Developmental Psychology Exam 3 Review

Perry - epistemic cognition Dualistic thinking Relativistic thinking Commitment within relativistic thinking

'Epistemic cognition' is a term used to refer to understanding about the process of knowledge construction (how knowledge develops - at a societal not individual level; the process that the philosophical branch of epistemology is concerned with). Dualistic thinking, according to William Perry's model of intellectual development, is the intellectual ability to understand good and evil but not the nuances in between. He believed it was the base level of intellectual development that most college freshmen possessed. relativistic thinking as "knowledge in this stage of William Perry's model of intellectual development is considered to be relative and situational. Learners critically reflect on multiple perspectives and determine the most suitable answer in a particular situation.

Levinson's seasons of life - marked by transitions

1. Early Adult Transition (Age 17-22). This is the stage in which a person leaves adolescence and begins to make choices about adult life. These include choosing to go to college or enter the workforce, choosing to enter a serious relationship, and choosing to leave home. 2. Entering the Adult World (Age 22-28). This is the stage in which a person makes more concrete decisions regarding their occupation, friendships, values, and lifestyles. 3. Age 30 Transitions (Age 28-33). In this stage, there are often lifestyle changes that could be mild or more severe. For example, marriage or having children impact one's lifestyle, and these changes have differing consequences on how a person develops depending on how they embrace the event. 4. Settling Down (Age 33-40). In this stage, one often begins to establish a routine, makes progress on goals for the future, and begins behaving like an adult. People in this stage are often parents or have more responsibilities. 5. Mid-Life Transition (Age 40-45). This time period is sometimes one of crisis. A person begins to evaluate his or her life. Values may change, and how society views these people may change also. Some people make drastic life changes, such as divorce or a career change. At this point, people begin thinking about death and begin to think about leaving a legacy. 6. Entering Middle Adulthood (Age 45-50). In this stage, choices must be made about the future and possibly retirement. People begin to commit to new tasks and continue to think about the legacy they are leaving. 7. Late Adulthood (Age 60+). In this stage, one begins to reflect on life and the decisions they have made. Levinson also indicated that each stage consists of two types of periods: The Stable Period, in which a person makes crucial choices in life. The Transitional Period, in which one stage ends and another begins.

Cross-linkage theory

According to the cross‐linkage theory of aging proposed by Johan Björkstein in 1942, aging results from the accumulation of intra‐ and intermolecular covalent bonds between molecules, termed "cross‐links." Over time, these cross‐links result in the alteration of the chemical and biological properties of the cell. Although these changes occur at the level of individual cells, these cellular changes can translate into significant dysfunction of body systems. There are several age‐related manifestations of the accumulation of cellular cross‐links and the resulting cellular dysfunction. For example, cross‐links are associated with the loss of elasticity in skin and muscle tissue, stiffening of blood vessel walls, changes in the lens of the eye, delayed wound healing, and reduced joint mobility in aging individuals.

cliques vs. crowds

Cliques are small groups of 2-12 peers, usually same sex and age. Cliques can be defined by common activities or simply by friendships.

Eriksen - Identity vs. role confusion

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

• Early- vs. late-maturing teenagers - psychological effects, gender differences

Early versus late maturation among boys Early-maturing boys tend to experience the changes in positive ways. Late-maturing boys tend to have lower self-esteem than other boys. Early maturers are more likely to get involved with antisocial activities, including drug and alcohol abuse. There are advantages for late-maturing boys. They tend to have higher levels of intellectual curiosity, exploratory behavior, and social initiative when compared to early maturers after all individuals have completed puberty. It may be that late maturers have had a longer period of time to "prepare" themselves for the changes of puberty. Longitudinal research shows that, in early middle age, late maturers tend to be more responsible, cooperative, self-controlled, and more sociable, but are also more conforming, conventional, and humorless than late maturers. Early versus late maturation in girls Early studies found that early-maturing girls were less popular, less poised, less expressive, and more submissive and withdrawn than other girls. More recent research shows that early-maturing girls have more emotional problems, including problems with self-image, depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and panic attacks. These problems seem to be related to girls' feelings about their weight. These findings tend not to apply to females in cultures such as Germany, where attitudes toward sexuality and appearance are not as important as they are in the U.S. While self-image may suffer, early-maturing girls do not tend to lose ground in popularity. Early-maturing girls may experience more difficulties because of the pressure they feel in relation to males, especially given the fact that early-maturing girls are more likely to associate with males who are older. Early-maturing girls are also more likely to become involved in deviant activities such as drug and alcohol abuse. However, early-maturing females who attend all-girl schools do not seem to experience the same difficulties. Once they reach adulthood, early-maturing females tend to be more psychologically advanced than other females. However, they tend to have lower educational aspirations.

Periods of vocational development: Fantasy period Tentative period Realistic period

Fantasy Period - Period of vocational development in which children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them. Tentative Period - Period of vocational development in which adolescents think about careers in more complex ways, at first in terms of their interests and soon--as they become more aware of personal and educational requirements for different vocations--in terms of their abilities and values. Realistic Period - Period of vocational development in which older adolescents and young adults narrow their vocational options, engaging in further exploration before focusing on a general vocational category and, slightly later, settling on a single occupatio

social clock

Have you ever heard someone say (or said yourself) "my clock is ticking." This is an example of a social clock which is a cultural specific timetable for events to occur. Events include marriage, having children, etc. For example, in some cultures it is expected that people be married in their teens

Identity formation • Diffusion • Foreclosure • Moratorium • Identity achievement

Identity Diffusion - the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment Identity Foreclosure - the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options. Identity Moratorium - the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet. Identity Achievement - the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen

Formal operational stage - Piaget • Hypothetico-deductive reasoning • Propositional thought • Metacognition

In addition to the ability to perform abstract mental operations, teens become more scientific and logical in the way they approach problems. Piaget called this methodical, scientific approach to problem-solving, "hypothetico-deductive reasoning." Youth can now consider a problem, or situation, and can identify the many variables that may influence or affect the outcome. They can also estimate the most likely outcome if one or more variables are changed or manipulated. This ability has very practical applications because it enables youth to select the most logical or sensible solution to a problem. Meta-cognition is awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Erikson - intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood)

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Seattle Longitudinal Study

K. Warner Schaie agreed to present findings from his exhaustive study on aging at last year's Washington State Psychology Association conference, but only if he could bring 26 guests. They ranged from 74 to 101 years old and had stuck with him for a half-century. They were a handful of the 500 subjects who enrolled in the first year of the Seattle Longitudinal Study in 1956. Still going, it is considered by many to be the most extensive and lasting psychological research study on how people develop and change cognitively as they age. Information from it has helped change mandatory-retirement law and combat phrases like "having a senior moment" and other examples of ageism.

big five personality traits

Openness to experience. Conscientiousness. Extraversion. Agreeableness. Neuroticism.

menopause and perimenopause

Perimenopause lasts up until menopause, the point when the ovaries stop releasing eggs. In the last 1-2 years of perimenopause, the drop in estrogen accelerates. At this stage, many women can experience menopause symptoms.

Stroop Task

Speed of Processing Theory: the interference occurs because words are read faster than colors are named. Selective Attention Theory: the interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention than reading words

Genetic programming - what happens to telomeres?

The genetic theory of aging states that lifespan is largely determined by the genes we inherit. According to the theory, our longevity is primarily determined at the moment of conception, and is largely reliant on our parents and their genes. The basis behind this theory is that segments of DNA that occur at the end of chromosomes, called telomeres, determine the maximum lifespan of a cell. The more repeats in a telomere, the longer the cell will live, since repeats are lost each time the cell divides. Eventually, the cell can no longer divide and dies.

What does it mean to be part of the sandwich generation?

The sandwich generation is a generation of people who care for their aging parents while supporting their own children.

Traditional vs. Egalitarian Marriage Divorce Cohabitation

There are egalitarian marriages, where everything is equal and there are traditional marriages, where the husband takes on the role as breadwinner and the wife fulfills the role of homemaker and does not do work outside of the home.

Puberty • Primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics

While humans are born with very obvious primary sex characteristics (or body structures directly concerned with reproduction) that allows us to tell males from females, such as the penis in men and the vagina in women, secondary sex characteristics, on the other hand, are features which appear at puberty (though they later become equally as prominent). These secondary characteristics are features such as pubic hair, breast development in females, and beards in males.

Cardiovascular system - atherosclerosis Reproduction -age to bear children Brain - what changes are occurring?

atherosclerosis - hardening and narrowing of the arteries -- silently and slowly blocks arteries, putting blood flow at risk. It's the usual cause of heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral vascular disease -- what together are called cardiovascular disease. age to bear children - before 35 Adolescence is a time of significant growth and development inside the teenage brain. The main change is that unused connections in the thinking and processing part of your child's brain (called the grey matter) are 'pruned' away. At the same time, other connections are strengthened. This is the brain's way of becoming more efficient, based on the 'use it or lose it' principle. This pruning process begins in the back of the brain. The front part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex, is remodelled last. The prefrontal cortex is the decision-making part of the brain, responsible for your child's ability to plan and think about the consequences of actions, solve problems and control impulses. Changes in this part continue into early adulthood. Because the prefrontal cortex is still developing, teenagers might rely on a part of the brain called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems more than adults do. The amygdala is associated with emotions, impulses, aggression and instinctive behaviour. The back-to-front development of the brain explains why your child's thinking and behaviour sometimes seem quite mature, and illogical, impulsive or emotional at other times. Teenagers are working with brains that are still under construction.

Triangular Theory of Love - Sternberg

http://teachinghighschoolpsychology.blogspot.com/2012/02/sternbergs-triangular-theory-of-love.html

presbyopia and presbycusis

presbyopia means "old eye" and is a vision condition involving the loss of the eye's ability to focus on close objects Presbycusis - age-related hearing loss, is the cumulative effect of aging on hearing.

Senescence

the state of being old or the process of becoming old.