Developmental Psychology - Midterm #3

Attachment Theory - Bowlby

John Bowlby (1907-1990) Human infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with their caregivers. Infant uses the caregiver as a secure base

Explaining Stability and Change in Temperament Groups

Johnny is classified as behaviorally inhibited at 4 months old. At age 4 years, he is very shy and uncomfortable in unfamiliar social situations, has a high heart rate, and more activity in the right frontal lobe. Charlie is also classified as behaviorally inhibited at 4 months old. At age 4 years, he does not appear shy, shows average ability to interact with unfamiliar peers, has average heart rate, and has equal activity in the left and right frontal lobes. What factors might explain why Johnny's temperament classification was stable while Charlie's temperament classification changed over time? Johnny's temperament classification was stable because of his environment and the parenting style his caregivers have. If his parents noticed that he gets fussy and is behaviorally inhibited, they are less sensitive and may not know how to socialize him without him withdrawing. They may not try to expose him to certain environments so as to not stress him. On the other hand, Charlie's parents may be more sensitive and figured out how to gradually expose Charlie to stimuli that would scare him so that he learned to be less behaviorally inhibited.

Classifying Temperament by Extreme Groups: Kagan's Inhibited/Shy vs. Uninhibited/Social Temperaments

Kagan looked at the extremes (super shy inhibited and extreme bold uninhibited) Inhibited: Shy or timid with unfamiliar people or objects Uninhibited: Bold, usually approach unfamiliar people and situations About 10-15% of children fall in each of these highly reactive groups. Twin studies with toddlers show about .5 heritability of these extreme temperament groups

Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving

What intent people's actions have Crucial role of cognitive processes in social behavior. Children use aggression as a problem-solving strategy. Some children have a hostile attributional bias: a general expectation that others are antagonistic to them and that ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent Intervention strategies: closely supervised, special classroom; FastTrack.

Learning Theories

Watson's Behaviorism Skinner's Operant Conditioning Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Operant Conditioning - Skinner

We repeat behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes (reinforcement) and suppress those that result in punishment. - positive -> increasing in behavior - negative -> decrease in behavior - if you take away the award the association is broken and action no longer happens

Math Achievement Gap by Country

Yellow - big gap in opportunities based on sex - boys achieving a lot higher The broader context of gender equality affects math achievement

Temperament

"Constitutionally-based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation. Temperamental characteristics are seen to demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time." - Rothbart Rothbart is the pro at child temperament temperament is seen across different situations and stays stable across time temperament can change but over a really long time as they grow different from mood

Goodness of Fit

"Goodness of fit" with family, culture, & situation can influence both continuity of temperament and its developmental implications - situation - war, feminine, expectations - being fussy is related with positive and negative outcomes depending on the environment you're in - temperament can change to some extent - will not go to the other extreme but depends on what is excepted in their environment - environment is a big contributor to temperament that causes it to shift Maternal expectations predict maternal sensitivity - First asked mom if their baby will be mellow or fussy while they were pregnant - at 4 months found out what the temperament turned out to be - also looked at sensitivity in the mother/child interaction to see the parenting quality - Sensitive is mother who expected their baby to be one way and their baby is ‣ match between expectation and temperament and how it affects parenting quality - Parents who got a baby that did not match their expectations were less sensitive ‣ moms expecting a fuss baby and got a mellow one felt like the baby did not need them

Behaviorism

(aligned with Freud for once) Feeding is an occasion when mothers provide many comforts at the same time Mother becomes a secondary reinforcer - how mom smells, feels - associated with food so they are comforted by these traits without food having to be resent Feeding elicits positive responses from infant that also are likely to increase a caregiver's affection for the baby - babies look so cute and drowsy after feeding which increases the mom's love for them

Individual Differences in Empathy: Temperament

- Moderately heritable ‣ if the child is more distressed they cannot deal with their own emotions, so reactive to their own feelings they cannot deal with - Social, assertive, good at emotional regulation leads to high empathy - Aggressive children may show decline in middle childhood. ‣ risk factor

Individual Differences in Empathy: Parenting

- Warm, sensitive, empathic parents lead to high empathy. - Help children learn to regulate negative emotions. ‣ learn to cope ‣ need to learn how to regulate own emotions to show empathy

The Components of an Emotion: Example of Encountering a Bear

1. Desire to take an action - run away 2. Autonomic Response - elevated heart rate, increased breathing, sweating, rush of adrenaline 3. Facial Expression - wide eyes, wide mouth, scared, 4. Subjective Feeling - scared, fear 5. Cognitions - oh no, how do i get out of this live?

Development of Gender Constancy

1. Gender labeling (~ age 3) 2. Gender stability (~age 4) - Idea that a boy will grow up to be a man 3. Gender consistency (~age 5-7) - Knowing that changes in activity or appearance won't change gender - correlates with gender stability - underlying gender is more stable, can violate norms without changing gender

Gender Stereotypes: Masculine

Active Acts as a leader Adventurous Aggressive Ambitious Competitive Dominant Feels superior Holds up well under pressure Independent Makes decisions easily Not easily influenced Outspoken Self-confident Takes a stand

Gender Stereotyping and Roles

1-5 years - gender-stereotyped toy preferences - Gender stereotyping of activities, occupations and behaviors expands - Gender segregation in play 6-11 years - Gender-stereotyped knowledge expands - Gender stereotyping more flexible 12-18 years - Gender-role conformity may increase, then decline - Gender segregation less pronounced - more people have achieved identity - shift away for the rigidity of younger years

The Components of an Emotion: 3-month-old when pacifier taken away

1. Desire to take an Action: - no voluntary action, do not have cognitive ability to make a plan and take action - no motor abilitites to act 2. Autonomic Response: - heart and breathing will change 3. Facial Expression: - anger/frustration 4. Subjective Feeling: - anger/frustration 5. Cognitions: - no because they do not have the cognitive abilities/sophistication 1 and 5 develop over time as your learn, develop and have social interaction

The Components of an Emotion: Preschooler when another child snatches away a favorite toy

1. Desire to take an Action: - snatch it back, hit the other kid 2. Autonomic Response: - heart rate and breathing increases 3. Facial Expression: - scowl, pout 4. Subjective Feeling: - anger, sadness 5. Cognitions: - "that was mean", "im going to tell the teacher", "joe always does this" - knowledge of social context and rules 4 year old has the same components of emotion as adults

Ethnic Identity in Adolescence (Phinney)

1) Ethnic identity diffusion/foreclosure - not in a process of exploration 2) Ethnic identity search/moratorium - process of figuring out what their ethnicity means to them - if they are part of more than one ethnic group they decide which one they resonate with more 3) Ethnic identity achievement (can be commitment to ethnic group, lessening of commitment to ethnic group, or bicultural identity) - commitment or lessening of commitment from their group - bicultural - both of these identifies matter to me

Sexual Identity or Orientation

1) First recognition 2) Test & exploration 3) Identity acceptance - for LGBTQ+ coming out and exploring 4) Identity integration - LGBTQ+ coming out and integrating into life

Bowlby's Attachment Phases

1. Preattachment (birth to 6 wks): - Innate signals (crying) bring people to comfort them ‣ not attached ‣ just reflexes 2. Attachment-in-the-making (6 wks to 6-8 months): - Preference for familiar people is shown - Development of expectations and trust in caregiver ‣ play a role in how secure their attachment is ‣ very important time 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1½-2 yrs): - Infants actively seek contact with the caregiver. - Separation distress • - Children use caregivers as secure base 4. Reciprocal relationships (1-1/2 to 2 yrs on): - Increasing cognitive & language abilities enable toddlers to understand their parents' feelings, motives, goals - Organized effort to be near their parent - More mutually regulated relationship - more regulation comes from the parent - big thing is cognitive improvement

What is Attachment?

A close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity - doesn't have to be biological parent An enduring bond between children and their parents or other primary caregivers Doesn't even need to be between parents and children Can be with people outside of our family Don't need to be physically close but for kids it is important

Dweck's Theory Achievement Motivation

According to Carol Dweck, children's motivation is based on 2 different goals - can vary each day Learning goals: seeking to improve their competence and master new material Performance goals: seeking to receive positive assessments of their competence or to avoid negative assessments ‣ ex when asking what will be on the test performance goals in mind

Challenges to Peers' Sexist Remarks (K-3rd grade)

Active intervention - - practiced through role play - Most successful - Gains in real-life situations - Girls gain in gender- stereotype flexibility. - Serves as models Narrative intervention - heard about scenarios in which one kid made a remark and the other spoke up and challenged it Graph shows how often they challenged sexist remarks based on the different intervention Both intervention did not have a strong effect - do not want to become the target

Secure Attachment

Actively explores while alone with mother. May also be outgoing with stranger while the mother is present. Not clingy Usually gets distressed by separations. Happy to see the mother return (greets or actively seeks physical contact). Gets comforted & calmed. - acknowledge moms return, doesn't have to be in a dramatic way - impoverished play - not as complicated when mother is gone and they are upset, distracted by distress - kids adjust and this goes away, only happens for brief period of time Most kids in the US are securely attached - most of the time parent is consistent and responsible Cultures affect attachment

Aggression: Definition

Aggression: behavior aimed at harming or injuring others Instrumental aggression: aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal ‣ ex: hit someone to get the toy they have Relational aggression: intending to harm others by damaging peer relationships; leads to conduct disorders ‣ using relationships, hurts social status ‣ ex: tell someone they cant play with them, they're no longer friends, won't be invited to birthday party ‣ threat of exclusion, telling someone else something negative ‣ fairly similar in prevalence between gender

Aggression Timeline

Aggressive behavior occurs before 12 months of age, usually over objects By 18 months, physical aggression is seen, and peaks around age 3. - pretty normal because they do not have language to express them and there is a power struggle with care givers 3-4 years - Physical aggression decreases and verbal aggression increases when language development and control over emotions and actions begin. - use language ability for evil - can include direct threat or relational aggression

Negative outcomes if identity not achieved

All of these are about the person going through a process of self reflection -> negative outcomes happens if this does not happen Identity confusion - person cant articulate what their identity is ‣ don't know values, goals, morals Identity foreclosure - never go through a period of exploration, determined from really early on, not your own choice, haven't determined if it is the best choice for you ‣ can have this status as early as high school Negative identity - not bad, defined as opposite of what your parents are ‣ ex parents conservative republican so you become a liberal democrat ‣ are this to rebel, whatever value you were raised with you go directly against ‣ never really consider who they are and what suits them, just choose the opposition of their caregivers

Ethological Theory: Lorenz

All species, including humans, are born with innate behavioral tendencies with an evolutionary basis Imprinting: An innate form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attached to a moving object, usually their mother - ex baby ducks Humans so not imprint but form an attachment - this formation takes 6-8 months because we need not need to form attachment right away. have no motor skills Animals that are born with mobility have to imprint so they survive. Less mobile babies have longer time to form attachment

Behavioral Assessment of Kagan's Temperament Groups

Amanda did this a lot so might be important Videotape an infant's reactions to novel toys and sounds - sit in a car seat on the flood and dangle things on the mobile in front of them Infants who exhibit high negative affect and high motor activity are categorized as behaviorally inhibited - motor activity - crying, arching their back, Infants who exhibit high positive affect and high motor activity are categorized as behaviorally uninhibited - motor activity - trying to grab the mobile, wave arms around Assigned to a group at 4 months

Key Brain Regions involved in Emotion

Amygdala: Sensitive to threat - can be activated by something non physical - subtle threats -> physical and psychological Frontal cortex: feelings, cognitions, decisions - important for higher level emotions Hypothalamus: autonomic & behavioral response; motivation & reward pathways - gets messages from amygdala and frontal cortex - desire also comes from here Vast over simplification

Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption

Biology Evolutionary adaptiveness - not necessarily relevant now - Cross-cultural similarities ‣ does not mean they need to be applied or that they make sense today - Hormones ‣ estrogen makes you more nurturing, testosterone make you more aggressive ‣ difference in the amounts and exceptions for everyone Environmental - Perceptions and expectations of adults ‣ messages coming from authority figures - Observational learning ‣ kids want to conform and fit in so copy peers - Peers, siblings ‣ what if someone you care about is the other gender or non gender conforming

Hormones and Gender Roles

Animals prenatally administered androgens have higher levels of active play - injected while in the womb - after birth they play more Androgens increase male-typical sexual behavior and aggression, suppress caregiving - animals with higher testosterone tend to care less for their young Hormones may affect play styles and thereby promote gender segregation in play. - not about current exposure, its about how the brain was shaped prenatally that has lead to a preference of higher level of play XX individuals exposed to high androgen prenatally are more likely to be transmasculine - can play a role in gender identity - This is a minority of transgender youth -> not the only path to get there but a path - exposed by mother taking a medication that has androgens

Multiple Attachments

Any day to day care givers Each parent Grandparents Older siblings - 10 or more years older Professional caregivers (nanny) Can be differences in the attachment quality because the attachment describes the bond not the child Attachment classification reflects attachment history Gaving at least one secure attachment is a protective factor - look better in socio-emotional development

Adult Gender Stereotyping of Children Graph

Asked to derive certain traits based on a picture For pic of other adults the masculinity score it about the same Same amount of stereotypical masculine traits For the photos of children there is a lot of stereotyping Little boys very different from little girls - gender roles are more rigid and enforced in youth Boys we comment on activity, girls we comment on appearance -> terrible message

Ethology

Attempts to understand behavior based on its survival value - focus on innate behavior patterns in animals ex salmon swimming up stream to spawn even though they will get sick and die Imprinting: bond formed in critical period - bond formed right after birth with the mother - follow mother around - inspired some aspects in ecological theories and attachment theories

Contributions of Ecological/Evolutionary Theories of Development

Attention to role of the environment at multiple levels (bioecological) Early relationships form the foundation and internal working model for all later relationships (attachment theory) Importance of caregiver in regulating and organizing infant behavior (attachment theory)

Some Brain Regions Involved in Emotion

Autonomic Response - Hypothalamus -> pretty developed at birth Subjective feelings - Amygdala and parts of frontal cortex - less developed at birth Cognitions - prefrontal cortex - takes much longer to develop

Gender Stereotypes: Feminine

Aware of others' feelings Considerate Cries easily Devotes self to others Emotional Excitable in a major crisis Feelings hurt easily Gentle Home-oriented Kind Likes children Neat Needs approval Passive Tactful Understanding of others Warm in relations with others

Where Do Sex Differences Come From

Biology: - Hormones (estrogens & androgens) ‣ in fetal development and puberty - Evolution ‣ devision of labor based on body types that is adaptive Environment - different across family and cultures - Perceptions & Expectations of Adults - Observational Learning - Peers & Siblings

Sex Differences in Aggression

Boys more physically aggressive - even in younger childhood - Differences in verbal and relational aggression less clear Biological influences - Androgen hormones ‣ exposure to testosterone prenatally Environmental influences - Family - Consequences - less like to receive punishment because it is expected ‣ aggression in girls is often very stigmatized - Peers

Stereotypes and Gender-Role Adoption

Boys spend more time looking at vehicles, girls spend more time looking at dolls Does not mean this is innate, but there are toy preference in really young parties Evidence mixed for influence of stereotypes on gender-role adoption - Stereotype knowledge influences role adoption. ‣ if you know there is a stereotype about your gender, you're more likely to act like that ‣ ex: girls play with dolls so i have to play with dolls Preferences influence stereotypes. Stereotype flexibility may be more important.

Infant Temperament Classification: Thomas & Chess

By parental interviews, came up with 9 temperament dimensions From these dimensions, characterized all infants into 3 groups: - Easy babies - Difficult babies - Slow-to-warm-up babies (take a longer time to warm up, might be fussy at first but then become easy as they get more comfortable) Some temperament dimensions showed stability over time

Child's Behavior vs Social Environment Example

CB 1: Child hits playmates to gain control of toys SE 1: Playmates withdraw, leaving their toys and thus reinforcing the child's aggressive actions. CB 2: Child tries hitting again as a means of achieving objectives. SE 2: Playmates "give in" once more, further strengthening the child's aggressive inclinations CB 3: Child adopts bullying as a habit and becomes a victimizer SE 3: Former playmates now regularly avoid the bully thereby contributing to his unpopularity, social isolation, and restricted opportunities to acquire desirable alternative habits such as negotiating or cooperating iwth peers.

Children growing up in homes high in positive emotion

Can have homes that are high in both or low in both Parents can be neither or both Express high levels of positive emotion themselves - Socially skilled - Low in aggression - High self-esteem - Understand others' emotions

The Self in Adolescence: Different Stages

Can see self as different in different contexts or with different people In early adolescence, separate representations of self depending on context, which are not integrated - can tell you what they are like at school and at home but its very separate In middle adolescence, struggle with these contradictions - why am i different? By late adolescence/early adulthood, more integrated view of self and able to see adaptive value of changing behavior across situations.

Nature Nurture Interaction in Ecological/Evolutionary Theories

Children inherit biologically based abilities and predispositions ex: tend to be fearful or not, tend to be clumsy or not, have good attention or not Focus on aspects of behavior that serve an adaptive function - what aspects make it more likely a person will thrive and survive long enough to reproduce

Physically Abused Children and Perception of Anger

Children were shown a digitized photograph gradually morphing between 2 emotions (e.g. happy and angry) Physically abused children were able to detect the first signs of an angry expression, well before other kids recognized the angry expression - only for anger Evidence that social experience influences basic perceptual processes - perception is still affect when they are seeing a picture of someone angry Correlated with the Hostile attribution bias and more likely to perceive people as angry with the smallest indicator of anger

Development of Fear

Clear evidence of fear in multiple situations at about 7 months of age - Fear of heights - Fear of novel objects and of noise - Fear of strangers - when attachment emerges - Separation anxiety - when attachment emerges Evolutionary value - can crawl now and get themselves into danger Some fears decline during 2nd year of life - get used to their environment and their memory is better Delayed crawling delays fear of heights (graph in lecture)

Insecure Resistant Attachment

Clingy. Explores very little while mother is present. - not used as a secure base. Just clinging on Usually very wary of strangers. Very upset when the mother leaves. Seeks & resists the mother's comforting when she returns. - resist comfort when upset

What cognitive and social influences contribute to the development of self-concept?

Cognitive Development - end of Piaget's sensorimotor period - mental representation of sense of self - self concept Secure attachment - effects how you think of yourself and self esteem Parents' conversations: providing descriptive information, evaluating child's behavior, constructing autobiographical memories - telling them about real things that happened that they may not remember - teachers and peers do this as well, parents do it earlier in life

Sex Differences in Depression

Common in adolescence - Twice as likely in teen girls than boys - about the same in younger childhood Biological and environmental factors - Heredity - Stressful life events ‣ teens girls take on more responsibility when there are family issues - Gender-typed coping styles ‣ often condition boys to show anger for avoid sadness ‣ often condition girls to internalize, may become more anxious - Girls with androgynous/masculine gender identity show low rates. - Depression in teen girls is under-diagnosed because adults see it as normal adolescent moodiness Adults often minimize as "typical"

What am I like with Different People Hexagon

Conflicts in Adolescence Want to understand why you believe differently with different people in different situations

What does "On Average"Mean?

Curves over lap but the means are slightly different Many things contribute to performance so the average is not definite Biological sex contribute to performance

Evolutionary Psychology

Darwinian view - genes that predispose individuals to behave adaptively are selectively passed down - E.g. large brain size Play as an evolved platform for learning Parental investment theory: evolutionary basis of parental behavior, sacrifice to perpetuate genes Ex step parents are more likely to kill their step child then their biological parent is to kill them

Risk factors for insensitive caregiving

Depressed parents Parents who themselves felt unloved, neglected, or abused as children Unplanned pregnancy / unwanted baby - by the time the baby is born the parent does not want them then it is a risk factor Health-related, legal, financial problems Dissatisfaction with partner Need resources to support parents and relieve stresses - especially for those who were abused/neglected them - during the transition

Components of an Emotion

Desire to take an action Autonomic Response (physiological changes) Facial Expression Subjective feelings Thoughts Emotion is not synonymous with feeling!!!! more to it

Components of an Emotion and Brain Function

Desire to take an action: frontal cortex, hypothalamus Autonomic Response (physiological changes) - Hypothalamus and Facial Expression (sometimes) - not always there if it is not context appropriate - need to regulate outward expressions even when experienceing emotion internally Subjective feelings about things, events, and people - Amygdala and parts of frontal cortex Cognitions (thoughts related to the experience) - Frontal cortex, hippocampus (memories) - Tie an event back to prior experience (hippocampus) - not in babies because prefrontal cortex is not mature enough

Development of Self

Development of Self-concept Identity

Dweck's Theory of Self- Attributions

Differences in attributions Entity/helpless orientation: attributing success/failure to enduring aspects of the self ‣ think that success or failure is a reflection of self ‣ if you do not do well right away then you are not good Incremental/mastery orientation: attributing success/failure to effort expended and persistence ‣ getting better with more effort and practice aka growth mindset If you praise child based on entity/helpless then child thinks they are great at that things and if they fail it is devastating because it is who they are • if you succeed/fail and u attribute to effort it is coming they can change

Two Views of Infant Emotion

Differential Emotions Theory vs. Developmental Approaches

Sexual Dimorphism

Differential development of brain areas in the two sexes Male & female hormones (androgen & estrogen) act on the brain to produce a distinctly female or male brain

Maltreated Children

Difficulty in emotion labeling and emotion perspective taking Maltreated kids are exposed to an atypical emotional environment. - physical or emotional abuse exposes them to intense negative emotions - neglected may not be shown much of emotions of any kind Mom's emotion expression predicts kid's emotion understanding, even among kids who are all maltreated. Pollak et al.: Two emotion categories were morphed into one another; Indicate whether you would call each image the first name or the second - showed kids picture and they had to label it - the pictures in the middle are ambiguous and kids can only pic one label - at what point will they switch their label, how much of an emotion does it take for them to label it as such

Ethnic Identity in Childhood

Domain specific Ethnic Knowledge - knowledge about group Ethnic Self-Identification Ethnic Constancy - you will always be a part of this group - cognitive achievement and happen in childhood Ethnic-role behaviors Ethnic feelings & preferences - can be revisited and change

Development of Gender Stereotyping

Early Childhood - Stereotypes begin around 18 months - Strengthen and become rigid through early childhood ‣ Demonstrate cognitive limitations ‣ flexibility is a cognitive achievement that they don't have yet because of centration Middle Childhood/Adolescence - Extend stereotypes to include personalities and school subjects - More flexible about behavior and appearance ‣ more understanding that these can violate stereotypes but that person is still their gender ‣ ex boy doing ballet is still a boy

Parenting and Gender Typing

Early Childhood - Parents encourage gender-specific play and behavior ‣ toys they give to kids, how they respond in different emotional situation - Reinforce dependence in girls, independence in boys - Language indirectly teaches roles ‣ good girl vs strong boy (yuck) Middle Childhood/Adolescence - Achievement more important ‣ Gender affects perceived competence ‣ ex: boy and girl are both really good at math. Parents are more likely to acknowledge it in the boy. This also goes for girl and reading/writing - Parents continue to demand independence from boys ‣ mastery-oriented help - teaching them to do something so they can do it themselves ‣ autonomy granting - give more freedom to boys because you have to worry about girl

Contributions of Attachment Theory

Early relationships form the foundation and internal working model for all later relationships - may repeat bad cycles that they learned from caregivers in the future in other relationships Importance of caregiver in regulating and organizing infant behavior - children learn how to regulate for themselves

Structure of Temperament

Easy - 40% Difficult - 10% Slow-to-warm-up - 15% Unclassified - 35% - groups determined by a profile - unclassified was a mix. Issue because not everyone fits

The Self in Preschoolers: Self-Concept

Emergence of the enduring self - you have stable traits that don't change Focus on public self: Describe self in terms of concrete, observable characteristics, preferences, possessions, and specific behavioral descriptions ("I can run fast," "I know my ABC's") - random and observable when describing who they are - other person can see what they are like by watching them Unrealistically positive self-evaluation - believe they can do anything - have to think of yourself, how others are doing something and compare them -> do not do this at this stage - decentralization - realistic but sad

Characteristics of Social Cognition Theories

Emphasis on the Active Child - Children are active processors of social information - Children use self-socialization to shape their own development ‣ choosing peers, after school activities etc Individual Differences Children have the ability to think and reason about their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors - older children

Characteristics of Learning Theories

Emphasize nurture - how their environment influences their development Continuity of the mechanisms of change: reinforcement and observational learning - reward and imitation Individual differences arise from external factors: different histories of reinforcement and observational learning

Social Learning Theory - Bandura

Emphasizes observation and imitation as strong environmental influences on behavior. - pay attention to what happens around them

Bioecological Model

Environment is a series of nested levels Emphasizes the child's active role and nature-nurture interactions Bidirectionality of effects - child effects environemnt and vice versa - laws, cultures and larger social constructs effect parents and how those parents treat their children Developed by Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

Behaviorism - Watson

Environmental determinism - ex: Little Albert experiment - compare to reciprocal determinism where child influences environment and vice versa - environment shapes the child, child DOES NOT shape environment. At the mercy of it Study of objectively observed behaviors - not about feelings, experience, brain processing, etc. - all about behavior

Erikson's Theory of Identity Formation

Erikson had different dilemmas at each stage that a child has to get over to move onto the next one Identity vs. Identity Confusion Importance of psychosocial moratorium - can start as early as high school, or into college and early adulthood PS= Trying out different ideas of who you want to be before choosing a path to go down Search for identity Testable and empirically supported

Ecological & Evolutionary Theories of Development

Ethology - study of animal behavior Evolutionary Psychology Attachment Theory Bioecological Model

Cognitive Organization and the Timing of Menarche

Everyone is study is female Looked at the time of menarche = when get your period Estrogen starts bathing the brain at puberty All development after puberty is affected by it Exposure to estrogen shapes cognitive abilities On average girls start puberty early than boys Have more years of brain development during puberty The age at which gonadal hormones affect the brain may be an important factor for cognitive development: timing of the hormonal rise could be more important than type of hormone Note that puberty and the rise in gonadal hormones tends to occur at later ages in males

Hostile Attributional Bias Intervention

Examples: Closely supervised, special classroom; FastTrack. FastTrack for kindergarten kids who are at high risk for aggression In classroom, with parents, and per interaction try to get the kid to see other reasons for why things happen tend to be less aggressive as they get older if you break the cycle early they are more likely to have positive peer reaction However, it is expensive and intensive involving many different groups of people

Imprinting

Experience-expectant process Attachment is lifelong and irreversible can mess with imprinting - safe in the wild without human interference

Children growing up in homes high in negative emotion

Express high levels of negative emotion - Poor social skills - Aggression and other behavior problems all studies going into this are based on the US

Familial and Sociocultural Influences on Emotion Development

Familial and sociocultural context influence both a child's internal emotional response to a given situation (feelings) and a child's external expression of emotion (display rules) ex: in some cultures it is less acceptable to express negative emotions. Some cultures require more regulation for internal and external emotions ex: comparing faces while looking at something gross. In the light vs in the dark ‣ all the same in the dark but different in the light

Disorganized Attachment

Freezing, dazed expression, contradictory behavior toward caregiver - looks like body is battle with itself - go towards care giver but a part of the body tries to get away Results from pathogenic care - pathogenic = maltreating - predictor of negative outcomes Caregiver is simultaneously source of danger and source of comfort - source of internal conflict Infant left to manage extreme arousal on their own - unable to regulate on their own at a young age

Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud: Cupboard Love - baby loves mom because the mom is the source of food Erickson: Trust vs. mistrust - have to decide if the people around them are trust worthy or not

Sociocultural Differences in Display Rules: Rural Nepal

From study in rural Nepal, Hindu and Buddhist children's reports of feeling anger and "just OK" in response to emotionally charged situations. Buddhist children in Tamang culture scolded for negative emotions.

Genetics and Environment on Temperament

Genetic Influences: - Responsible for about half of individual differences Environmental Influences: - Cultural variations - Non-shared environment - specific to that child ‣ ex shared: the house siblings live in ‣ ex non-shared: the friends a kid has Goodness of Fit: how adaptive is your temperament for the setting you happen to be in - Combines genetics and environment - in most situations people want a calm baby - in adversity a fussy baby is seen as stronger and more likely to survive

Biological Risks for Aggression

Genetic risks, temperament - lots of different genes can be blamed Neurological deficits - Poor self-regulation / executive function ‣ can teach self regulation - Lack of guilt/empathy/sympathy for others ‣ callous unemotional traits ‣ portrayed as psycho paths in media ‣ quit stable over time, hard to treat ‣ can also occur after trauma, but mostly genetic - As if they are still toddlers - behind their peers and cannot communicate in the same way Hormonal (high testosterone)

U.S. Reading and Writing Achievement Gaps

Girls doing better than boys on reading and writing Achievement in math shows the opposite Graph shows the girl scores after takes out the boys If they were equal it would be 0

Family Influences on Aggressive Behavior

Harsh or low-quality parenting Abusive parents Parental punitiveness: cold, punitive parenting - hard to figure out directionality - did the parent cause it or is it their reaction to the child's behavior - Reciprocal relation between aggressive behavior and harsh punitive punishment Troubled family interaction Poor parental monitoring - risk factor - will engage in risky behavior later in life Parental conflict Poverty, neighborhood violence, and family stress - engage in aggression, not bad, just a lot of stress

Peer Influences on Aggressive Behavior

Having aggressive friends and being exposed to violence Peer pressure Culture oriented toward adults' expectations More aggression in less acculturated children

Timing of Male and Female Hormone Exposure

High levels prenatally & immediate postnatal period: - for sex specific organs and brain development - high levels of hormones after birth Dramatic increase at puberty: - little hormones during early/middle childhood - brain development is not shaped by hormones until puberty - ages of puberty varies -> hormones increase here

The Self in Adolescence

Higher order, abstract traits and categorizations (e.g. extrovert, cynic, atheist) - use more complicated terms to describe themselves Focus on psychological self-concept and peer status continues to intensify - central to the way they think about their self concept Imaginary audience - everyone is watching you, criticizing you, and thinking about you See self as unique, others "don't understand"

History of Pink

Historically, babies all wore white dresses - seen as pure - nobody knew what gender the baby would be so made it easier to prepare - easy to clean - easy to take off 1940s - manufacturers began to associate pink with girls - just a marketing decision 1970s - women's liberation - feminist chose to not put pink on daughters 1980s - prenatal testing for baby's sex - markets could gender every baby product - buy more things especially if the kids are different sexes - baby shower business

Neurobiological Basis of Attachment: Oxytocin

Hormone found exclusively in mammals Released by uterine contractions and nursing - oxytocin is pleasurable - helps people want to keep producing - released during breast milk - facilitates bonding - social bonding still occurs and oxytocin is released Facilitates onset of maternal behavior in rats - if u give a rat oxytocin they will take care of the babies - if u give them an oxytocin blocker they will neglect the babies Helps sooth infant rats

Ownership (Blake et al. 2012)

How do kids decide who owns something What cognitive skills might kids need to succeed at focusing on the verbal cue if it doesn't match the visual cue? Will they listen to the visual cue or verbal cue? To focus on the verbal cues kids need decentration and inhibitory control

Harlow's monkey studies

How important is feeding in attachment formation? Attachment is not about food Baby got attached to the more comfortable presence Not real attachment - did not have an option of a real attachment figure

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Human infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with their caregivers. Infant uses the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment and also as a safe haven when distressed.

How do these animal studies apply to human attachment?

Humans don't imprint Humans are biologically prepared to attach Odor, oxytocin, & prolactin also have a role in human attachment

Internal Working Model

Hypothetical construct Cognitive representations of self, others, & relationships constructed from early caregiver relationships Expectations about whether relationships will be dependable & rewarding - not always conscious - not such a direct link - shapes what your expect and are willing to accept Feelings of being worthy or unworthy of love Persists into adulthood - what you are like in romantic relationships, with friends, and as a parent - tendency but not destiny

Correlates of Identity Status

Identity Diffusion Status: apathy, depression, risk for drug abuse, social isolation - part of identity is social network - worst one because people tend to have the worst mental health - takes confidence to think you are important enough to explore identity - diffusion is depression - co-occur because having one brings the other negative aspects - people who go through a lot of trauma or have low self esteem are here or in foreclosure Foreclosure Status: Strong belief in obeying authority, rely on others to make life decisions Moratorium Status: High self-esteem AND high anxiety, question authority, drug experimentation, unprotected sex - hard but important - period of questioning and risk taking Identity Achievement Status: social maturity, achievement motivation - once there is a clear sense of what is important to them they work towards it - not only about career, can also be about family or anything that you decide that is important to you

Identity-Status Categories (Marcia)

Identity-diffusion status - same as confusion - do not have a clear identity and not in the process of searching - ex: just getting through the day and not pursuing anything they enjoy - goes along with depression and substance abuse Foreclosure status - take on a status without going through a period of exploration - can be higher achieve or not, like going to med school because your parents what you to be a doctor - can be in foreclosure due to no choice of their own, due to hierarchies in their society - exploring just means you think about it Moratorium status - hit pause, not committed but in the process of finding it - know something, also in the process of figuring out - can be social (peers), career, majors, - someone who switches majors is in this stage - stressful because certainty is easier to deal with but it has positive outcomes Identity-achievement status - know identity, values - have already come through the period of exploration - some adults in this, others are not - not automatic where everyone gets here, some people stay at other stages Foreclosure and identity-diffusion never went through moratorium Can be in different stages for different aspects of your life at the same time People can regress - ex: become depressed or have a substance abuse - can also have achievement then go back to moratorium when you rethink who you are at different stages of life

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

Ignore mother or turn away when she is in the room, even when she tries to gain their attention. Often rather sociable with strangers. Show little distress when separated from mother. Fail to greet her during the reunion. Independent and avoid parents Concerning for young children, can be an indicator that mom has been inconsistent in the past and kids no longer want to deal with that

Learning Emotional Display Rules: The Disappointing Gift Task

In the video clip, in what ways did children's understanding of emotional display rules change with development? - Younger children would be visibly upset in front of the person who gave them the bad gift. Older children are able to inhibit their negative emotions and show appreciation towards the gift giver even if they do not like the present. What factors besides a child's age might influence what emotional display rules they follow? - Other factors include the decline of egocentrism. They are able to think about how their reaction might make the other person feel. Also moral reasoning because even though the outcome is not wanted/ideal they know the intent behind the action was good. Culture and parenting styles also influences how children react in this situation and if they learn from a young age that they have to express gratitude or if they can express negatives emotions while receiving a gift.

Ownership Study Implications

In toddlers, there's confusion when verbal and visual cues are in conflict - not sure who has ownership. - leads to a lot of conflict about what belongs to who By school age, verbal cues take precedence when there's a conflict - children understand that possession is not ownership. This can lead to different peer behavior (e.g. on playground). - take what belongs to who - knows ownership is important and matters more than what people are holding

Influences on Identity Formation

Individual factors (e.g. early drug use can undermine identity achievement) - drug use can high jack development Family context (overprotective, over-controlling parents increase likelihood of foreclosure) - if parents push you and support your dream you go more towards moratorium - foreclosure more likely if parents try to make the life decision for the child Sociocultural and historical context - moratorium developed by white man - foreclosure more likely when there are no options based on the persons race/gender - further back in time there were larger roles of race and gender - moratorium is often expensive so it is less likely for people with less resources

Interventions for Aggressive and Antisocial Children

Individual psychotherapy Combination of psychotherapy and drug therapy Parent education and intervention School-based intervention Community-based programs - Positive youth development: focuses on developing and nurturing strengths and assets, rather than correcting deficits ‣ build more confidence and build up strengths, they are less likely to participate in aggressive behavior - Service learning: strategy for promoting positive youth development by integrating school-based instruction with community involvement to promote civic responsibility

Internal Working Model is Self-perpetuating

Individuals elicit responses confirming their existing internal working model - create the interaction style Also tend to form relationships & select partners that promote enactment of existing internal working model

Shy and Social Temperaments

Inhibited, Shy - React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli - High heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms - Higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity - related to neurological pattern of social withdrawal ‣ associated with depression in adults ‣ more likely to face mental health issues Uninhibited, Sociable - React positively, approach new stimuli - Low heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms - Higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity ‣ associated with social and approach -More likely to have issues with their actions and acting out Right/left front asymmetry

Parental Sensitivity II and how to effects attachment

Insecure avoidant infants: Parents impatient, unresponsive, indifferent. Likely to express negative feelings about their infants. Reject baby's attempts at physical closeness. Tend to be intrusive & insensitive when they initiate interactions. - parents can be dealing with challenging mental health, stress - attachment can change over time Disorganized infants: Maltreatment. Infants frightened & confused.

Sociocultural Differences in Display Rules: Japanese vs. American preschoolers

Japanese vs. American preschoolers' expression of negative emotion - American more likely to feel angry and endorse emotions Asked if they would feel angry or act aggressively after negative incidents like their block tower being knocked over or someone hitting them. Responses reflect different cultural values communicated by parents

Bobo Doll Study (pink and blue graph)

Kids watched a video. In one group the person is nice to Bobo doll. In another group the person attacks the Bobo doll. If they was the attack then they also attacked the doll by imitating hit they saw and come up with novel violent actions Pink - show the adult what the person did in the video and kid will get a reward - to see if the kid remembers what they saw Blue - not offered reward or given instructions Gender differences in the 60s when they were presented in a much more rigid way Does the consequence of someone else influence how likely they are in imitate behavior? - do not have to see someone else being rewarded to imitate their actions - reduced a little if it is punished Girls imitate less because it is less acceptable to be aggressive - much more reactive to the punished No consequences scores about the same as rewarded behavior Vicarious reinforcement

Gender-Based Perception of Job Status

Made up jobs and presented them to boys and girls Looked at how does the perception of the gender completing the job affect the status of job Girls who see women doing the job assume its a low status job Lower than boys for both genders

Self recognition leads to . . .

Major effects on social relationships and social milestones Self-assertion (terrible twos) - have a plan that goes against caregivers but they want to do it anyways Sense of ownership & possession - everything is mine mine mine - a one yer old does not think of something they grab as theirs Beginnings of perspective taking - Empathy - Peer imitation - like the peer, want to do what they are doing - begin to recognize that there are people that are not them

Instrumental vs Expressive

Masculine: Instrumental - accomplish something Traits reflecting competence, rationality, and assertiveness Feminine: Expressive Traits emphasizing warmth, caring and sensitivity

Oxytocin in Humans - mother/infant attachment

Maternal euphoria after birth - released by uterine contractions (surge in oxytocin) Maternal feeling of contentment & well- being while breastfeeding (surge in oxytocin) Transmitted to baby through breast milk so baby also feels contented - mild sedative Mom's know what they babies smell like even if not conscious about it for NICU babies give them something of the parents to smell and give some of the baby to the parents Another key way to bond and physiologically regulate is skin to skin contact

Measurement Issues with the Strange Situation . . .

May prompt exaggerated emotional reaction - because its so weird. Parents usually wouldn't leave kid at an unfamiliar place Not useful beyond age 2 - kids older than age 2 are fine with parent leaving Could be affected by daycare experience (distress level, not classification) - category wouldn't be changed by daycare but levels of distress does - those that go to daycare are less dramatic because more acostumed to separate Definitely affected by culture - some cultures foster independence - more avoidant but thats a good things - look like secured attach kids when they grow up - Different cultures have different prevalence rates of each attachment style - disorganized attachment never shows up naturally so the pattern looks the same and outcomes are bad

Gender Identity in Middle Childhood

Mental health & risk taking behaviors linked to: ✓ Gender typicality - kids who tend to fit gender norms participate in activities stereotypes for that gender ‣ better mental health ✓ Gender contentedness ✓ Pressure to conform to gender roles - violate stereotypes or changing gender ‣ kids who don't conform are bullied and that has adverse affects on mental health ‣ because of the social reaction ‣ is not a mental health problem until the people around you are not accepting ‣ about the surrounding context and how the people around them support them ✓ For transgender youth, gender affirming model

Levels of Bioecological Model

Microsystem: the immediate environment with which the child directly interacts (e.g. family, school, neighborhood, organized sports) Mesosystem - the interconnections that exist among microsystems (e.g. interconnections among family, peers, school) - how family interacts with school - how doctors effects day care - better for the child when parent and teachers work together so the child is receivieng similar care by both. Do not want major discrepencies Exosystem - ocial settings that the child is not direcltly a part of but that nevertheless affect the child's development (e.g. parent's workplace) - Child may not directly interact with certain aspects of this - factors in the community that are beyond the child's direct experience - School boards had a lot to say during the pandemic and for children with learning disabilitites - Welfare supports may be influencing the family's functioning Macrosystem - the general cultural context in which all the other systems are embedded (e.g. cultural/social group, beliefs, values, customs, laws of society) - Laws, feelings about the country, braod cultural context - shifts here trickle down to effect all the systems Chronosystem - temporal dimension, describes the changes to beliefs, values, customs, technologies and circumstances that influence the other systems and has consequences for child's development - changes in person or enviro - cohort effects include tech, pandemic, resession - Can change everyones experience at the same time - bigger than any one system

Ainsworth's Strange Situation Attachment Security Test

Mom is there but instructed to not really interact with the child Stranger interacts with the baby with mom present Then mom leaves and look at the reaction to separate Look at how the child reacts to the stranger while mom is gone Then look at the reunion when mom comes back Only do this in kids old enough to form attachments 12-24 months old

Empathy task

Mom or experimenter pretends to be hurt - try to make it seem natural and make a big deal about it Child's reaction coded for concern and prosocial behaviors - each child had their own emotional response. Sees it and freeze it - Empathize if they do something to help you feel better -> prosocial behavior ‣ ask if you're ok, bring you a toy to feel better When parent does it they will show more empathy towards the parent than the experimenter - relates to attachment - adopted kids also show more empathy toward their parent then the experiment - more empathy towards loved ones

The Self in Middle Childhood (6-11 yrs)

More psychological - clear differentiation of public & private self - tell you about what they feel or thing Global descriptions and personality traits ("I am a good athlete," "I am smart") Social comparison - capable and obsessed - say that they are not really good at something or are the best Focus on social relationships, especially peer status - are they popular? rejected? get left out? tag along?

The Self in Toddlers: Self Recognition

Need to have self awareness first EX: kid with red dot on nose. Look in mirror. Reach for your own nose if you are self aware. Reach for the mirror if not 18-24 months, rouge test Recognize self in pictures (2 yrs Self-conscious emotions and emergence of the categorical self - "i am a girl" Personal pronouns - me, my, I - younger than 18 don't use pronouns much, especially not for themself

Development of Anger and Sadness

Newborn infants show distress There is a debate over whether young infants (2- to 6-month-olds) show distinct emotions of anger and sadness By one year of age, anger and sadness are clearly differentiated - beginning of cognition Displays of anger peak between one and two years of age, then decline - 1-2 year olds is the angriest time of their lives - have desires but have a communication barriers - know more than they can say -> expressive is 5 months behind receptive - Their plans are constantly thwarted because they are not good or safe -> do not have judgement so they do not understand why they can't do the thing - Slows down once skills catch up to ambitions - Terrible 2s and three year old are a power struggle with parents. Don't have this at 1

Development of Empathy

Newborns sense other babies' distress. - one cries, more of them cry Requires self- awareness - need a sense of self - putting yourself in others shoes Increases over school years - Adolescence: can empathize with general life conditions ‣ poverty, grief, discrimination, ‣ younger kids empathize with the people in front of them

Development of Joy

Newborns smile briefly during REM sleep - responding to dreams or internal stimuli One-month-olds may smile when stroked gently - reflex 2- to 3-month-olds: emergence of social smiles 4-month-olds: emergence of laughter - don't have a sense of humor - just means they're really happy 7-month-olds: social smiles become selective, mostly directed to familiar people - same stages of development as perceptual narrowing - selective attachment forms around 6-8 months - smile most often at their caregivers - memory is not that great so their caregivers are the people they see everyday - baby does not remember or know the relationship they have with more distant family members 12 to 18 months: emergence of sense of humor - very basic, silly - know what is suppose to happen and then violate those expectation

Biology and Socialization Jointly Influence Children's Antisocial Behavior

Often, it is the combination of genetic and environmental factors that predicts antisocial, aggressive behavior Children with certain gene variants related to functioning of the neurotransmitters serotonin or dopamine appear to be more sensitive to parenting and other environmental factors (for better or worse) - associated to being very reactive to your environment

Type of Maltreatment and Emotion Understanding

On an emotion perspective taking task, physically abused kids were biased toward selecting angry faces, while neglected kids were biased toward selecting sad faces. When shown 2 faces showing different emotions, neglected children perceived less distinction between angry, sad, and fearful emotion expressions Children who had been neglected were behind at distinguishing different emotions Both neglected and physically abused kids rated sad and angry faces as very similar to a neutral face. - neglect = not having basic needs met - really effected them because everyone around them looks angry or sad in day to day experiences

Sex Differences in Cognitive Organization: Females

On average, females are better than males on: adults - Short-term-memory tasks - Verbal-fluency tasks - Perceptual speed - Fine motor skills - Mathematical calculation

Sex Differences in Cognitive Organization: Males

On average, males are better than females on: - Spatial-relation tasks - Mental-rotation tasks - Target-directed motor skills - Mathematical reasoning

Selman's Stage Theory of Role Taking (UNDERSTAND THE BROADER CONTEXT)

Only one that is a stage theory - mirror Piaget - kids get better at thinking from other's perspectives Robert Selman focused on the development of role taking, the ability to adopt the perspective of another person and to think about something from another's point of view. Young children's social cognition is limited due to their inability to take on roles. As children become less egocentric in their reasoning, they are able to take multiple perspectives simultaneously. Growth in social cognition mirrors Piaget's Cognitive Developmental stages

Attachment Classifications

Organized Attachments - Secure vs. Insecure - pattern of the behavior towards the parent makes sense, internally coherent - do not need to be alarmed, not a sign of pathology - for all the three scared or hurt kid will go to caregiver Disorganized Attachments - always the result of maltreated care - not all maltreated kids have disorganized attachment but all disorganized attachment comes from maltreatment

Gender-Stereotype Flexibility

Overlap in the characteristics of males and females Increases from age 7 through middle childhood But idea that boys and girls CAN violate gender stereotypes does not mean children approve of it - kids are mean when other kids violate stereotypes even though all children understand that the violations occur

Parents' Reactions to Children's Emotions

Parents who are emotionally supportive tend to have children who are more emotionally and socially competent than parents who dismiss or criticize their children's feelings. - kids can get upset about things that are absurd but thats just how it is - adults think the feelings do not make any sense - could validate how they're feeling and move on - others think you should not do that - difference between validation and letting them do whatever they want to do - way to recognize "i see you..." and labeling the feeling. gives them a language to express how they feel - being able to label emotions helps them regulate emotions Teaching display rules. - how they should behave at different times - May be culturally different

Parental Influences on Emotion Expression

Parents' own emotion expression - Influences children's identity and perceptions of the world around them ‣ if the parent is always upset with the world it sends the message that the world is not that good ‣ a more positive parent effects child to be more positive ‣ parents that express negative emotions about their children will effect child's self esteem and give them a worse image of themselves - Model of when and how to express emotion ‣ applies to positive and negative emotions ‣ child mimicks how to behave in different situations If parents have different styles the child thinks more about what to do as they get older. Having at least one regulated parents helps the child. Also depends on which parent they have a closer relationship with

Fear of Visual Cliff

Pelexy glass but looks like a drop off new clawers aren't scared and will crawl over not 100% at younger ages because some babies are late crawlers and some do not crawl at all so it will develop when they learn to walk (graph)

The Amygdala has an Organizing Role in Emotional Response

Perception of threat Influences autonomic and hormonal responses via connections with the hypothalamus (rapid, unconscious response) - sends messages up and down - physiological changes occur before you even realize what happened (ex almost getting into a car crash) Influences conscious awareness of the consequences of events and objects via connections with the prefrontal cortex, especially the orbitofrontal cortex - prefrontal cortex shuts down the amygdala when it realizes there is no threat so you do not stay in fight or flight mode Amygdala can be over vigilant and over active Messages in both directions is adaptive - need to act immediately when in danger (amygdala down) - need prefrontal so assess the threat and figure out how to handle it (amygdala up)

Gender Identity

Person's perception of self as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics - Masculine - Feminine - Androgyny

Social Referencing

Relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation Caregiver's role important Toddlers progress from just reacting. - Helps evaluate safety and security - Guides actions -> get away or approach and explore - Aids in gathering information about others

Children in the U.S. foster care system

Poorer emotion understanding than a low- SES comparison group, even after controlling for cognitive and executive function abilities Trauma and relationship disruption have a negative effect on emotion processes Later age of entry into the foster care system is associated with fewer delays in emotion understanding Emotion understanding is not automatic, shaped by environment so more adverse environment makes it harder for them

Predictors of Emotion Understanding

Positive Predictors - Attachment Security - Joint Attention - Family talk about emotional states - label and discuss emotions more ‣ does not mean that they show emotions more Negative Predictors - Exposure to lots of anger and hostility

Contributions of Behaviorism & Social Learning Theories to Understanding of Child Development

Precise and testable - make predictions that are testible - can see if the predictions hold up Beginnings of attention to cognitive processes (Bandura) - talks about cog instead of just behavior Clinical applications - understanding intermittent reinforcement helps treat addiction - exposure therapy for phobia - show that the bad thing wont happen - can change the reward and punishments Limitation: reductionist - do not pay attention to interaction because genes and environment - passive child view - do not pay attention to internal state, internal emotions, and environmental factors

Acquiring Emotional Display Rules

Preschoolers have some ability. Parents encourage suppressing negative emotion. - Boys encouraged to suppress more - Girls encouraged to display more Cultural teaching - Collectivist vs. individualistic

Masculinization

Process by which exposure to androgens alters the brain, rendering it "male-like" The default is female - if there is no testosterone or not enough

Prolactin: The Caretaking Hormone

Prolactin increases: in all of all mammalian species and more - In male tamarin monkeys after mates give birth - In birds feeding young - When defending infants ‣ will fake to get hurt to get the predictor away from the babies ‣ taking action and putting themselves at risk to protect their offspring Bidirectional: High prolactin levels increase caretaking, and caretaking increases prolactin levels - some people just have higher prolactin and want to care for babies - others want nothing to do with them - prolactin levels go up during caretaking that why it doesn't matter if caregivers are biologically related

Learning the mother's odor

Rat pups have enhanced ability to learn odor preferences, decreased ability to learn odor aversions - preference = seek out, aversions = avoidance - baby rats do not form aversions, anything that is familiar they will seek out - keep seeking out mom During this sensitive period, both odor-milk and odor-shock conditioning paradigms result in rat pup developing a preference for the odor Activity of amygdala is reduced in rat pups - not sensing threat so familiarity piece takes over - protective for them so they are not aware of threat

Reactive vs. Proactive Aggression

Reactive aggression: emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perception that other people's motives are hostile - Very emotional - Children high in reactive aggression tend to have a hostile attribution bias (aka "aggressive lens") - perceive other's intentions as hostile - tend to grow up to have mental health challenge -> possibly mood disorders Proactive aggression: unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire - These children may be callous/unemotional, very different profile than those with reactive aggression - more likely to engage in antisocial behavior

Interactional Synchrony

Reading of the babies cues "Emotional Dance" during attachment- in-the-making phase 2-6/8m Most likely to develop if caregiver: - Attends carefully to baby's state - Provides playful interaction when baby is alert and attentive - Avoids over-stimulating a tired or over-excited infant Adults behavior is contingent on babies state, adjust their behavior to match what the baby needs at the time On the road is secure attachment

Social Learning Theory - In Later Years

Reciprocal Determinism - even tho they imitate what they see, people also respond to them Involvement of attention and memory - as cog dev increase they are going to imitate more, imitate more complicated things, and generalize it across categories - less social kids have less social learning

Attachment Sequelae: Relationships

Secure attachment - Close friendships - Harmonious peer interactions - Social leaders - high quality fantasy play Insecure attachment - Few close friendships - More likely to victimize (A) and be victimized (A,R) - socially withdrawn, hostile, disobedient - Rejected by peers, lack of cooperation and balanced exchanges - Less creative, less flexible play Helps us identify who is at risk, effects later relationships with themself and others Have to think about why a kid is the way they are, even if you don't have access to that early history of the kid

Attachment Sequelae: Self

Secure attachment - higher self esteem - appropriate emotional expression - more empathetic - mastery motivation Insecure attachment - feel unworthy, isolated, depressive - Emotionally immature and needy - Suppress emotional expression and avoid seeking comfort (A) - Less empathetic - Less interested in mastering challenges

Attachment Security

Secure attachment is related to emotion perspective taking for negative emotions. Secure attachment at 12 months predicts understanding of mixed emotions at age 6 - mixed emotions = feelings two different things at once - usually one is more positive and one is more negative - requires decentration and is complicated to understand ‣ around the same time as real vs false and requires similar cognitive Kids who are securely attached tend to reach these milestones faster than kids with other attachments but all typical dev kids reach this at some point

Parental Sensitivity and how it effects attachment

Securely attached infants: Parents read babies' signals accurately and respond promptly to needs of crying baby - there will be time you cannot respond to the needs of a crying baby but if you respond most of the time they will be securely attached Insecure resistant infants: Parents overwhelmed & inconsistent. Unavailable when infant seeking interaction, but initiate interaction when infant not interested. - more about if the parent wants to interact or not - babies tend to be insecure resistant

Social Cognition Theory

Selman's Stage Theory of Role Taking Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving Dweck's Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

Semi-structured clinical interview - matters how you support your claims - ex: my mom is supportive. How? She came to my plays and told me i was amazing - not grounded in examples is unresolved Yields 4 classifications that are analogous to the infant classifications Adults questioned about their memories of attachment, experiences & relationships with caregivers

Milestones in Cognitive Development that influence Emotion Development

Sense of self & awareness of adults' reactions & expectations Ability to differentiate between stranger & parent - good for fear of stranger and fear or separation Object permanence and memory - become less fearful of separation Attention regulatory abilities & problem solving skills - important for emotion regulation in general - can distract yourself and not focus on what gets you upset - ps: figuring out how to express yourself and find a solution

Interim Summary

Sexual dimorphism in the brain is caused by differential exposure to estrogens & androgens prenatally, postnatally, in puberty, and throughout the lifetime Timing of exposure may be crucial Sex differences in the brain and in cognitive abilities are always on average, can't make predictions about individuals Societal influences also contribute to achievement gap

Dimensional Infant Temperament Classifications: Rothbart & Bates

Six dimensions: need to look separately, can be high to low: - Fearful distress - Irritable distress - Attention span and persistence - Activity level - Positive affect - Rhythmicity Separates positive emotions and different types of negative emotions - can have babies that are high or low on both - not opposite ends of one spectrum Keeps dimensions independent, they are not used to form temperament "groups" Questionnaire uses likert scale Need items that are age appropriate

Operant Conditioning Examples

Slot machines - intermittent reinforcement - do not expect it to reward every time but it is a big reward when it does happen - extremely addictive and hard to extinguish Parenting - kid throws a tantrum because they want a candy bar at the store - mom should not give the kid the candy - if she does she rewards the kid for the bad behavior and the kid will do it again

Theories of Gender Identity in Early Childhood

Social Learning Theory - through the behavior of their peers - Gender-typing behavior leads to gender identity Cognitive-Developmental Theory - Self-perceptions (gender constancy) come before behavior - self perception -> gender perception

Chronology of Emotion Understanding

Social Referencing (8 to 12 months) - Looking around to see what others think in situations Empathy (improving throughout childhood) Labeling Emotions -> comes later in their experience - Happiness (age 3) - Negative Emotions (age 4) - Self-conscious Emotions (elementary school)

Current Perspectives on Social Cognitive Theories

Social cognitive theorists emphasize that - Children are active seekers of information about the social world - Effect of social experience is influenced by their interpretations Social cognitive theories - Supported by research - Lack insight into biological factors in social development

Do infants have the same emotions as adults?

Sources might be more simple or innate and reasons may not be as complex as adults Certain cultures are socialized to regulate their emotions more Area of great deal of controversy Try to gage this by looking at facial expressions which are very similar to adults Facial Action Coding System: measure different facial measures to get at the stereotypical making of facial expressions

Why is Shyness and Sociability Stable?

Stability/change in temperament affected by genetic makeup and child rearing - genetic component to stability Arousal of amygdala - Highly activated in shy, inhibited children - Minimal activation in sociable, uninhibited children - tells the child that everything is a threat or nothing is a threat Parenting style plays significant role - Overprotectiveness -> shyness can persist - Appropriate demands ‣ do not want to ignore their inhibited temperament and force them into highly social environments. ‣ Want to gently push them and challenge them such as set up a play date with another shy kid so they get socialized ‣ for uninhibited the parent needs to know how to regulate their temperament

Gender stability beliefs depend on experience

Study of transgender 3-5 year olds who have socially transitioned They and their siblings are less likely to believe that other people's gender is stable (gender stability) - life experience led to them having skepticism about gender stability

Cultural Influences: Sweden's Commitment to Gender Equality

Sweden is one of the most gender equal nation in the world, ingrained into their laws "Equal roles family model" US is one of 4 countries to not have paid maternity leave Paid paternity leaves - many men are discouraged/pressured to not take it - BU has really good maternity and paternity leave for staff Quality child care available - for really cheap, mostly paid by the government Results: - Young people view gender traits as learned and domains of expertise, rather than inborn traits or rights and duties. ‣ less likely to see gender traits as innate, based on socialization - Adults hold more favorable attitudes toward maternal employment. - 90% of Swedish fathers take some form of parental leave. ‣ changes how fathers are with child -> long term implications for bonding and caregiving

Sympathy and Empathy

Sympathy - Feeling of concern or sorrow for another's plight ‣ ex: natural disaster and u say "what a pity, so sad" Empathy - Feeling same or similar emotions as another person ‣ ex: feeling really sad for someone close to you when they go through something hard or feel embarrassed for others when they embarrass themselves Complex mix of cognition and affect Must detect emotions, take other's perspective ‣ more effort full and really do feel the negative emotions yourself

Prenatal Testosterone

The Y chromosome codes for TDF (testes determining factor), which stimulates development of the testes - XX baby does not have testes in the womb, need Y - beginning of biological sex differences The testes produce testosterone during prenatal development, which stimulates development of male reproductive organs and also affects brain development - some XY babies do not have this exposure in the womb so they are not surrounded by testosterone - the way the brain develops is a little different if there is testosterone in the womb

Characteristics of Ecological & Evolutionary Theories

The active child: Children actively shape their own development via knowledge and beliefs about themselves and others Continuity of development - early experience shapes later behavior Sociocultural Context Nature and nurture interaction

Differential Emotions Theory (Izard)

There is a limited set of specific emotions, each of which is innate and evident from very early in life (or emerges on a predetermined timetable). - not experience dependent - innate These emotions can be identified by distinct facial expressions and bodily cues. - ex aching back when upset - raising arms when happy

Heterotypic Continuity

There is stability in the underlying temperament dimension, but the behavioral expression changes depending on age Distress is the same but show them in behavior that are appropriate for their age group

Developmental Approaches to Emotions

Three basic emotional systems at birth: joy/pleasure, anger/frustration, and wariness/fear - babies feel these general categories, not specific Emotional systems change from primitive forms to more differentiated forms during the first few years of life through biological maturation, cognitive development, and social experience Dominant view but still has controversy Functionalist Differentiation Dynamic Systems - will not ask us to differentiate the prior 3 - developmental approaches cover them all

Hostile Attributional Bias

a general expectation that others are antagonistic to them and that ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent ex: john trips and spills milk all over you at lunch Attribution 1: it was an accident and he didn't mean to get it on you - tell him how u feel and ask he doesn't do it again Attribution 2 (what this bias thinks) john did it on purpose but tried to pass if off as an accident to embarrass you - you get aggressive in your reaction and push john World perceives them as bullies based on behavior. In their mind they are responding to what the world has done to them but others see them as aggressive for no valid reason Kids who have been abused, have had trauma, more negative parents tend to have it. Others have a more genetic component Bias tends to persist

Fears of Novelty and Noise

adaptive to get away from startling noises some kids are more tempermentally bold as stimuli become more familiar the fear declines (usually as a toddler) Graph

Emotional Perspective Taking (age 4 or 5)

ask kid to put themself into someone else shoes all faces are blank so there is no emotional cue need to project how the people feel can put themselves in someones shows and think of how people react in different scenarios

Development of Self-Conscious Emotions

baby is proud of himself for building a tower first needs to have a sense of self has to compare himself to a standard - ex one block is not impressive but stacking them is impressive - ashamed if you do not meet a standard in your culture - standards are determined by your environment happen between 18-24 months of age Cognitively complicated

Real vs. False Emotions & Display Rules (5 or 6)

difference between how a person actually feels and what they express external do kids understand that other peoples hide their emotions? requires concrete operations, requires decentration and get over egocentrism cant be too influenced by only internal or external. need to think about those need to mentally manipulate Kelly's face Would really effect your relationships as you get older if you do not understand this Perspective taking is very difficult for kids with ASD - also relies on social experience which they do not get much of either

Ownership Graph

grey bar - visual and verbal match when labels match they tend to be correct for 5 year old it doesnt matter who is holding the ball, they go with the verbal cue 2 and 3 year olds are much less clear about whos ball it is not ignore verbal info - when the cues don't match they're guessing

Adult bilateral lesions to the amygdala in primates: lack of normal fear responses to threatening stimuli (Amaral et al. 2003)

reaching for a snake cannot detect that the snake is a threat, just curious over active and under active amygdalas are a problem

Separation Anxiety and Sociocultural Context

similar pattern across ages and cultures (graph) peaks at 13 months them drops Higher percentage of kids fretting among the Chinese kids Main effect of age - once they form attachment then they have separation anxiety -have better coping skills by the second year of like so the anxiety decreases Main effect of culture - difference in expectation of separation Increase at 7 months

Siblings and Gender Typing Graph

y axis = mean masculine behavior score - highest in boys with big brother - least masculine in boys with big sister y axis for girls is not the same increments but measures the same thing - lowest in girls with older sister - highest in girls with older brothers having same sex older sibling makes you have more stereotyped gender roles younger sibling does not affect older siblings study excludes siblings with older brother and sister