choices of neighborhood, school, church or after-school activities.

Although the most immediate goal of a bully is to achieve dominance over another child, the long-term goal of most bullies seems to be to _____.

increase their own social status among peers Bullies tend to select victims they can dominate in front of other children, in keeping with current views that bullying is a way of increasing or maintaining social status.

In the study by Blackwell et al. (2007), low-achieving math students showed an improvement in ________________ after eight weeks of lessons on having a growth mindset.

math grades The experimental group showed an increase after the intervention began, suggesting that a growth mindset can have a powerful and continuing effect on school achievement.

parent-child relationships model

parenting behavior is bidirectionally related to both: - child behavior (temperament + experience) - child outcomes (temperament + experience + perception of parenting) * meaning they all influence/have effects on each other

Children's behavior has been observed to improve after ___________.

parents in a high-conflict relationship undergo divorce One study found that children's behavior problems decreased when parents in a high-conflict relationship underwent divorce.

peers have particular power to change self-esteem in the areas of _, whereas _ are influenced more by teachers' and parents' opinions

peers have particular power to change self-esteem in the areas of physical appearance, social competence, and athletic competence, whereas academic competence and conduct are influenced more by teachers' and parents' opinions

Young children tend to base their judgments of other people on concrete, observable behavior or appearances, whereas older children begin to focus on _________.

personality/psychological traits Until about ages 7 to 8, children could be described as behaviorists—they focus on observable behaviors and external environmental circumstances. However, they become mini personality theorists in middle childhood, describing people in terms of psychological traits.

social comparison

process in which children compare themselves on dimensions of self-evaluation to other children

Children rated as high in social acceptance by their peers tend to have high levels of ____________ and low levels of ______________ in middle childhood.

prosocial behavior; aggressive behavior Socially accepted children tend to be prosocial, meaning they are cooperative, helpful, friendly, and kind. They tend not to be disruptive of other children's activities and exhibit very little verbal, physical, or social/relational aggression.

Emotional Regulation Primary Appraisal: "The Heat of the Moment"

regulate emotions --> regulate perceptions and cognitions --> regulate behavior

Harming others socially by spreading rumors, gossiping, or excluding them from groups is termed ___________.

relational aggression Relational aggression is an indirect form of aggression involving gossiping, spreading rumors, or excluding a child from a group, in an effort to damage a child's social relationships.

emotional display rules

rules within a particular society or social group about which emotions are appropriate to display

Profile for Children to measure children's self-perceptions in five specific domains:

scholastic competence, physical appearance, social competence, behavioral conduct, and athletic competence.

There is longitudinal evidence that children with more friends in middle childhood had higher levels of _______________ in early adulthood, controlling for earlier social competence and self-esteem.

self-esteem In one study, those with more friends in middle childhood were more likely than those without friends to report high levels of self-esteem in early adulthood, controlling for earlier peer acceptance and social competence.

Children's self-rated academic competence, social competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct contribute in varying ways for different children to overall _________.

self-esteem Self-esteem is an overall evaluation of one's worth as a person.

_ vs _ as the key developmental issue for middle childhood (Erikson)

sense of industry versus a sense of inferiority

Most victims are:

shy, anxious children who are rejected or even victimized by the peer group, but some are aggressive and hot-tempered and may bully other weaker children themselves (aggressive victims)

Although most children are upset by acts of bullying, they rarely:

side with the victim and often tacitly accept the bully's behavior, perhaps as a way of avoiding being victimized themselves

Bullies seem deficient in at least one particular area of:

social cognition—they judge many acts to be morally sound that other children reject as immoral, such as stealing from a classmate and verbally insulting a classmate

Children's self-evaluations become more realistic due to the process of ___________, in which they compare their skill levels to those of other children.

social comparison Through social comparison children recognize strengths and weaknesses about themselves compared to other children.

Most bullies are not low in:

social competence or self-esteem (e.g., Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000). Bullies use both prosocial and aggressive strategies to achieve their goal of social dominance over other children. They tend to seek allies in their efforts and tend to bully children who are rejected by other peers and not children who are accepted by other peers

One thing shared in common by teenage mothers and older mothers who decide to raise a child without a partner is that they benefit from ____________.

social support from extended family or friends Single mothers who perceived themselves as getting more support from friends or family tended to report lower levels of stress.

When given simple enough stories, even preschoolers distinguish between moral rules and ____________, which refer(s) to rules, authority, and social customs.

social-conventional rules When given simple enough stories, even preschoolers distinguish between social-conventional rules, which refer to rules, authority, and social customs, and moral rules, which refer to issues of fairness, harm, and individual rights.

Children who are rejected by their peers generally form two subgroups: a subgroup that is aggressive and a subgroup that is __________________.

socially withdrawn Although the majority of rejected children are aggressive, a significant subgroup tends to be socially withdrawn.

All of the following are the most common areas of child behavior or emotional problems following a family divorce except___________.

taking sides with the father rather than the mother Taking sides with the father rather than the mother is not one of the four most common areas of child behavior after a family divorce. Those main areas of child behavioral difficulty are: externalizing behavior problems, internalizing problems, lower academic achievement, and problems in social relationships with peers and parents (particularly fathers).

All of the following are features of the anti-bullying programs mentioned in the chapter except _____. getting students to watch for and report signs of bullying encouraging children to make friends with peers who are likely to be victimized teaching families of bullies more effective parenting strategies teaching children to fight back against bullies

teaching children to fight back against bullies Children were not taught how to fight back against bullies. The goal of the anti-bullying program in Norway was to change the school climate.

According to an observational study by Gottman where previously unacquainted children were observed in a home setting three times, children who became friends _____________.

tended to be better at exchanging relevant information Gottman found that unacquainted children who became friends were better than non-friends at exchanging relevant information.

The main advance across middle childhood is that children become more precise in their use of:

terms ("mean" differentiates into "cranky," "cruel," "inconsiderate," etc.)

second-order false-belief reasoning

the ability to understand that people may hold false beliefs about others beliefs.

Two factors relevant to the co-regulation process that can modify particular parenting influences on the child are the child's temperament and _________.

the child's perception of how supportive the parent is Parents who are perceived as supportive tend to have children who are academically successful and socially competent in childhood and adolescence.

gatekeepers

the function of parents in opening (or closing off) environmental opportunities to the child

Having at least one close friend helps protect victimized children from:

the most severe consequences of bullying

co-regulation

the process in which parent and child share control of the child's responsibilities and activities

Bullies have all of the following characteristics except ___________.

they low in social competence Most bullies are not low in social competence or self-esteem. Bullies use both prosocial and aggressive strategies to achieve their goal of social dominance over other children.

Longitudinal studies comparing the later development of children from closely matched families who either divorce or remain intact indicate all of the following except ___________. those who experienced divorce are more likely to be in jail the majority in both groups are well-adjusted those who experienced divorce are more likely to get divorced those who experienced divorce on average have more troubles in social relationships

those who experienced divorce are more likely to be in jail The majority of young adults who experience divorce are well-adjusted, and are not more likely to be in jail.

According to one cross-sectional study of 3- to 10-year olds, two predictors of whether children apply stereotypes to different racial groups at age 6 are being able to group photos of people by race and ____________________.

understanding racial constancy By age six children have a belief that one's race does not change from birth to adulthood, which is known as racial constancy, and they can group photos of people by race. LO 12.3: Describe changes in children's thinking about others in middle childhood.

Most bullying involves:

verbal attacks for both boys and girls, and relational aggression is more common among girls

Sibling conflicts can serve as a positive influence on development under all of the following circumstances except __________________.

when parents use the conflicts as an opportunity to punish both siblings Research does not support that using sibling conflict as an opportunity to punish both siblings serves as a positive influence on development.

Researchers have explored two primary issues in school-age children:

whether media use displaces other valued activities, such as exercise and homework, and whether video games in particular have harmful effects