Developmental Psych FINAL cumulative
Know the design and results of the Swamy et al. (2008) longitudinal study that used public- health data to follow approximately one million Norwegian individuals from birth. What was the link between premature birth and mortality risk? What was the link between premature birth and dropping out of high school? Did degree of prematurity matter?
- if you are born prematurely you are more likely to die, drop out of school early, behavioral problems
What is a mental representation? What are the two substages of the preoperational period? How do children's drawings reflect the increasing ability to engage in symbolic function?
-Mental Representation: -The Two Substages of the Preoperational Period are: 1. Symbolic Function Substage (Roughly ages 2-4) -Scribbles @ age 2, shapes & designs @ 3, actual pictures @ 6 2. Intuitive Thought Substage (Roughly ages 4-7) -Casual Reasoning, Categorization (ex. Animism), ability with numbers
How long does the preoperational stage last? What is an operation? What is a conservation task, and how do children in the preoperational stage handle conservation tasks?
-The Preoperational Stage lasts from ages 2-7 years old. -Operations are the things that the children in the preoperational stage cannot do independently yet (hence, PRE-operational) **definition directly from class notes - no known definition in textbook? -A "Conservation Task" example is when you put the same amount of water into two different containers, the pre-operational child will choose the taller/longer container despite watching the same amount of liquid being poured in each. Conservation = knowing amount stays the same even when physical appearance changes.
What is assimilation? What is accommodation?
-assimilation- does not require changes to scheme (can fit it right into how the world works) accommodation- change scheme to accommodate to how the world works
How did Bowlby's observation of World War II orphans illustrate that attachment is a fundamental need? How did Rutter's studies of Romanian orphanages illustrate that attachment is a fundamental need? Make sure that you understand Rutter's specific findings. When were the Romanian orphans able to "catch up"? When were they unable to "catch up"?
-children were underdeveloped and undersized because the orphanages didn't respond to their needs -if you have been exposed to attachment in the first 6 months, you can catch up after six months. -if you haven't been exposed than it is harder to develop after six months
Know the generalities of the Simpson longitudinal study examining individuals at four stages from birth to age 23. What are the implications of the 0.3 correlation between childhood attachment and adult attachment?
-followed 78 people from birth to age 23 12 months: strange situation procedure age 6 to 8: popularity as rated by teachers age 16: extent to which people trust their friend age 23: extent to which people display constructive emotions and proper conflict resolution strategies in their romantic relationships
What are the three functions of attachment? Make sure that you understand the fine distinctions between each of the three functions.
-proximity maintenance- closeness to caregiver -safe haven- knowing that you're mother is there reduces stress -secure base-the courage to explore once the stress is gone
Understand what the longitudinal evidence seems to indicate about the link between violent media exposure in early childhood and aggression later on.
...Media is full of aggression and role models. Study: had 3rd graders tell how much tv they watch and how violent it is. found correlation between aggression years later in freshman in college No correlation between how agressive in third grade and how aggressive the people were freshman year of college. Implies direct effect that violent tv leads to aggression
Beyond obvious parental influence, how does social learning theory add to our understanding of how the environment can influence the development of aggression? Understand the design, results, and interpretation of the famous Bobo doll study with quite a bit of depth. (You should know the relevance of imitative versus nonimitative behavior.)
...Social learning theory: we learn how to act by imitating others so enviroment has a huge piece on how a person acts. agression or lack of agression is learned when we watch others Bobo doll study: social learning experiement, kids watch a video of unrelated role model and half the kids watch an nonviolent person be nice to the doll video while half the kids watch a violent video of person being violent with the doll. after the kids watched the videos, they let the kids be with the bobo doll. Kids who watched the violent video are more aggressive vs those who didn't
What are the 3 domains of developmental psychology
1) physical 2) cognitive 3) social changes
Know Kohlberg's theory of moral development with quite a bit of depth.
1) preconventional: (4-10yrs) morality is guided by external punishment and reward: stage one: only consequences matter. stage two: unititarian morality..what do you get out of the situation 2)conventional morality: (10-13) morality is guided by others standareds and concerned about looking good to others. stage one: maintaining mutual relations stage two : social concern and social norm 3) post conventianal: >13 capability of getting here but most never do reach this stage. not guided by others but by what is right
What is the link between the maintenance of gender boundaries during middle childhood, and popularity during this time? Know the general design and results of the study that demonstrated this link. Moreover, how is the maintenance of gender boundaries in middle childhood linked to relationships with the opposite sex later in development, and why might this be?
4 week summer camp. MN longitudional study. children less popular didn't maintain gender boundaries. fails to maintain boundaries did worse with members of opposite sex later on
About how many phonemes exist in the world, approximately speaking? Why are individuals from Asian countries more likely to have trouble with the phonemes of "l" and "r" while individuals from Western countries are not?
400
With bilingualism, does it seem to be true that early exposure to two languages is a case of "okay at two instead of great at one"?
90% show no delay so no
Understand the four types of parenting styles well enough that you can identify the parenting style if given an example. Know which parenting styles are linked to the best outcomes. (We discussed parenting styles so that it was clear which style was "first," "second," "third," and "last.") What is the link between authoritarian parenting and aggression? Permissive parenting and aggression? How do outcomes of authoritarian parenting differ for African-American vs. Caucasian families?
Authoritative: High Acceptance and Control Authoritarian: High Control and Low Acceptance Permissive: High Acceptance and Low Control Uninvolved: Low Acceptance and Low Control
What is the cephlaocaudal principle of development? What is the proximodistal principle of development?
Cephlaocaudal: Growth from head to feet Proximodistal: Growth from inside out
Know the Harlow monkey studies in quite a bit of detail. What was the design of the study? How did monkeys generally act towards the two "mothers"? How did monkeys react when they were exposed to a frightening stimulus?
Cloth mother vs. wire mother with food. The baby spent more time with the cloth mother and went to her for comfort when frightened.
How are sociometric methods used to gauge popularity? What are the five categories of popularity according to sociometric methods, and how are children placed into those five categories?
Controversial: Many positive, many negative: have a clique of friends who you like but are mean to other people (mean kids who are still liked) Rejected: Many negative, no positive: people don't like them, don't necessarily deserve to be rejected because of their actions Popular: Few negative, many positive: "everyone likes them" Neglected: Few positive, few positive: loners but no active dislikes Average: a lot in the middle: not liked enough to be popular but not enough to be rejected ⅓ students average
What percentage of adolescents report being bullied? How do peers indirectly contribute to bullying behavior (i.e., what is the link between bullying behavior and popularity in adolescence, versus later in development)? What are some of the negative outcomes that are associated with being the victim of bullying? What is cyberbullying, and what makes it harder to curb than regular bullying?
Cyberbullying: bullying over social-media/using technology to do so About 30% report a cyberbullying incident in the previous month. Cyberbullying has the same negative outcomes as regular bullying, although it's a less-personal means of bullying so it's the easiest type of bullying to participate in.
Understand Marcia's typology of identity states with quite a bit of depth, to the point where you could identify the correct identity state given a hypothetical example. How do rates of diffusion and foreclosure compared to rates of moratorium and achievement in adolescence versus emerging adulthood, and why might identity formation be especially relevant in emerging adulthood, especially in modern times?
Diffusion: don't know identity or what you believe Foreclosure: committed to an identity without thinking about it... maybe due to parents' beliefs Moratorium: going out of the way to explore an identity (emerging adulthood) Achievement: making an informed commitment based on exploration and experimentation
Know the basic design and results of Emmy Werner's Kauai study, and understand how it demonstrated the idea of lawful change.
Emmy Werner's Kauai study- followed 698 children that were born on Kauai in 1955. 200 of those children were said to be "high risk" children. 2⁄3 of the 200 children ended up developing severe behavioral/developmental problems. The other 1⁄3 were perfectly fine. They overcame their high risk fate because they were exposed to rich environments.
What is emotion regulation? What is the link between emotion regulation in early childhood and social competence in both early childhood and later in development?
Emotion Regulation: is the capacity to control one's emotions and the ability to tailor emotions towards what is appropriate at any different time. Link between emotion regulation and social competence in early childhood is parental influence, and the link between emotion regulation and social competence in later development is meta-analysis.
Know the basics of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. For each of his eight stages
Erickson's theory of psychosocial development- -8 age periods and each period has a development that needs to be resolved. 1) trust vs. mistrust- (0-1 years) is the world a good place? can I trust people? 2) autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt- (1-3 years) learn to perform behavior independently without relying on others. 3) initiative vs. guilt- (3-6 years) should I do things on my own? try new things without worrying about being judged. 4) Industry vs. inferiority- (6-12 years) am I a competent person? 5) identity vs. identity confusion (12-20 years) what is my identity in society? What is my role? Who am i? 6) intimacy vs. isolation- (20-40 years) need to learn how to let other into your life. Can I love? (not just significant others) 7) generativity vs. stagnation- (40-60 years) Have I left some kind of legacy? Can I leave a mark on the world? 8) integrity vs. despair (60+) Did I live the life that I wanted to live? Am I satisfied with my life?
when do infants speak first word and comphrehend the word
First year they learning meaningful words. One word stage is the understading of things but production is limited (ex doggie) and they usually hit the stage at 15-18 months
6. Know the case study of Genie with a bit of detail. What is the critical period hypothesis, and why was Genie particularly well suited to test the critical period hypothesis? Ultimately, did the case study of Genie support the critical period hypothesis? What do we generally find with people who try to learn a second language when their first exposure to that language is before puberty versus after puberty?
Genie had a psycho father who kept her locked up until age 13. She had no contact to the outside world. If she tried to speak she was beaten. She was not spoken to and if her father had to communicate with her it was in the form of a dog bark. She was only able to say her name and the word sorry. The critical period hypotheis is that LAD is not effective if not learned before puberty. She was able to learn many words until the after the first year she was never able to master syntax. Hypothesis supported.
What is a genotype? What is a phenotype? Make sure you understand the concept of reaction ranges with quite a bit of depth.
Genotype: genetic makeup phenotype: the way you express your genetic makeup reaction range: range of phenotypes that express the genotype
Which gender is more likely to suffer from body image problems? How do early maturing girls and late maturing girls differ in body image during early adolescence versus late adolescence, and why?
Girls; early maturing girls have more issues with body image than late maturing girls... Hard time fitting in and less satisfied with their bodies when late maturing girls mature
What are the cutoffs for being overweight? Being obese? What percentage of Americans is overweight? Obese?
Having a BMI > 25 means you're overweight Having a BMI > 30 means you're obese 63% of Americans are considered overweight, and 27% are considered obese Being overweight/obese has an increased risk of... -cardiovascular disease -diabetes -hypertension -depression (especially for women) -arthritis -back problems -mortality
On average, how many hours do children sleep a day during infancy? At 10 years old? During adolescence? How does the proportion of non-REM sleep to REM sleep change during this time? Know the design, results, and interpretation of the study testing a sleep intervention in Edina schools.
Infancy:16hrs. half in REM 10 yrs: 10 hrs, REM declining Adolescence: 8 hrs, ⅓ in REM Continues to decline with age Started school an hour later→ kids less stressed, behavior and grades improved-->more sleep=greater ability to succeed in school
how do high school dropout rates differ by race? What does stereotype threat indicate about how expectations can influence academic performance in adolescence? Know the design and results of the study demonstrating stereotype threat. How did high school influence female interest in the sciences in 1989 versus 2002, and what does this indicate about how expectations can influence academic performance in adolescence?
Latinos have largest dropout rate, then African Americans. Asians and Americans have lowest rates
What is the link between SES and obesity? How are family mealtimes earlier in adolescence linked to healthy eating behavior later in adolescence, and why might this be? What is the link between chronic stress and obesity, and how is this link related to a) food preferences and b) self-regulation? How is access to fatty food contributing to the development of obesity (i.e., roughly know the number of calories that we are consuming today relative to the number of calories being consumed in the 1970's)?
Low SES→ less $ for healthy food/transportation to healthy food→ eat cheap food that fills the stomach but is mostly fat and sugar→ obesity Family meals: children less likely to snack on unhealthy food constantly, learn portion control and to eat slowly. parents have more control over child's diet
What is the secular trend when it comes to menarche (i.e., when does menarche occur in 2013 versus in 1900, on average)? How might nutrition and stress be contributing to this secular trend?
Menarche 3 years earlier in girls in 2013 than in 1900. Nutrition has greatly improved, also more girls gaining sufficient fat for puberty earlier. Also a more stressful environment in 2013-school, standards, bombardment with info
What is the nativist approach, and who was the leading figure of the nativist approach? With some detail, understand what is meant by the language acquisition device. What are the implications of the LAD, in terms of how easily children learn language? In that case, how do mothers talking to their children influence the development of vocabulary?
Naom Chomsky was the first to suggest nature is important. Children are born with some idea of how language works- his theory is controversial because father of modern linquistic thinking. LAD is innate biological mechanism in the brain where you are born with a basic understanding of language and capacity to learn words quickly. When your mom talks to you before age 3, the child has the fundamentals of language and can develop the words. Critical period before puberty.
What is the difference between physical and relational aggression? What is the gender difference regarding who commits physical aggression versus relational aggression?
Physical/Overt Aggression: physical damage (or the threat of physical damage) is the agent of harm. Boys are more likely to participate in physical aggression. Relational Aggression: damage to one's relationships (or the threat of damage to one's relationships) is the agent of harm. Girls are more likely to participate in relational aggression.
When is the concrete operational stage? Remember what is meant by an operation, and how children differ in their ability to engage in operations before this stage and during this stage. When is the formal operational stage? Understand how the "Guess Who?" game and the pendulum task illustrate the ability to engage in systematic testing of hypotheses. Understand how the "Third Eye" task illustrates the ability to engage in abstract thought.
Piaget. before adolescence ages 7-11. understands some actions are reversable and can be undone. once they master concret operations they use logic, intuition and can perform conservation tasks . Guess who?... third eye..
Know the basics of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Was it organismic or mechanistic? Did he consider children to be active or passive learners?
Piagets theory of cognitive development: -children are not passive observers, but active learners (ie-ORGANISMIC MODEL!) STAGE THEORY! -"errors" actually make sense
Understand the design and results of the study demonstrating the Pygmalion effect with depth, including its implications for the link between SES and the development of intelligence.
Rosenthal and jacobson. replicated finding that teacher expectations can unduly influence student development regardless of IQ. Study: 4th graders. 2 groups. one teacher was told the students were really smart, high potential (bloomers). the other teacher was told no information. the bloomers showed substantially more academic improvments bc the teacher expected more out of them so worked harder
9. What is the general link between socioeconomic status and the development of intelligence? Know in detail the results of the study by Turkheimer and colleagues that used public health data to examine the extent to which genes or environment contributed to intelligence, depending on SES. Make sure that you deeply understand the rationale behind these results.
SES and the development: genes matter. Genetic contribution to intelligence. Environmental influence is complimentary to genes. On average, lower SES is associated with lower intelligence and worse cognitive development. Torkheimer and colleagues study looked at twins using public health data. Low SES: environment accounted for variation in IQ at age 7. Genes didn't seem to make a difference. High SES: genes accounted for variation in IQ at age 7 and enviro didn't seem to matter. With the low SES the child has a baseline low level of resources so room for upper movement. With the high SES, wealthy so genetically able to reach their IQ level and the environment didn't make a difference. No room for upward movement because they already have their resource met to meet genetic potential.
What is the difference between sex and gender? Know the design and results of the study in which adults were asked to label the roughhousing behavior of ambiguously gendered children, and understand its implications for the development of gender identity and gender roles. Know the generalities of the Adam/Beth study and understand its implications for how gender identity develops. Around what age does gender identity "cement" (i.e., gender constancy develop)?
Sex: whether you are biologically male or female Gender: whether you identify as male or female Gender Identity: the extent to which individuals recognize themselves as male or female. Gender Identity cements around the ages of 5-7 (i.e. gender constancy) Gender Roles: gender-typing and gender-stereotyping Kids start engaging in gender stereotyping and gender segregation at the age of 3, but are exposed to gender roles immediately. Media is a huge influence (commercials, etc.)Adam/Beth Study: Gender ambiguous baby, watched to see how people reacted based on which gender the baby was presented as.
Know the basic design and results of the study using the Marshmallow Test (including the longitudinal findings).
The "Marshmallow Test" is a common procedure used to determine the capacity for delay of gratification. The kids who were able to delay gratification for a longer period of time were more socially and academically competent in adolescence, and also scored higher on the SAT.
What is the Apgar Scale, when is it administered, how is it scored, and what are the five aspects of physical health that are tested?
The Apgar Scale is done at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth,(0 being bad, 2 being good) in 5 separate categories: 1. Appearance (color) 2. Pulse (heart-rate) 3. Grimace (reflex irritability) 4. Activity (muscle tone) 5. Respiration (breathing)
What is the Flynn effect, and why is it occurring on a very general level? What is fluid intelligence versus crystallized intelligence, and which one seems to be driving the Flynn effect?
The Flynn effect is evniroment heavy influence on IQ. We have been getting smarter with every generation. Flynn says nutrition, schooling, parenting style ect affect your IQ. Changes in technology, people interact with more people, and today the world needs to advance intelligence at a faster rate of intelligence. Fluid intelligence is how readily you can learn info and crystallized is the content you know.
How is growth hormone related to the growth of the human body? How is TSH (or specifically, thyroxine) related to the growth of the human body?
Thyroxine enhances growth hormone which promotes brain and body growth
What was Leon Vygotsky's main contribution to Piaget's original theory? What is the zone of proximal development? What is scaffolding?
Vygotsky challenged Piaget's original theory to think more about social & cultural environment. Zone of Proximal Development: the range of tasks that children can master with the help of a skilled other -Scaffolding: the level of help that is in fact provided (in reference to the zone of proximal development)
What is the difference between aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected children, in terms of prevalence, behavior, and later developmental outcomes involving externalizing and internalizing symptoms? Who is at greater risk of being bullied?
aggressive-rejected: 80% of rejected kids fall into, low pro-social skills and high disruptive. kids dont like because they are outwardly aggressive Agresssive-withdran: 20% of rejected kids. internal problems, low self esteem, depression withdrawn kids are most likely to be bullied becasuse timid/shy and weak
What is an allele? What does it mean to be homozygous on a trait? What does it mean to be heterozygous on a trait? How do combinations of alleles result in various genetic disorders? Pertaining to genetic disorders, what does it mean to be a carrier?
allele- a set of genes existing on both paired chromosomes that affect the same trait. dominant alleles will express themselves regardless of the other allele. recessive alleles will express themselves only if the other allele is recessive. homozygous- when both alleles are the same heterozygous- when both alleles are different
What are the differences between anorexia nervosa and bulimia? In adolescence, what is the prevalence rate of anorexia nervosa? Of bulimia? What negative outcomes are generally linked to body image dissatisfaction? How can the media contribute to the development of body image issues? Know the general results of the meta-analysis that demonstrated this link.
anorexia: .5 adolescence suffer. starve oneself. highest mortality rate among mental disorders bulimia: 1-2% overeatting and purging.
How much does the average newborn in the United States weigh? What does it mean to be low birth-weight and very low birth-weight? (Know the cutoffs.) What does it mean to be premature and very premature? (Know the cutoffs.) What does it mean to be small-for-date? Acknowledging that the two are often correlated, is it typically worse to be born prematurely or born with low birth-weight?
average baby- 20 inches long and weighs 7.5 pounds -at birth 95% of full term babies weight between 5.5-10 pounds and are between 18-22 inches longs. low birth weight babies- weigh less than 5.5 pounds small-for-date weigh less than 90% of babies of the same gestational age. premature- born before completing the 37th week of gestation (43% of premature infants are of low birth weight)
What does a highly anxious adult look like in adulthood? What does a highly avoidant adult look like in adulthood? What is the primary difference between how childhood attachment is conceptualized versus how adult attachment is conceptualized? What is the difference between dismissive avoidance and fearful avoidance?
avoidance: discomfort with intimacy and need to maintain psychological independence anxiety: strong need for intimacy, uncertainty about the reliability of others to provide that intimacy adult attachment theory reflects the fact that we develop attachment to people besides our parents.
What is telegraphic speech, and when do children start using telegraphic speech?
being able to arrange words
to what extent has the brain developed into its adult physical size by age five? What parts of the brain develop most rapidly, and what parts of the brain develop more gradually? What is lateralization? What is myelination? What is myelin, and why is it important?
brain is 25% of its eventual size and reaches close to its full size (90%) at age 5 -different parts of the brain develop at different rates, from brainstem to frontal lobe lateralization- 2 cerebral hemispheres demonstrate specialized functions. *myeline is the fat that surrounds neurons- -efficiency of neural communication goes to the glial, which coat the neural pathways with myelin myelination-enables signals to travel faster and more smoothly, permitting the achievement of mature functioning
What are centration and decentering? What is egocentrism and how is it an example of centration? How does the three-mountains differentiate between children who are bound by egocentric thinking and children who have moved past egocentric thinking? What is theory of mind, and how does the false-belief task differentiate between children who have developed theory of mind and children who have not?
centration- (inability to decenter) *must develop theory of mind (develops ages 4-5), rather than relying on egocentric thinking ex. of centration- boat and rabbit video false belief- crayon example deception- sticker/evil monkey example
What is the link between chronic stress and obesity, and how is this link related to a) food preferences and b) self-regulation? How is access to fatty food contributing to the development of obesity (i.e., roughly know the number of calories that we are consuming today relative to the number of calories being consumed in the 1970's)?
chronic stress= less exercise, eating fatty foods. compared to the 70's men are eating 160 more calories a day and women are eatting 335 more. body not equipped to handle
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? What is memory as it pertains to conditioned learning, and how is it different from adult memory? In the video we watched, how did researchers demonstrate conditioned learning in infants using a mobile and string?
classical conditioning- a person learns to make a reflex or involuntary response (ex. blinking) to a stimulus that originally did not bring about the response. operant- (when a baby learns that babbling brings loving attention) the learner acts, or operates, on the environment. The infant learns to make a certain response to an environmental stimulus in order to produce a particular effect. *recognition triggers memory for babies
What is meant by continuity in developmental psychology? What is meant by lawful change in developmental psychology?
continuity-contious change lawful change-change for a specific reason
Have a deep understanding of dynamic systems theory as it pertains to locomotion. How do complex motor skills emerge seemingly "out of nowhere"? What constitutes a system, according to dynamic systems theory? When do babies start crawling, and when do they master crawling? Why are more and more babies skipping the process of crawling entirely? How does the "disappearance" of the stepping reflex actually illustrate the role of dynamic systems? Why do babies "regain" the stepping reflex when placed in waist-deep water?
crawling begins at 6 or 7 months. *10 months before babies figure out diagonal pattern that results in most effective way -crawling is not developmentally necessary -the example of the "disappearing" stepping reflex
What is a cross-sectional design, as it pertains to developmental psychology? What are the weaknesses of cross-sectional research? (What is a cohort effect?)
cross-sectional research- looking at different groups at one time point (big weakness is cohort effects) cohort effects- a group of people born at about the same time that have different experiences that can impact their development.
How long is the embryonic period of gestation? How does mitosis during this period compare to mitosis during the germinal period? What part of the blastocyst becomes the embryo? What are the three layers that initially make up the embryo, and what does each of those layers ultimately become? What is the placenta, how does the placenta allow for the exchange of materials between mother and child, and what part of the blastocyst becomes the placenta?
embryonic period- between 2-8 weeks *mitosis begins to occur more rapidly *the inner cell mass differentiates into endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm. endoderm- inner systems (digestive, respiratory system) ectoderm- skins and nervous system (outside parts) mesoderm-in between (muscles and bones) *the other parts of former blastocyst develop into embryonic system (eg. the placenta) placenta-grows throughout pregnancy and where mother and kid can exchange materials. Blood vessels from mother and child never come into contact. placenta forms from the trophoblast -diffusion allows for the materials to not come into contact * by the end of the period, the organs have started to form and child has begun to take on recognizably "human shape".
. What is the difference between entity and incremental views of intelligence? On average, which view do children endorse at the beginning of middle childhood, and which view do children endorse by the end of middle childhood? What is the link between views of intelligence and task persistence? Know the basic design and results of the study in which children were given entity or incremental praise for success on an initial task.
entity: intelligence won't change who you are incremental: you can change your intelligence switches from incremental to entity
What is the difference between entity and incremental views of intelligence? On average, which view do children endorse at the beginning of middle childhood, and which view do children endorse by the end of middle childhood? What is the link between views of intelligence and task persistence? Know the basic design and results of the study in which children were given entity or incremental praise for success on an initial task.
entity: intelligence won't change who you are. intelligence is fixed and cant be changed incremental: you can change your intelligence. intelilgence is flexible switches from incremental to entity children at the begining of middle childhood endorse: incremental. this is good because it facilitates better learning. later in childhood they adopt to entity view. its better to praise child for their efforts rather than their particlar talent in a subject
Rothbart's classifications:
extraversion -negativity affectivity -effortful control- extent to which they can self sooth and control arousal (most important)
How long is the fetal period of gestation? At what point during the fetal period can infants be born prematurely and still have a chance to survive if medical intervention is provided?
fetal stage- 8 weeks to birth a baby can be born at 6 months and survive
what is a gene-by-environment interaction?
gene-environment interaction means that the environment will moderate the effects of the genes without saying they are correlated. The effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals.
What is a gene-environment correlation, and how does it differ conceptually from a gene-by- environment interaction? Understand what is meant by passive, evocative, and active gene- environment correlations to the level that you can identify which type of correlation is relevant if given a hypothetical example.
genotype-environment correlation-because genes influence a person's exposure to particular environments, the environment often reinforces genetic differences. That is, certain genetic and environmental influences tend to act in the same direction. active-children with certain genes will choose environments that are consistent with the expression of those certain genes, especially as they get older. passive- parents simultaneously proved genes to their children and act upon those same genes to provide a consistent environment to their children. evocative- children with certain genes behave towards the environment (eg. parents) in a way that produces responses that reinforce the expression of those genes.
How long is the germinal period of gestation?
germinal period- between fertilization and 2 weeks *fertilized egg attaches to the uterine wall -starts with a zygote, zygote multiplies (mitosis) (very slow) -zygote becomes blastocyst after multiplying and it contains an inner cell mass -trophoblast is the outer layer of the blastocyst
What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory? What is working memory, what part of the brain is associated with working memory, when does the capacity for working memory emerge, and how is this related to the timing of when object permanence develops?
implicit memory-refers to remembering that occurs without effort or even conscious awareness. it pertains to habits and skills, such as knowing how to throw a ball, or infant's kicking on seeing a familiar mobile. (develops in early infancy) explicit memory- (also called declarative memory) conscious or intentional recollection, usually of facts, names events, or other things that can be stated or decored. develops in late infancy or toddlerhood. working memory-short term storage of information the brain is actively processing or working on. *prefrontal cortex and associated circuitry develop the working memory *during the second half of the 1st year, working memory develops. - the relatively late appearance of working memory may be largely responsible for the slow development of object permanence, which seems to be seated in a rearward are of the prefrontal cortex.
What are the six basic emotions, when do infants develop the ability to express these emotions, and why is it important that infants display this ability when they do?
ix primary emotions: joy, anger, surprise, fear, sadness, disgust. *babies begin to express these around first 6 months
What is a longitudinal design? What are the main strengths of a longitudinal design? Practically speaking, why are longitudinal designs not more widely used? We covered two specific findings that came from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation, and you should understand the basic design and results for each of those findings.
longitudinal research- follows a single group of people over multiple time points ( issue is that it's time consuming/ expensive) ** CANNOT assume cause and effect. contribution NOT causation! authoritarian parent-by age 18 you are more likely to have political orientation good relationship with your parent- age of menarche
Know the design of the longitudinal fMRI study that looked at SES at age 9 and emotion regulation at age 24. Why were the frontal lobe and the amygdala targeted, and what was the pattern of results? Generally speaking, what is the link between SES in middle childhood and the ability to delay gratification in adulthood?
low SES results in less activation in frontal lobe and more activation in the amygdala due to the fact that the amygdala activates during negative emotion
When does the male growth spurt start? Female?
male 12-13 female 10
Have a comprehensive understanding of the difference between organismic models of development and mechanistic models of development.
mechanistic- human development is analogous to a machine. "nurture based" perspective. -strictly a product of whatever environment one came into. -passive/ continuous development organismic- We are living beings of free will and we take development into our own hands. -active and stage development
What is fetal alcohol syndrome? What is the characteristic physical appearance of someone with fetal alcohol syndrome? What are the characteristic cognitive impairments?
meth/ cocaine will cause low birth weight, premature birth, exc. fetal alcohol syndrome- combination of retarded growth, face and body malformations, and disorders of the central nervous system. caused by prenatal alcohol exposure -reduced skull and brain size -small eyes -thin lips -underdeveloped cheek bones
Know Bronfrenbrenner's ecological model with quite a bit of depth. What is the big contribution of the model in terms of explaining development? Know the five ecological systems identified in his model well enough so that, if given an example, you can identify the system that is relevant.
microsystem-direct interaction (family/immediate surroundings) exosystem- no direct interaction (ie- race and gender) (not exposed to always/can't control it) mesosystem- elements within micro and exo system will influence each other macrosystem- the broader culture in which one develops (society) chronosystem- simply having time pass will influence development (growing up) ***All the systems interact with each other! Change to one system will create a ripple effect which will affect all others. - one's development reflects their environment.
Make sure that you understand the logic of twin studies with quite a bit of depth. What is the main difference between monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins
monozygotic twins- identical 100% shared genetics dizygotic twins- fraternal, 50% shared genetics - twin study- theoretically twins are raised in the same environments so you're "holding the environment constant". Therefore the only difference between any set of twins should be genetics. If a correlation between identical twins is greater than a correlation between fraternal twins, then we assume that the difference in shared genetics is the reason.
What is mutual regulation? How do still-face studies reflect the necessity of mutual regulation for proper development? What is social referencing, and when does it develop?
mutual regulation- infant and caregiver responding to each other's emotional states social referencing- (10-12 months) baby's attempt to understand an ambiguous situation using cues from caregiver
What is object permanence? How does the A-not-B error demonstrate object permanence, or a lack thereof? At what age did Piaget believe that babies started developing object permanence? When do babies actually start developing object permanence, according to Rene Baillargeon? What was the paradigm that Baillargeon used in order to draw her conclusions?
object permanence- the realization that an object or person continues to exist when out of sight. *piagets said 18-24 months they will fully achieve object permanence *rene says 3.5 months A not B-they will look for an object in a place where they first found it after seeing it hidden, even if they later saw it being moved to another place.
What is phenylketonuria and why is it a particularly compelling example of how the environment can influence development?
phenylketonuria- metabolic disorder resulting in mental retardation. Can be reversed through proper nutrition
In language, what are phonemes, morphemes, and syntax?
phonemes: basic sound of work Morphemes: basic gramatical understanding syntax: being able to put words together ARRANGEMENT
What is puberty, and how are levels of testosterone and estrogen linked to the sex differences that emerge during this time (i.e., what are the levels of each, in both sexes)?
physical and emotional development are not linked. testosterone: testes grow, public hair, body growth, underarm hair estrogen: breasts, hair ect.
Jerome Kagan:
says reactions to certain experiences or stimuli can predict baby's shyness in future. *temperament is heritable (to an extent) there is plenty of room for environment to change temperament (Goodness of fit)
How do secure people compare to insecure people on trust, emotionality, commitment, and conflict resolution? When the relationship is threatened, how do anxious people differ from secure people in the type of information they week? How do avoidant people differ from secure people in the type of information they seek? When given the opportunity to provide support, how do anxious people differ from secure people in when they choose to provide support? How do avoidant people differ from secure people in when they choose to provide support?
secure people are able to trust more than insecure. secure people have better romantic relationships and such.
What is a self-concept? What is self-recognition (i.e., self-awareness) and when does it develop? How does the rouge test differentiate between infants who have developed self-recognition and infants who have not developed self-recognition? What are self-conscious emotions?
self concept: you can differentiate yourself from other people as early as four months of age *you show self recognition at around 15 to 18 months of age -embarrassment ex. of self conscious emotion
How long does the sensorimotor stage last? How are babies generally thinking about the world during the sensorimotor stage? What are the six substages of the sensorimotor stage? (Understand the six substages enough to be able to identify the correct substage if I describe a hypothetical infant's behavior.)
sensorimotor stage lasts from birth to 2 years. -knowledge is gained through sensory systems, and is limited to what is immediately in the sensory field. substages: 1) simple reflexes-sucking mom's breast 2) first habits and primary circular reactions-sucking a bottle 3) secondary circular reactions-pushing cereal off a high chair (not goal directed, you just do it) 4) coordination and secondary circular reactions-on a toy you push the same button to hear the same sound (goal directed) 5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity-find a way to get the book through crib bars (modify) 6) internalization of schemes (representational ability)-put correct shape in correct box (symbolic, you can anticipate what's going to happen)
What did Traci Mann find when she looked at dieting studies that compared dieting groups to control groups? What did she find when she looked at dieting studies that compared how much weight people lost to how much weight that people gained back?
she found that dieting doesnt work because people are unrealistic about expecatations. you need to diet and exercise
secure attachment:
ss- cry when mom leaves, happy when she returns reason-parents were consistently responsive to childs needs consequence- they develop trust in others and a sense of themselves as worthy to love
anxious attachment
ss- cry when mother leaves, becomes pissed when mom returns reason-parents inconsistent in their responsiveness consequence- they desire love but are hypersensitive to idea that they might not get it, and become "clingy"
avoidant attachment
ss-do not really seem to care if she leave or returns reason- parent consistently unresponsive and distant consequence-they assume they can't count on others and develop coping style that prevents the possibility of being hurt. internal working model - model of self: am I worth of being loved? model of others: are they responsive caregivers?
What is the leading cause of death within the first year of birth?
sudden infant death syndrome
Have a deep understanding of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning. When does synaptogenesis occur most rapidly? Do different parts of the brain show different rates of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning? What is experience-expectant plasticity? What is experience-dependent plasticity? How do the processes of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning contribute to our understanding of experience-expectant versus experience-dependent plasticity? On a conceptual (rather than specific) level, understand what kinds of developmental outcomes are governed by experience-expectant versus experience-dependent plasticity.
synaptogenesis- process via which neurons form new connections to other neurons synaptic pruning- process via which those extra connections are removed. experience-expectant plasticity: normative processes/ common (ie-the brian expects that you will be exposed to environmental stimuli (talking, seeing, exc)) experience dependant plasticity- differential processes result of synaptogenesis (ie-experiences that might not be common to every human and aren't crucial)
What is temperament? What are the three different types of temperament classifications, according to Chess and Thomas?
temperament- individual difference in behavior, emotion, reactivity. (infant personality) Chess and Thomas's 3 temperaments: "easy" (40%) "difficult" (10%) "slow to warm up" (15%) other 35% can't be classified
What is a teratogen? Why is HIV unlikely to be transmitted to the child during gestation, and in that case, when is HIV likely to be transmitted to the child if it is transmitted to the child at all?
teratogens- any ENVIRONMENTAL agent that can interfere with prenatal development. page 81 C sections- no contact with blood so HIV not transmitted Rubella- german measles. causes auditory problems and heart problems diabetes- the mothers high insulin system will go into the baby and the baby will process it to become fat
What are the two main requirements of an experiment? What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable? (Know these terms well enough to identify them in any hypothetical experiment that is described to you.) Why are experiments not as "popular" in developmental psychology as they are in other fields of psychology?
two requirements: -at least 1 variable is being directly manipulated by the experimenter (controlling for other variables) -the study is comparing at least 2 groups dependent variable- variable that you are measuring afterwards independent variable- variable that you are manipulating beforehand (variable that you are changing) ** developmental psychology is hard to do experiments because you can't always expose children to things you want to test on them (ethnically and literally can't). Also experiment don't really capture development , they let you make assumptions about development.