Developmental Psychology

Theories of biological aging

*DNA-cellular level: PROGRAMMED effects of specific genes: aging genes, telomere shortening; RANDOM EVENTS: mutations and cancer, free radicals *Organ-tissue level: cross-linkage theory, gradual failure of endocrine system, declines in immune system functioning

What is emerging adulthood and how has cultural change contributed to it?

-18-25, have not yet taken on adult responsibilities and do not view themselves as fully adult -increased education required for entry-level positions in many fields; begin to construct an individualized faith; many engage in community service; reduced need for young people's labor in industrialized nations

imaginary audience

-Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern -adolescents are HIGHLY self-conscious -they have a unjustified concern that they are the focus of others' attention, both positive and negative -adolescents engage in attention-getting behavior, but also experience frequent embarrassment and worry about waht others are "thinking about them"

Follow up research on formal operational thought and its implications for the accuracy of Piaget's formal operational stage.

-Adolescents, like adults, are most likely to think abstractly and systematically in situations in which they have had extensive guidance and practice in using such reasoning -Individuals in trial and village societies rarely do well on tasks typically used to assess formal operational reasoning -learning activities in school provide adolescents with rich opportunities to acquire formal operations

Transition to parenthood

-Arrival of a new baby often associated with declines in relationship satisfaction -May not cause significant marital strain; Generally speaking, there is continuity in marital quality before and after childbirth

Generativity: Other Forms- Aside from raising children, how can generativity be achieved?

-Caring for aging parents - "sandwich generation" -"Kinkeeper" - responsible for gathering family and keeping everyone informed -Relationships with others' children: Aunt/uncle, step-parent, foster parent, teacher/mentor -Employment: Contributing skills, creative energy, advice, goods/services -Community Leader: Faith communities, local politics, etc.

Health Problems of Older Adults

-Cataracts/macular degeneration -Hearing impairments -Taste, smell, and touch sensitivity decline -Immune functioning declines -Illness and disability -Cardiovascular disease, cancer, stroke, respiratory disease -Arthritis (particularly in women) -Type II diabetes -Unintentional injuries

Changes in mental abilities: late adulthood

-Crystalized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge, experience, judgment, social conventions -Fluid Intelligence: Information-processing, analyzing, relationships among visual stimuli, working memory capacity

Treatment & Prevention: Alzheimer's Disease

-Expectations should be tempered -Pharmacology: Target neurotransmitters implicated in memory -Cognitive stimulation: E.g., mindfulness meditation; puzzles; social groups; Some evidence of tempered progression of disease/delayed onset -Exercise! -Support for caregivers: 90% of patients are cared for by relatives; This is difficult

Changes in physical fitness: late adulthood

-Fitness peaks in early adulthood (20-35 yrs) -Aging involves declines in heart and lung functioning as well as muscle loss -Lifestyle matters! -Exercise and nutrition can trump impacts of age

Major Neurocognitive Disorder

-Formerly called "dementia" -1-2% of people ages 65+ -"As high as" 30% people ages 85+

Physical changes of aging: late adulthood

-Gradual changes: Cardiovascular, respiratory, immune, muscular systems decline over time; Skin thins, becomes looser and wrinkled -Beginning around age 30: Vision (presbyopia = "old eyes"); Hearing (presbycusis = "old hearing") -Skeletal changes Around age 50: Brain weight declines: neurons die (but some synaptogenesis); Height begins to decline (up to 2 inches by 70s-80s) -Beginning around age 60: Taste and smell; Weight begins to decline (after rising up until age 50)

What factors influence the timing of puberty?

-Heredity, nutrition, exercise, and overall physical health influence the timing of puberty. The emotional quality of family experiences may play a role. -A secular trend toward earlier puberty has occurred in industrialized nations as physical well-being increased. In some countries, rising obesity rates have extended this trend.

How do information-processing researchers account for cognitive changes in adolescence?

-Info-processing researchers believe that a variety of specific mechanisms underlie cognitive gains in adolescence: improved attention, inhibition, strategies, knowledge, metacognition, cognitive self-regulation, speed of thinking, and processing capacity -The ability to coordinate theory with evidence improves as adolescents solve increasingly complex problems and acquire more sophisticated metacognitive understanding

The heinz dilemma

-Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. -He used Piaget's story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case he presented a choice to be considered, for example between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. -By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older. -Most were stage 3 until about age 23 when it switched to most common stage 4

Alzheimer's Disease

-Most prevalent form of Neurocognitive Disorder -Majority (>50%) of all cases -Can involve a variety of cognitive declines: NOT JUST MEMORY -Diagnosed by: Determining Major NCD is present; Ruling out all other potential causes; Autopsy later

What changes in the brain take place during adolescence?

-Pruning of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex continues, and linkages between areas of the brain expand and myelinate. As the prefrontal cortex becomes a more effective "executive," adolescents gradually gain in processing speed and executive function. But performance on tasks require inhibition, planning, and future orientation is not yet fully mature. -During puberty, neurons become more responsive to excitatory neurotransmitters, heightening emotional reactivity and reward-seeking. Changes in the brain's emotional/social network outpace development of the cognitive-control network, resulting in self-regulation difficulties.

Physical Development in Adolescence: Physical growth

-Rapid acceleration over 2-3 years; attain 98% of adult height -Shift in body composition (muscle vs fat)

clique

-a group of about 5 to 7 members who are good friends and, therefore, usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, and values -a close-knit group of 5-7 friends, usually same gender, intimately involved and spend a great deal of time together -serves as primary peer group -differs from friendships in that cliques are often restricted to a particular setting (e.g., SCHOOL)

crowd

-a large, loosely organized social group consisting of several cliques with similar values. Membership is based on reputation and stereotype -a group that is larger, less exclusive, and more loosely organized than a clique -based on reputation and interests, often mixed sex (jocks, brains, popular, nerds, etc.) -shape members' interpersonal relations by influencing who they spend time with

ethnic identity

-a sense of ethnic group membership and attitudes and feelings associated with that membership, as an enduring aspect of the self -sense of belonging to an ethnic group

sandwich generation

-a term used to describe middle-aged adults who must care for multiple generations above and below them at the same time. --still dealing with their own children while caring for aging parents

Adolescents and moral issues: how much changes in adolescent thinking and sense of identity contribute to their moral reasoning?

-ability to reason hypothetically -more thinking about thinking -planning ahead -thinking beyond conventional limits -developing a sense of self in the world and in relation to others

Self-description Early Adolescence

-abstract characteristics, importance of social acceptance, different selves in different contexts -adolescent egocentrism: 1-personal fable... belief about uniqueness of own feelings and immortality 2-imaginary audience...belief that everyone else is focused on one's own appearance and behavior

Feeling "in-between": criteria for adulthood

-accept responsibility for self -make independent decisions -financial independence

friendships among adolescents

-adolescents describe the important aspects of friendship as mutual understanding, loyalty, and intimacy -girls are more intense friendships; want friends to confide in -boys have more numerous friendships, want friends who will support them when they get in trouble

Describe adolescent friendships, per groups, and dating relationships and their consequences for development.

-adolescents friendships are based on INTIMACY, MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING, and LOYALTY and contain more self-disclosure -girls place greater emphasis on emotional closeness; boys on shared activities and accomplishments -adolescent peer groups are organized into CLIQUES- important to girls mostly, and CROWDS, which grant teenagers an IDENTITY within the larger social structure of the school

the changing family structure with teen parents

-adolescents push for great autonomy (sense of self as separate, self-governing individual) -parents may perceive adolescents as younger, less capable than they are -conflicts as relationships realign -over time, parent-child relationships become increasingly symmetrical

personal fable

-adolescents' inflated opinion of their own importance- a feeling that they are special and unique -adolescents feel totally unique and invulnerable -adolescents feel that no one can understand how they really feel -personal fables frequently show up in adolescent diaries

Describe adult friendships

-adult friendships, like earlier friendships, are BASED ON TRUST, INTIMACY, and LOYALTY -women's same-sex friendships tend to be more intimate, and after marriage, opposite-sex friendships decline for men but increase for women -adult sibling relationships often resemble friendships

social clock

-age-graded expectations for major life events, such as beginning a first job, getting married, birth of the first child, buying a home, and retiring -culturally determined guidelines for the timing of major benchmarks in relation to peers: involves social comparison to peers; being out of sync with these expectation could lead to anxiety, guilt, or lack of self-confidence -benchmarks include: completing education, starting career, getting married, buying a house, having first child ***Can create intergenerational tension

puberty

-biological changes at adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity -the period of development during which immature individuals of a species take on adult form and function (sexual maturity) -a complex set of processes, not an event: endocrine system changes (hormones), physical growth and change, sexual maturation -the cephalocaudal growth trend of infancy and childhood reverses (explains why adolescents often seem long-legged with giant feet and hands)

Neurological Changes in Adolescence: Receptors

-brain changes occur at different rates in different parts of the brain (applies to changes in receptors, white matter, gray matter, etc..) -Neurons associated with social and reward systems have ~25-75% more DOPAMINE receptors -The prefrontal cortex helps control the reward system, but it undergoes extensive remodeling

Normative adolescent romantic relationship experiences

-by age 15, most adolescents had experience with romantic relationships: girls began dating 12 or 13; boy 13 or 14 -At age 15, friendship stability is high, but not romantic relationships -although brief, these relationships are intense: talk on phone 60+ minutes/day

What are the two most common abused substances, and what health risk do they pose in early adulthood?

-cigarette smoking (decline bone mass, heart attack, stroke, cancers) and alcohol consumption (liver, cardiovascular disease, cancers) are most common

friendship and adjustment

-close friendships provide opportunities to explore the self and develop a deep understanding of another -close friendships provide a foundation for future intimate relationships -close friendships help young people deal with the stresses of adolescence -close friendships can improve attitudes toward and involvement in school

Self-understanding: describe changes in self-concept and self-esteem during adolescence.

-cognitive changes enable adolescents to develop more ORGANIZED, consistent self-descriptions, with social, personal, and moral values as key themes. -self-esteem further differentiates and, for most adolescents, RISES. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING and encouragement from TEACHERS support positive self-esteem.

Cultural differences in choosing spouse/love

-common in Pakistan and India- much more common to respond to acceptable for marrying someone you do not love... but in U.S., Japan and Brazil almost NO young adults replied it would be ok -Important factor in choosing spouse: U.S.- says love and mutual attraction China- good health (men), emotional stability/maturity (women) south african Zulu- emotional stability (men), dependable character (women)

Adolescence: Development of self and identity

-concept of "self" emerges during infancy: mastery from ability to control movement and objects and 2-4 months of age -self-recognition is apparent by 18-20 months of age: Rouge test- child touches nose when it sees reflection of red spot in mirror

influences of peers vs. parents

-conformity with peers seems to increase in early adolescence and decrease as adolescence progresses -When values conflicts arise later in adolescence, teens are more likely to change friends than change their values to those of their friends -generally peer influence DOES NOT replace parent influence -quality of the parent-child relationship should be considered

Neurological Changes in Adolescence: Synapses

-continued pruning of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex, especially in the PREFRONTAL CORTEX -linkages between the two cerebral hemispheres through the corpus callosum -the prefrontal cognitive-control network still requires fine-tuning; executive function tasks require inhibition, planning, future orientation, and reward system (not mature yet- rejecting smaller immediate reward in favor of a larger delayed reward)

Discuss factors related to delinquency

-delinquency rises over early and middle adolescence and then declines -only a few teenagers are serious repeat offenders (usually boys with a childhood history of conduct problems) -a family enviro LOW IN WARMTH, HIGH IN CONFLICT, and characterized by INCONSISTENT discipline and low monitoring is consistently related to delinquency, as are poverty-stricken neighborhoods with high crime rates and ineffective schools

Describe factors related to adolescent depression and suicide.

-depression is the most common psychological problem of adolescence and greater risk is with GIRLS in industrialized nations -suicide rate increases sharply at adolescence -boys account for more deaths even though girls make more unsuccessful suicide attempts -family turmoil is common in the backgrounds of suicidal adolescents; also may be antisocial and withdrawn

Physical Development in Adolescence: Sexual development

-development of primary sex organs (testes/ovaries) -secondary sex characteristics -physiological changes permit reproductive functions

Explain how thinking changes in early adulthood?

-development of the cerebral cortex in early adulthood results in CONTINUED FINE-TUNING of the prefrontal cognitive-control network, contributing to improvement in PLANNING, REASONING, and DECISION MAKING -cognitive development beyond page's formal operations is POSTFORMAL THOUGHT -in Perry's theory of EPISTEMIC COGNITION, college students move from dualistic thinking, dividing info into right and wrong, to RELATIVISTIC THINKING, awareness of multiple truths. -in Perry's theory, the most mature individual progress to COMMITMENT WITHIN RELATIVISTIC THINKING, which synthesizes contradictions

Middle adulthood: Divorce and Remarriage

-divorce rates have stabilized over past 30 years: older age of first marriage, higher rates of cohabitation -today in the U.S, 45% of marriages end in divorce: most within 7 years of marriage, many during transition to midlife -2/3 of divorced adults remarry- 2nd marriages more likely to fail in first few years; acceptance of divorce as a solution to marital difficulties, problems adjusting to a stepfamily, persistence of negative styles of communication -divorce rates: U.S., UK, denmark, Germany, Sweeden, Canada, Japan, France, Netherlands, Australia, Spain, Italy

Choosing a vocation/career- periods of vocational development:

-fantasy period (before age 11): preferences for career choices based on familiarity, glamor, excitement; not likely to be their eventual decision -tentative period (age 11-16): more complex thoughts about careers; interest, abilities and values -realistic period (age 17-25): narrowing of options based on practical realities; some additional exploration; crystallization- focus on a general vocational category that leads to single occupation/career

dating and sexual activity

-few adolescents begin dating before they participate in crowds -fewer than 10% date before the age of 12 -90% are dating by age 16 -by 12th grade, emotional intimacy in male-female relationships surpasses that of same-sex relationship -teen sexual activity has increased in the U.S. in recent decades, but the size of the increase is not clear -there are gender and ethnic differences in rates of sexual activity

menarche

-first menstruation usually around age 12.5 for North American girls and age 13 for European girls -girls mature physically ~2 years EARLIER than boys -in industrialized nations, age of menarche declined steadily because nutrition, health care, sanitation, and control of infectious disease improved greatly -in the U.S. and a few European countries, OVERWEIGHT and OBESITY rates are responsible for trend of earlier menarche

spacial skills and sex differences

-gender gap favoring males is large for mental rotation tasks and spatial perception tasks -non-existent with spatial visualization tasks;

biological aging, or senescence

-genetically influenced, age-related declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal in all members of our species. Sometimes called primary aging. -begins in early adulthood -influences: genetic, lifestyle, environment, historical period -average lifespan increased 20-25 years over past century; dramatic 20th century gains in average life expectancy confirm bio aging can be modified by enviro factors- improved nutrition, medical treatment, sanitation and safety

Explain adolescents' reactions to the physical changes of puberty.

-girls who receive more advance information and support from family members respond more positively -besides higher hormone levels, negative life events and adult-structured situations are associated with adolescents' negative moods. Psychological distancing between parent and child at puberty may be a modern substitute for physical departure from the family

Neurological Changes in Adolescence: Gray matter

-gray matter explosion!!! -gray matter- cell bodies, reflective of synaptic connections between neurons -neuron cell bodies and synapses -peaks by area vary -synaptogenesis- overproduction again ~age 11-12, then more pruning making a more efficient system

Age-related physical changes

-heart and lungs: gradual declines; more apparent with exertion -motor performance: athletic abilities peak between ages 20-35, then decline; gradual declines in lung/heart functioning and muscle loss -immune system: capacity for protection begins to decline around age 20; thymus shrinks, less production of hormones support WBC functioning; also impacted by psychological stress -reproductive capacity: for women, reduced quality/quantity of ova starts around age 30; for men, reduced sperm quality and quantity around age 35; risks for infertility and pregnancy complications increase substantially by maternal age 35 (at odds with recent societal trends towards later child-bearing)

The role of Hormones

-hormones help to ORGANIZE and ACTIVATE the brain -organizing effects: impact the morphology/physiological structure; occur during critical/sensitive periods; relatively permanent -activating effects: hormones act on previously organized physiological structure; release or facilitate a function or behavioral pattern

Identity Formation

-identity achievement: after a period of exploration, has achieved coherent and consolidated identity based on PERSONAL DECISIONS -identity foreclosure: not engaged in experimentation, has established identity based on choices or values of OTHERS -identity moratorium: individual is in a phase of EXPERIMENTATION and has NOT YET made a clear commitment -identity diffusion: individual does not have firm commitments and IS NOT MAKING PROGRESS towards them

5Features of Emerging Adulthood

-identity explorations: especially related to work and love; more independent but not yet committed -age of instability: highest rates of residential change -more "self-focused" age of life: not self-centered or selfish, though; much autonomy, few commitments -age of feeling "in-between": no longer teens, not yet adults -age of possibilities: optimism

Discuss changes in parent-child and sibling relationships during adolescence.

-in their quest for autonomy, adolescents rely more on themselves and less on parents for decision making -teenagers deidealize their parents, often questioning parental authority -WARM, SUPPORTIVE PARENTING, appropriate demands for maturity, and CONSISTENT MONITORING predict favorable outcomes

Information Processing Perspective: Adolescents' ability to think systematically arise from:

-increase in working memory capacity -attention becoming more selective -inhibition of distractions and impulses improves -learning strategies become more effective -knowledge increases -metacognition expands -speed of processing increases -continuing improvements in cognitive self-regulation

Influences on identity formation

-individual differences generally personality -individual's own behavior: early drug use associated with less healthy identities -Parenting style: foreclosed identity more likely if parents are overly protective or authoritarian -Larger social, historical context: adolescent girls today are less focused on marriage and family than in the past

what predicts success in school?

-individual level: intelligence, confidence in self and learning, motivation and aspirations -family level: authoritative parenting, parents connected with teachers at school -social and school characteristics: peers who value achievement, supportive teachers, learning activites that encourage critical thinking -The more hours a teenager works the greater the likelihood that the teen will use drugs -broader context: SES, work schedule (<15hrs per week)

fluid intelligence

-intellectual skills that largely depend on basic information-processing skills- ability to detect relationships among visual stimuli, speed of analyzing information, and capacity of working memory. Influenced less by culture than by conditions in the brain and by learning unique to the individual. -an aspect of intelligence that relies on fundamental biological processes rather than individual experience

Risk factors teen parents face

-intellectually and emotionally unprepared: know less about child development, view their infants as more difficult, experience more parenting stress, are often less sensitive/affectionate, have children who tend to be lower achieving and struggle with peers and behavior -little social or financial support from father -higher risk of poverty and negative outcomes than older parents

Piaget's Pendulum Problem

-involves length of string and a set of weights where participants have to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight, and the strength of push -task is to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum -to find the correct answer the participant has to grasp the idea of the experimental method -that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g. trying different lengths with the same weight). -Children in the formal operational stage approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as varying the length of the string) at a time to see its effect. However, younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or changed two things at the same time.

What factors increase the risk of high school drop out rates?

-lack of parental support for achievement, a history of poor school performance, large impersonal secondary schools, and unsupportive teachers

Length of time between puberty, sexual activity, and marriage

-length of time is increasing from menarche/semenarche to marriage now -Adolescence is GETTING LONGER: pubertal onset is getting earlier; age at which many assume fully "adult" social roles is getting later (partly due to duration of schooling) -EMERGING ADULTHOOD is new term for age 20-25 -both traditional and egalitarian marriages are affected by women's participation in the WORK FORCE

companionate love

-love based on WARM, TRUSTING affection and CAREGIVING. Distinguished from passionate love. -strong affection for those who are deeply involved in our lives: parents, siblings, and friends

teen parents

-low SES is associated with: earlier sexual activity, more unprotected sex, higher rates of teen pregnancy -teen parents are more likely to be poorly nourished, use drugs or alcohol during pregnancy, have inadequate prenatal care

Factors impacting pubertal timing

-male v. female: girls mature physically 2 years earlier -genetic differences: race; endocrine disorders (e.g., precocious puberty -weight, ratio of body fat: fat linked to leptin which encourages maturation -->leptin is the "satiety hormone"; hormone made by fat cells which regulate amounts of fat stored in the body; adjusts sensation of hunger and adjusts energy expenditures -urban versus rural setting -industrialized v. non-industrialized country -socioeconomic status

2003 National Average ACT scores by gender

-males scored higher in math and science -girls scored higher in english and reading

Discuss patterns of career development, and difficulties faced by women, ethnic minorities, and couples seeking to combine work and family.

-men's careers are often uninterrupted, but women's are because of family needs -lack of mentoring, gender stereotypes, racial and ethnic bias contribute to career development issues

How common are parent-teen conflicts?

-mild conflicts are practically universal: probably beneficial for supportive development of identity and autonomy AND learning to express and tolerate disagreements -less than 10% of families have serious troubled parent-adolescent relationships: these difficulties often begin in middle childhood or earlier; may reflect other behavioral or family problems

storm and stress

-not all adolescents experience storm and stress -adolescence is a time of changes and new challenges though -early adolescence is a time when: youth experience more turmoil, parents experience more stress and dissatisfaction, families experience more conflict -developmental history and personal characteristics are important

Describe nutritional needs during adolescence, and factors related to eating disorders.

-nutritional req's increase with rapid body growth and vitamin and mineral deficiencies may result from poor eating habits -early puberty, certain personality traits, maleadaptive family interactions, and societial emphasis on thinness heighten risk of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.. and heredity also plays a role

Impulsivity in Adolescents

-pace of development in areas sensitive to REWARD exceeds that in areas involved in REGULATION -nucleus accumbens- involved in reward, addiction; adolescents show more intense activation than children or adults -orbitofrontal cortex: involved in decision-making, regulation; Adolescents and children show more diffuse activation than adults

What influences vocational choice?

-parents/family -teachers -personality -gender differences and stereotypes

changes in adolescent peer groups

-peer groups change as cliques and crowds form -importance of these groups increases in early adolescence and later declines

challenges to kohlberg's theory

-people often respond to real-life conflicts with "lower" reasoning: practical, personal considerations and emotional response; indicates stages may be overlapping -Morality of girls and women may not be incorporated: "morality of care"; not supported by research- males and females give similar responses to dilemmas; culture may be more influential in care vs. justice -bias towards values of western cultures -moral reasoning may be much more context-dependent: business deals vs. relationship issues

Parenting adolescents:

-prior parenting (including attachment relationship) and current parenting both have an impact -parental monitoring is increasingly important -adolescents who receive warm, responsive, authoritative parenting tend to: have greater autonomy and self-reliance, have positive work orientations, be more academically competent, have positive self-esteem, transition more easily to college

Describe certain theories of biological aging.

-programmed effects of specific genes may control certain age-related biological changes, i.e., telomere shortening results in senescent cells, which contribute to disease and loss of function -DNA may also be damaged as random mutations accumulate, leading to less efficient cell repair and replacement and to abnormal cancerous cells -release of highly reactive free-radicals is a possible cause of age-related DNA and cellular damage -declines in endocrine and immune systems contribute

Important developmental tasks of adolescence

-puberty and physical maturity -establishing personal identity -relating to a larger world -achieving new closeness and trust with peers -first romantic relationship -acquiring new status and autonomy within the family

prevention strategies for dropping out of school

-remedial instruction and counseling that offer personalized attention -high-quality vocational training -efforts to address the many factors in students' lives related to leaving school early -participation in extracurricular activites

Describe four statuses, along with factors that promote identity development.

-researchers evaluate progress in identity development on two key criteria: exploration and commitment. -IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT (exploration followed by commitment to values, beliefs, and goals) and IDENTITY MORATORIUM (exploration without having reached commitment) are psychologically healthy identity statuses. -long-term IDENTITY FORECLOSURE (commitment without exploration) and IDENTITY DIFFUSION (lack of both exploration and commitment) are related to adjustment difficulties.

Describe factors affecting mate selection and the role of romantic love in the young adult's quest for intimacy

-romantic partners tend to RESEMBLE each other in age, education level, ethnicity, religion, and various personal and physical attributes -evolutionary theory states women seek mates with traits that help ensure children's survival, which men look for characteristics signaling sexual pleasure and ability to bear offspring... both bio and social forces are involved -Sternberg's triangular theory of love- balance among intimacy, passion and commitment changes as romantic relationships move from PASSIONATE LOVE toward COMPASSIONATE LOVE

Describe impact of SES, nutrition, and exercise on health, and discuss obesity in early adulthood.

-sedentary lifestyles and diets high in sugar/fat contribute to obesity -some weight gain in adulthood reflects a decrease in basal metabolic rate (BMR) -effective treatment includes nutritious diet low in calories, sugar, and fat, plus regular exercise, recording of food intake and body weight, social support, and teaching problem-solving skills

Parenting adolescents: adolescents do best when parents:

-set clear standards for behavior -enforce rules in ways that are firm but not coercive -discipline in a consistent way -explain the basis for their decisions -permit real discussion of contentious issues -monitor whereabouts without being overprotective -provide a warm family environment -help adolescents develop social skills -respond flexibly to changing circumstances

Impact of early pubertal timing: Boys

-social advantages: athletics, popularity -less intellectually curious -more anxious -lower self-control: more likely to smoke, drink, use drugs, and get in trouble with the law NOTE: two factors largely account for these trends: 1- how closely the adolescent's body matches cultural ideals of physical attractiveness and 2- how well young people fit in physically with their peers

Impact of early pubertal timing: girls

-social disadvantages: unpopular, withdrawn, lacking confidence -decline in academics -depression and poorer quality relationships with family and friends -more involved, like boys, in deviant behavior -more likely to be in a sexual relationship by mid-adolescence -hold few leadership positions -childhood family conflict and harsh parenting are linked to earlier pubertal timing, more so for girls NOTE: two factors largely account for these trends: 1- how closely the adolescent's body matches cultural ideals of physical attractiveness and 2- how well young people fit in physically with their peers

What roles do expertise and creativity play in adult thought?

-specialization in college and in an occupation leads to expertise, which is necessary for both problem solving and creativity -NOTE: creativity tends to rise in early adulthood and peak in late 30s/early 40s, its development varies across disciplines and individuals

teen mothers can fare well if...

-stay in school or go back to school -don't have more children as teens -receive good social support: particularly from their own parents

Physical Development in Adolescence:Neurological changes (brain development)

-structures involved in regulating thought, emotion, and behavior continue to develop (frontal lobes, limbic system) -refinement of neural connections, patterns of activity

What personal and social factors are related to adolescent substance use and abuse?

-teenage alcohol and drug use is pervasive in industrialized nations -Drug taking reflects adolescent sensation seeking and drug-dependent cultural contexts -the minority who move to substance abuse tend to start using drugs early and to have serious personal, family, school and peer problems.

homogamy

-tendency to marry someone similar in age, race, education religion, etc.. -people tend to select partners in places with others of their own age, ethnicity, SES, and religion -people tend to select partners who are similar in attitude, personality, educational plan, intelligence, attractiveness, and even height -sometimes partners differ in "complementary traits" -more similar-->more satisfied--> more likely to stay together **Kindness/understanding and then intelligence are top 2 choices for both men and women selection criteria

Describe influences on moral reasoning and its relationship to moral behavior.

-the connections between mature moral reasoning and action is only modest -moral behavior is also influenced by empathy and guilt, TEMPERAMENT, history of morally relevant experiences, and MORAL IDENTITY; also sometimes context and motivations -the cause and consequence of moral development-empathy although formal religious involvement declines in adolescence, most religiously affiliated teenagers are advantaged in moral values and behavior

emerging adulthood (18-25)

-theory considers this a distinct developmental period -RECENT phenomenon (past 50 years) -recent changes in median age of marriage, age of first childbirth, RISING rates of college enrollment (slightly more female now)

Piaget's Formal Operational Stage- age 12 to 19

-thinking systematically about ALL logical relations within a problem -in adolescence, the developing person acquires the ability to think systematically about all logical relations within a problem -application of formal operational thinking to a wide variety of life's problems -becomes capable of abstract thought; keen interest in abstract ideas and process of thinking -interested in universal ethical principals -critical of adult hypocrisies -"the adolescent can transcend the concrete situation and think about the future" -sensory-motor (birth-2); preoperational (2-6); concrete operational (6-12); formal operational (12-19)

Neurological Changes in Adolescence: Neurotransmitters

-transmitter dopamine travels in a vesicle then has dopamine receptor that passes the message on -signals are transmitted across synapses by neurotransmitters -Neurotransmitters- chemicals released into the gap and taken in by receptors on the other side -synapses- breaks in the line (gaps between neurons)

loneliness

-unhappiness resulting from a gap between actual and desired social relationships -peaks in the late teens and early twenties

integrity versus despair (late adulthood)

-virtue is Wisdom -Erikson's psychosocial stages associated with periods of development

Trace the development of vocational choice, and cite factors that influence it

-vocational choice moves through a FANTASY PERIOD, in which children explore career options by fantasizing about them, a TENTATIVE PERIOD, in which teenagers evaluate careers in terms of their interests, abilities and values and a REALISTIC PERIOD, in which young people settle on a vocational category and then a specific occupation -vocational choice influenced by personality, parents' provision of educational opportunities, encouragement, close relationships with teachers

What's it like to be an older adult? late adulthood

-you're female (3 women : 2 men) -40% have 3 or more chronic illnesses -25% have 4 or more chronic illnesses -you've had some (mild) loss of cognitive functioning -you've had some loss of mobility or independence -risk for some social loss (e.g., of a loved one) -you've transitioned from the workforce

According to Erikson, what personality changes take place during early adulthood?

-young adults must resolve the conflict of INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION as they form a close relationship with a partner -also focus on aspects of generatively, including parenting and contributions to society through work and community service

Wisdom - 5 ingredients

1) Fundamental concerns of life (human nature, social relations, emotions) 2) Strategies for applying knowledge (life decisions, conflicts, advice) 3) Viewing people considering multiple demands of life context 4) Ultimate human values, common good, individual differences in values 5) Awareness/management of uncertainties in life

Criticisms of Piaget

1- Do all people eventually arrive at formal operational thought?- many use formal thought in some domains but not others... and in cultures that do not emphasize formal education, individuals rarely use formal operations 2- Cognitive, problem-solving abilities likely develop in a more continuous fashion

stages of group development during adolescence (early to late)

1- precrowd stage; isolated same-sex cliques 2- the beginning of the crowd; same-sex cliques in group to group interaction 3- the crowd in structural transition; same-sex cliques with upper-status members forming a heterosexual clique 4- the fully developed crowd; heterosexual cliques in close association 5-beginning of crowd disintegration; loosely associated groups of couples

Type A behavior pattern

A behavior pattern characterized by extreme competiveness, ambition, impatience, hostility, angry outbursts, and a sense of time pressure

osteoarthristis

A form of arthritis that involves deteriorating cartilage on the ends of bones of frequently used joints, which leads to swelling, stiffness, and loss of flexibility. Also known as "wear and tear" arthritis or "degenerative joint disease"

emerging adulthood

A new transitional period of development, extending from late teens to the mid-to late twenties, during which young people have left adolescence but have not yet assumed adult responsibilities. Rather, they continue to explore alteratives in education, work, personal beliefs and values, and love

neurofibrillary tangles

A structural change in the cerebral cortex associated with Alzheimer's disease, in which bundles of twisted threads appear that are the product of collapsed neural structures.

cross-linkage theory of aging

A theory of biological aging asserting that the formation of bonds, or links, between normally separate protein fibers causes the body's connective tissue to become less elastic over time, leading to many negative physical outcomes.

secondary aging

Age-related declines due to hereditary defects and environmental influences, such as poor diet, lack of exercise, disease, substance abuse, environmental pollution, and psychological stress.

presbycusis

Age-related hearing impairment, beginning around age 50 with a noticeable decline in sensitivity to high-frequency sounds, which gradually extends to all frequencies; usually start to notice it at age 30 though

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder in which young people, mainly females, starve themselves becaseu of a compulsive fear of getting fat and an extremely distored body image

macular degeneration

Blurring and eventual loss of central vision due to a breakdown of light-sensitive scells in the macula, or central region of the retina.

Life expectancy: Average life expectancy vs. Average healthy life expectancy: late adulthood

Both depend on year you are born

Generativity: Choosing parenthood

DISADVANTAGES: Reduces work hours and slow career progress for women (but not men); Loss of freedom; ~$280,000 to raise a child from birth to age 18 ADVANTAGES: warm relationship; fun; Growth and learning experiences; Carry on the family

Describe the impact of pubertal timing on adolescent adjustment.

Early maturing boys and late maturing girls have a more positive body image and usually adjust well. -Early-maturing girls and late-maturing boys tend to experience emotional and social difficulties, which for girls, persist into early adulthood.

When does puberty begin?

Endocrine functioning: -Adrenarche: adrenal gland begins to produce precursors to sex hormones ~age 10; sex-hormones are not yet produced in force; no secondary sex characteristics yet; corresponds to first reports of romantic attraction (evidence of activational effects on brain) -Menarche (girls)- first menstration; typically around 12.5 years (range is 10.5-15.5) -Spermarche (boys)- first ejacuation; average age 13.5 (range is 12-16)

Identity vs. Role confusion: According to Erikson, what is the major personality achievement of adolescence?

Erikson viewed IDENTITY as the major personality ACHIEVEMENT of adolescence. Young people who successfully resolve the psychological conflict of identity vs. role confusion construct a unified self-definition based on SELF-CHOSEN values and goals

T/F? Mathematically gifted high school girls tend to be more confident in their abilities than their male counterparts.

False

Erikson's Theory: Generativity and Stagnation

Generativity: Reaching out to others -give to and guide next generation; Commitment beyond self; Often through childrearing; Other family, work, mentoring relationships also generative Stagnation: Place own comfort and security above challenge and sacrifice; Self-centered, self-indulgent, self-absorbed; Lack of involvement or concern with young people; Little interest in productivity, self-improvement

Which child is most likely to drop out of school?

Gerald, who has a history of aggressive behavior.

What factors contribute to sex differences in mental abilities at adolescence?

Girls' advantage in reading and writing achievement increases, probably due to earlier development of the LEFT HEMISPHERE of the cerebral cortex, more efficient language processing, and greater verbal stimulation. -Gender stereotyping of language arts as "feminine" and regimented teaching may weaken boys' literacy skills -by early adolescence, when concepts become more abstract and spatial, boys surpass girls in MATH -gender stereotyping of math as "masculine" contributes to boys' greater self-confidence and interest in pursuing STEM careers

How does puberty happen?

HPG-Axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis) -Hypothalamus turns on -Pituitary: controls growth; sends signals to the gonads and the thyroid; thyroid produces HGH at night; GROWTH SPURT -HGH or GH: also known as somatotropin or somatropin, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans -Gonads: produce sex hormones (estrogens or androgens); interact with other organs/areas; regulates the hypothalamus

identity versus role confusion (11-18ish)

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of adolescent, which is resolved positively when adolescents achieve an identity through a process of exploration and inner soul-searching. -Virtue is Fidelity -Erikson's psychosocial stages associated with periods of development

intimacy versus isolation (early adult age)

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of early adulthood, reflected in the young person's thoughts and feelings about making a permanent commitment to an intimate partner. -virtue is love -intimacy: making a permanent commitment to intimate partner; involves giving up some new independence, redefining identity; strong identity helps; affects friendships, work -isolation: loneliness, self-absorption; hesitant to form close ties; fear of losing identity (compete, reject differences, threatened by closeness)

generativity versus stagnation (middle adult age)

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of midlife, which is resolved positively if the adult can integrate personal goals with the welfare of the larger social world. The resulting strength is the capacity to give to and guide the next generation. -virtue is care -Erikson's psychosocial stages associated with periods of development

pragmatic thought

In Labouvie-Vief's theory, a structural advance in thinking in adulthood, win which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems and contradictions are accepted as part of existence

relativistic thinking

In Perry's theory, the cognitive approach typical of older college students, who view all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought and, therefore, give up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context.

dualistic thinking

In Perry's theory, the cognitive approach typical of younger college students, who divide information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they. Distinguished from realivistic thinking.

commitment within relativistic thinking

In Perry's theory, the mature individual's formulation of a perspective that synthesizes contradictions between opposing views, rather than choosing between them

What are the major characteristics of formal operational thought?

In Piaget's formal operaitonal stage, adolescents become capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning. To solve problems, they start with a hypothesis; deduce logical, testable inferences; and systematically isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. -Adolescents also develop propositional thought- the ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.

gender intensification

Increased gender sterotyping of attitudes and behavior and movement toward a more traditional gender identity, typical of early adolescence.

glass ceiling

Invisible barrier to advancement up the corporate ladder, faced by women and ethnic minorities.

Describe Kohlberg's theory of moral development, and evaluate its accuracy.

Kohlberg organized moral development into 3 levels, each with 2 stages: -preconventional level- morality is externally controlled and actions are judged by their consequences -conventional level- conformity to laws and rules is regarded as necessary for positive human relationships and societal order -post conventional level- morality is defined by abstract, universal principles *few people attain the post conventional level *because situational factors influence moral judgments, kohl berg's stages are best viewed as loosely organized and overlapping *Kohlberg's theory does not underestimate the moral maturity of females but instead taps both justice and caring orientations *compared with children, teenagers display more subtle reasoning about conflicts between personal choice and community obligation and are increasingly aware of the moral implications of following social conventions

preconventional level

Kohlberg's first level of moral development, in which children ACCEPT the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences, viewing behaviors that result in punishment as BAD and those that lead to rewards as GOOD.

postconventional level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which individuals define morality in terms of ABSTRACT principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. -civil disobedience

conventional level

Kohlberg's second level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and maintain societal order

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Level 1- preconventional--> stage 1: rules, obedience and punishment; stage 2:deals and agreements, own interest Level 2- conventional--> stage 3: "good child", others' expectations; stage 4: law and order, social group/system defines rules Level 3- postconventional: stage 5- social contract, utilitarian, objective impartiality; stage 6- universal ethical principles can override laws -Kohlberg's stages and chronological age is because of cognitive development

Self-description Later Adolescence

Mid-teens: may recognize more inconsistencies and feel conflicted Later teens: internalized inner values, beliefs, standards; less emphasis on what others think; contradictions tolerated, seen as flexibility

pituitary gland and adolescent depression

Neuroimaging studies have lead to the conclusion that adolescent depression is linked to a dysfunction of the pituitary gland

Amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's Disease

Neurons secrete a protein substance (beta amyloid) -In Alzheimer's, this protein accumulates -Forms 'plaques' around the neuron -Can interfere with synaptic functioning -Neurotoxic over time APOE-E4 gene implicated in rapid amyloid buildup - ~65% of all Alzheimer's patients have an APOE-E4 -But...only 55% of people who have 2 APOE-E4 had MNCD at age 80

Perceptions of Health: late adulthood

Objective: Diagnoses; Activities of daily living (ADL's) Subjective: Self-report; Comparison to peers

reminiscence bump

Older adults' heightened autobiographical memory for events that occurred between ages 10 and 30

different rates of mental illness between young and middle-aged adults?

One period has dramatically higher expectations and levels of role conflict than the other

primary sexual characteristics

Physical features that involve thee reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, and vagina in females; penis, scrotum, and testes in males)

formal operational stage

Piaget's highest stage, beginning around 11 years of age, in which adolescents develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking. -Whereas concrete operational children can "operate on reality," formal operational adolescents can "operate on operations"....they no longer require concrete things or events as objects of thought; instead they can come up with new, more general logical rules through INTERNAL REFLECTION -2 major features of the formal operational stage: 1- hypothetico-deductive reasoning AND 2- propositional thought

growth spurt

Rapid gain in height and weight that is the first outward sign of puberty. -On average- North American girls is shortly after age 10 (estrogens [female hormone] trigger then restrain GH secretion more readily than androgens [male hormone]) -boys is around age 12.5

kinkeeper

Role assumed by members of the middle generation, especially mothers, who take responsibility for gathering the family for celebrations and making sure everyone stays in touch.

Changes in Physical Health: late adulthood

Senescence or "biological aging" -genetically influenced declines in functioning of organs and systems universal to all species -Begins in early adulthood, continues throughout life -Not fixed... influenced by experience -Differs across systems of the body

Late Adulthood - Memory

Slower information processing -Impacts associative memory -Explicit impacted more than implicit memory -Remote memory

triangular theory of love

Sternberg's view of love as including three components- intimacy, passion, and commitment- that shift in emphasis as romantic relationships develop -intimacy (liking/friendship): closeness, affection, connectedness; goes up in time -passion (infatuated love): sex, romance, attraction, physical closeness; goes down in time -decision/commitment (empty love): cognition of love and determination to maintain; goes up in time

consequences of divorce

Stressors: sole parenting responsibility OR loss of custody of children; loss of emotional support; continuing conflict with ex-spouse; economic decline... children decline in parental support and effective control; loss of contact with one parent; continuing conflict between parents; economic decline; other stressful divorce-related events Adjustment: severity and duration of psychological, behavioral, and health problems; functioning in new roles; identity and lifestyle not tied to former marriage; short term (crisis model); long term (chronic strain model)

instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs)

Tasks necessary to conduct the business of daily life and also requiring some cognitive competence, such as telephoning, shopping, food preparation, housekeeping, and paying bills

The general pattern for the success or failure of a student are

The general pattern for the success or failure of a student are high school results from the early days in the high school

identity diffusion

The identity status of individuals who do not engage in exploration and are not committed to values and goals.

identity foreclosure

The identity status of individuals who do not engage in exploration but, instead, are committed to ready-made values and goals chosen for them by authority figures

identity achievement

The identity status of individuals who, after a period of exploration, have committed themselves to a clearly formulated set of self-chosen goals.

average healthy life expectancy

The number of years that an individual born in a particular year can expect to live in full health, without disease or injury.

maximum lifespan

The species-specific biological limit to length of life (in years), corresponding to the age at which the oldest known individual died.

T/F There is little evidence to support the notion of a mid-life crisis as a bona fide fact of middle age.

True

Employers score middle-aged workers higher on factors such as dependability.

True; and In the face of job loss, older workers are more negatively affected, psychologically, than younger workers.

frailty

Weakened functioning of diverse organs and body systems, which profoundly interferes with everyday competence and leave older adults highly vulnerable in the face of infection, extremely hot or cold weather, or injury.

wisdom

a capacity made up of multiple cognitive and personality traits, combining breadth and depth of practical knowledge; ability to reflect on and apply that knowledge in ways that make life more bearable and worthhile; emotional maturity, including the ability to listen, evaluate, and give advice; and altruistic creativity, which involves contributing to humanity and enriching others' lives

secular trend

a change from one generation to the next in an aspect of development, such as body size or pubertal timing.

sleep apnea

a condition in which breathing ceases for 10 seconds or longer during sleep, resulting in many brief awakenings

burnout

a condition in which long-term job stress leads to mental exhaustion, a sense of loss of personal control, and feelings of reduced accomplishment

presbyopia

a condition of aging in which, around age 60, the lens of the eye loses its capacity to adjust to objects at varying distances; usually start to notice it at age 30 though

glaucoma

a disease in which poor fluid drainage leads to a buildup of pressure within the eye, damaging the optic nerve. A leading cause of blindness among older adults.

skipped-generation family

a family structure in which children live with grandparents but apart from parents

rheumatoid arthritis

a form of arthritis in which an autoimmune response leads to inflammation of connective tissue, particularly the membranes that line the joints, resulting in overall stiffness, inflammation, and aching. Leads to deformed joints and often serious loss of mobility.

cerebrovascular dementia

a form of dementia that develops when aseries of strokes leaves areas of dead brain cells, producing step-by-step degeneration of mental ability, with each step occurring abruptly after a stroke

egalitarian marriage

a form of marriage in which partners relate as equals, sharing power and authority. Both try and balance the time and energy they devote to their occupations, their children, and their relationship. Distinguished from traditional marriage.

traditional marriage

a form of marriage involving clear division of husband's and wife's roles, in which the man is the head of household and economic provider, and the woman devotes herself to caring for her husband and children and creatinga nurturant, comfortable home.

cognitive-affective complexity

a form of thinking that increases from adolescence through middle adulthood, involving awareness of conflicting positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex, organized structure that recognizes the uniqueness of individual experiences

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

a formal operational problem-solving strategy in which adolescents begin with a hypothesis, or prediction, about variables that might affect an outcome. From the hypothesis, they deduce logical, testable inferences. Then they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of those inferences are confirmed in the real world.

assisted living

a homelike housing arrangement for older adults who require more care than can be provided at home but less than is usually provided in nursing homes

autoimmune response

a malfunction of the immune system in which it turns against normal body tissues

How do we define romantic relationships?

a relationship marked by an expectation of sustained involvement that involves a greater degree of intimacy than other relationships, and which often involves a sexual component -horizontal/vertical -attachment/affiliation -voluntary/involuntary -necessities/niceties

family life cycle

a series of phases characterizing the development of most families around the world. In early adulthood, people typically live on their own, marry, and bear and rear children. In middle age, parenting responsibilities diminish. Late adulthood brings retirement, growing old, and (more often for women) dealth of one's spouse.

dementia

a set of disorders occuring almost entirely in old age in which many aspects of thought and behavior are so impaired that everyday activities are disrupted

selective optimization with compensation

a set of strategies used by older adults who sustain high levels of functioning. Narrowing their goals, they select personally valued activities to optimize returns from their diminishing energy and also find new ways to compensate for losses.

hardiness

a set of three personal qualities- control, commitment, and challenge- that, together, help people cope adaptively with stress brought on by inevitable life changes.

telomeres

a special type of DNA located at the ends of chromosomes- serving as a "cap" to protect the ends from destruction- that shortens with each cell duplication. Eventually, so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all.

amyloid plaques

a structural change in the cerebral cortex associated with Alzheimer's disease, in which dense deposits of a deteriorated protein called amyloid develop, surrounded by clumps of dead nerve and glial cells

parental imperative theory

a theory that claims that identification with traditional gender roles is maintained during the active parenting years to help ensure the survival of children but that after children reach adulthood, parents are free to express the "other-gender" side of their personalities

feminization of poverty

a trend in which women who support themselves or their families have become the majority of the adult population living in poverty, regardless of age and ethnic group

propositional thought

a type of formal operational reasoning involving the ability to evaluate the logic of propositions, or verbal statements, without referring the real-world circumstances

neural network view

a view that attributes age-related slowing of cognitive processing to breaks in neural networks and neurons die. The brain adapts by forming bypasses- new synaptic connections that go around the breaks but are less efficient.

information-loss view

a view that attributes age-related slowing of cognitive processing to greater loss of information as it moves through the system. As a result, the whole system must slow down to inspect and interpret the information.

identity

a well-organized conception of the self, consisting of values, beliefs, and goals, to which the individual is solidy committed.

terminal decline

acceleration in deterioration of cognitive functioning prior to death

expertise

acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor

functional age

actual competence and performance of an older adult, as distinguished from chronological age.

adolescent decision-making study: "good ideas"

adolescents and adults identified the same things as not good ideas, but: 1- adolescents took more time to think about not good ideas and 2- regions of brain activity differed between adults and teens

Motivated reasoning

adolescents apply different reasoning skills in different situations: analytic reasoning (deliberate, conscious, rational) AND heuristic reasoning (rapid, automatic, intuitive) -ability to reason analytically increases steadily with age -tend to reason analytically primarily when rejecting evidence inconsistent with previously-held beliefs (self-serving bias) --> self-serving bias ex- when a student attributes earning a good grade to their own intelligence but attributes a poor grade to the teacher's poor teaching ability or unfair test questions

Never-married single parenthood

african american women in their 20s; unemployment among black men contributes to this trend; mothers find it difficult to overcome poverty

associative memory deficit

age-related difficulty creating and retreiving links between pieces of information- for example, two items or an item and its context

assistive technology

an array of devices that permits people with disabilities, including older adults, to improve their functioning

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which individuals, mainly females, engage in strict dieting and excessive exercise accompanied by binge eating, often followed by deliberate vomiting and purging with laxatives

autonomy

at adolescence, a sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual. Involves relying more on oneself and less on parents for support and guidance and engaging in careful, well-reasoned decision making.

activities of daily living (ADLs)

basic self-care tasks required to live on one's own, such as bathing, dress, getting in and out of bed or a chair, and eating

Adolescent thinking

changes from middle childhood include: 1- ability to reason hypothetically: what kinds of things could happen in a situation 2- more thinking about thinking- metacognition: improvements in theory of mind 3- planning ahead: more systematic and complex 4- thinking beyond conventional limits: questioning social rules, morality, politics, religion, etc..

Impacts of divorce on children

children's adjustment to parents' divorce depends upon: custodial parent's psychological health, change in family income, age, sex temperament, authoritative parenting, co-parenting following divorce ***Divorce is a risk factor: 20-25% of children will have severe problems, but divorce may be preferable in high-conflict families if reduction in conflict is a result

cataracts

cloudy areas in the lens of the eye that increase from middle to old age, resulting in foggy vision and (without surgery) eventual blindness

postformal thought

cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operational stage

body image

conception of and attitude toward one's physical appearance

Self-description Age 3-4

concrete, observable characteristics; physical abilities; social relationship; preferences and possessions; UNREALISTICALLY POSITIVE- think they are really like what they want to be like

Self-description Age 8-11

emphasis on social comparison, higher order concepts, more integration of features, opposing self-representations, more balanced and realistic

TF marital satisfaction among childless couples fluctuates more over time than among couples with children.

false

spermarche

first ejaculation of seminal fluid usually around age 13.5

"big five" personality traits

five basic factors into which hundreds of personality traits have been organized: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

possible selves

future-oriented representation of what one hopes to become and what one is afraid of becoming. The temporal dimension of self-concept.

primary aging

genetically influenced age=related declines in the functioning of organs and systems that affect all members of our species and occur even in the context of overall good health. Also called biological aging.

Middle adulthood: psychological well-being

good health exercise sense of control personal life investment positive social relationships good marriage mastery of multiple roles *improvements in coping: identifying positives, postponing action during evaluation, anticipation and planning, humor, integrating strengths and weaknesses, confidence, experience, emotional stability

Dropping out of high school

highest rate to lowest: U.S., Canada, Italy, Czech Republic, Denmark, Switz, Norway, U.K., Japan, Finland

Described body growth, motor performance, and sexual maturation during puberty.

hormonal changes under way in middle childhood initiate puberty, on average, two years earlier for girls. The first outward sign is the GROWTH SPURT. As the body enlarges, girls' hips and boys' shoulders broaden. Girls add more fat and boys add more muscle. -Puberty brings slow, gradual improvements in gross-motor performance for gils, dramatic gains for boys... and participation in regular physical activity declines sharply with age. -At puberty, changes in primary and secondary sexual characteristics accompany rapid body growth. Menarche occurs late in the girl's sequence of pubertal events, after the growth spurt peaks. In boys, the peak in growth occurs later, preceded by enlargement of the sex organs and spermarche

immature characteristics of adolescent thought

idealism and criticalness, argumentativeness, indecisiveness, apparent hypocrisy, self-consciousness (imaginary audience), specialness and invulnerability (personal fable)

According to Erikson, the central crisis of adolescence is

identity versus role confusion

Factors related to divorce

infidelity, incompatible, drinking/drug use, grew apart -5 general categories of cause of divorce: partner-33%, self 5%, relationship 27%, external factors 9%, undetermined 26% ***maladaptive communication patters, family history of divorce, poverty, changing status of women, american individualism all contribute to divorce

crystallized intelligence

intellectual skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgement, and mastery of social conventsions- abilities acquired because they are valued by the individual's culture. Distinguished from fluid intelligence.

passionate love

love based on intense sexual attraction. Distinguished from compassionate love.. -state of powerful absorption to someone; includes physiological interest/arousal (romantic partners)

hormone therapy

low daily doses of estrogen, either alone or in combination with progesterone, aimed at reducing the physical discomforts of menopause.

implicit memory

memory without conscious awareness

Decision-making in adolescence

more sophisticated than in middle childhood; not quite at adult level yet though; wide variability among individuals -adults more likely to consider: options and various outcomes; pros/cons; long-term consequences; advice from others; learning from mistakes -adolescents more likely to: rely on intuitive judgments; make poor decisions in favor of "feel good" behaviors

Neurological Changes in Adolescence: White matter

myelination increases conduction speed -white matter is rising; it's the FATTY MYELIN SHEATH that protects and facilitates impulse transmission down the cell body

free radicals

naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen and destroy nearby cellular material, including DNA, proteins, and fats essential for cell functioning. Believed to be involved in many disorders of aging.

Early adolescence age 11/12 to 14

period of rapid pubertal change

tentative period

period of vacational development in which adolescents begin to evaluate vocational options in terms of their interests, ability, and values.

fantasy period

period of vocational development in which children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them. Distinguished from tentative period and realistic period.

realistic period

period of vocational development in which older adolescents and young adults narrow their vocational options, engaging in further exploration before focusing on a general vocational category and, slightly later, settling on a single occupation.

secondary sexual characteristics

physcial features visible on the outside of the body that serve as signs of sexual maturity but do not involve the reproductive organs (for example, breast development in females, appearance of underarm and pubic hair in both sexes)

practical problem solving

problem solving that requires people to size up real-world situations and analyze how best to achieve goals that have a high degree of uncertanity

acculturative stress

psychological distress resulting from conflict between an individual's minority culture and the host culture

Middle adolescence age 14 to 16

pubertal changes are now nearly complete

Personality influences vocation: holland's personality types

realistic- doer investigative- thinker artistic- creator social- helper enterprising- persuader conventional- organizer

prospective memory

recall that involves remembering to engage in planned actions in the future

functions of dating?

recreation, a source of status and achievement, part of the socialization process in adolescence, learning about intimacy and mature relationships, a context for sexual experimentation and exploration, companionship through interaction and shared activities in an opposite-sex relationship, an influence on identity formation and development, a means of mate sorting and selection

epistemic cognition

reflections on how one arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas

midlife crisis

self-doubt and stress that prompt major restructuring of the personality during the transition to middle adulthood. Characterizes the experience of only a minority of adults.

osteoporosis

severe age-related bone loss, which greatly magifies the risk of bone fractures

Scientific Reasoning experiment with sports balls

size, color, surface texture, and presence/absence of ridges: one can conclude that size and ridges are not important, since the features are equally represented in the good-serve and bad-serve baskets -scientific reasoning is strongly influenced by years of schooling, whether individuals grapple with traditional scientific tasks, or engage in informal reasoning

Discuss social and cultural influences on adolescent sexual attitudes and behavior.

some say attitudes have become more liberal over the past 40 years, but north american attitudes toward adolescent sex remain relatively restrictive. -Parents and the mass media deliver contradictory messages -early, frequent sexual activity is linked to factors associated with economic disadvantage. Adolescent cognitive processes and weak social supports for responsible sexual behavior underlie the failure of many sexually active teenagers to practice contraception consistently

psychological changes in adolescence

teenagers' assumption they are the focus of everyone's attention and that their experiences, thoughts, and feelings are unique...heightened self-consciousness

birth rates among 15-19 year olds in industrialized nations

the U.S. (#2) adolescent birth rate greatly exceeds that of most other industralized nations; bulgaria, U.S, romania, UK, ireland were top; sweden, denmark, netherlands, switzerland were bottom

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

the amount of energy the body uses at complete rest

moral identity

the degree to which morality is central to an individual's self-concept

menopause

the end of menstruation and, therefore, of a woman's reproductive capacity

bicultural identity

the identity constructed by individuals who explore and adopt values from both their family's subculture and the dominant culture

identity moratorium

the identity status of individuals who are exploring but not yet committed to self-chosen values and goals.

cohabitation

the lifestyle of unmarried couples who have a sexually intimate relationship and who share a residence

Climacteric

the midlife transition in which fertility decline, bringing an end to reproductive capacity in women and diminished fertility in men

Alzheimer's disease

the most common form of dementia, in which structural and chemical brain deterioration is associated with gradual loss of many aspects of thought and behavior, including memory, skilled and purposeful movements, and comprehension and production of speech

average life expectancy

the number of years that an individual born in a particular year can expect to live, starting at any given age; usually estimated that if you live to age 65, you will live an additional ~19 years

compression of morbidity

the public health goal of reducing the average period of diminished vigor before death as life expectancy extends. Medical advances, improved socioeconomic conditions, and good health habits all promote this goal.

adolescence

the transition between childhood and adulthood that begins with puberty. It involves accepting one's full-grown body, acquiring adult ways of thinking, attaining greater independence from one's family, developing more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes, and beginning to construct an identity

Late adolescence age 16 to 18

the young person achieves full adult appearance and anticipates assumption of adult roles

middle school and high school

transitions can be difficult -may leave friends behind -higher expectations from teachers -may coincide with other changes (puberty)

TF Delinquency is distinguished from other types of antisocial behavior in that the term applies specifically to actual law-breaking.

true

TF Teens underlying emotional attachment to their parents remains strong in spite of their focus on their peer relationships.

true

remote memory

very long-term recall

Middle adulthood: gender identity

women- increase "masculine" traits men- increase "feminine" traits theories: parental imperative, decline in sex hormones, demands of midlife

College experience

~2/3 high school grads attend higher education in the U.S. -college as a "developmental testing ground": explore alternatives roles, values, behaviors; become better at reasoning; increased interest in literature, arts, philosophy, history; greater tolerance for ethnic and cultural diversity -completing college improves career options and pay -many U.S. students drop out from college: 45% at 2 year programs and 30% at 4 year programs