Dif BK-Ch.4 Microprocessors, Ch.5 RAM, Ch.6 BIOS,Ch. 7 MOBO, Ch.8 PS,Ch.9 HD Tech, Ch.10 Implementing

System lockup

When the computer stops functioning

Graphical UEFI AMD-based Setup Utility

When you boot into a graphical UEFI, is shows a typical, simple graphical setup screen. You can not do much here except view info about installed components, select one of three preset System Performance optimization options, and change the boot priority. Click the option to go into Advanced Mode and you will get a much more versatile utility.

ReadyBoost

Windows Vista and later versions offer a feature called ReadyBoost that enables you to use flash media devices, USB thumb drives or memory cards, as super fast, dedicated virtual memory.

System RAM recommendations

32 bit: 2GB to get by; 4 GB for best results 64 bit: 4 GB to get by; 8 GB for a solid machine; 16+ GB for any machine doing serious, processor-intensive work.

DDR 3

-1.5 volts -Doubles the throughput of DDR 2 and quadruples the throughput of DDR SDRAM -240 pins (DDR 2 and 3 may have the same pins but you can't put them in the same DIMM. The sticks themselves have different notches that align) -Includes a feature called XMP (Extended Memory Profiler) which enables users to overclock their RAM easily. -DDR3 also supports triple channel or quad channel.

DDR 2

-1.8 volts -Doubles the throughput of DDR SDRAM -240 pins (DDR 2 and 3 may have the same pins but you can't put them in the same DIMM. The sticks themselves have different notches that align)

DDR 4

-This stick came around in late 2014, doubling the throughput of DDR 3, quadrupling the throughput of DDR 2, and is eight times faster than DDR SDRAM. -Operates at 1.2 volts. -288 pins

Address bus

Actually lets the CPU pick out a specific line of code it wants from the RAM

Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

A separate chip, called the CMOS chip, stores the info that describes specific device parameters. CMOS does not store programs; it only stores data that is read by BIOS to complete the programs needed to talk to changeable hardware. CMOS also acts as a clock to keep the current data and time (Sometimes called the Real Time Clock). Years ago, the CMOS was a separate chip on the MOBO, but now it is almost always built into the Southbridge. Most CMOS chips store around 64 KB of data, but PC only needs 128 bytes to store all necessary info on the changeable hardware. All of the CMOS details only applies to Windows and Linux. Mac has a BIOS and CMOS but Apple has done all the work for you and you simply just use the Mac OS X machine.

Clock cycle

A single charge to the clock wire

Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)

A type of RAM that was popular in the 1980s and 1990s. This RAM is out of date now and no longer used in modern computers. SIMMs have a 32 bit data path.

Socket types

All CPUs fit inside a certain socket and have to fit it. Check motherboard documentation for socket type and more.

Clock multipliers

All modern day CPUs run at some clock speed. Originally CPUs ran at the speed of the bus, eventually they found out that the CPU is one of the fastest chips on the motherboard. Back then the clock multiplying systems had to be manually configured, but now they are automatically configured that a function called CPUID (CPU Identifier).

NX bit

All modern processors employ the NX bit technology that enables the CPU to protect certain sections of memory. Microsoft calls this feature DEP (Data Execution Prevention) and it is turned off by default in every OS since Windows XP

Instruction set

All of the machine language commands that the CPU understands

Integrated Memory Controller

Almost all current CPUs have an IMC. It was moved from the motherboard to the chip to optimize the flow of info into and out of the CPU. IMC enables faster control over things like the large L3 cache shared among multiple cores.

DDR3U

An even lower voltage version of DDR3L! This stick runs at 1.25 volts

Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

Another big name in the CPU market.

Bits and bytes

Any individual 1 or 0 = a bit 4 bits = a nibble 8 bits = a byte 16 bits = a word 32 bits = a double word 64 bits = quad word or a paragraph

Installing RAM

Before buying RAM check the motherboard documentation to see what is supported. Attach your anitstatic wrist strap to the chassis and once you have your RAM, check the motherboard documentation if you want to configure dual channel, place the RAM in the DIMM and then use the notches to secure them. That's it you are done!

Installing RAM that uses SO-DIMM

Before installing the RAM check your motherboard documentation to see what is supported. Take the laptop battery out and unplug it from the wall. Next, drain the power by holding the power button down for a few seconds. Once you have your RAM open the back panel of your laptop or remove the keyboard (the RAM is usually located in those two spots. For me, the RAM is usually located once you take the back panel off). To install it place it in the SO-DIMM at a 45 degree angle and then push it down.

External Data Bus (EDB)

Bus that enables the CPU to communicate with external devices and components to communicate with the computer.

DDR3L

This is a lower voltage version of DDR3. Runs at 1.35 volts compared to DDR3s 1.5 volts or 1.65 volts.

x86

CPUs from the earlier days can be lumped together as x86 CPUs because they used an instruction set that built upon the earliest Intel CPU architecture. (x86 is 32 bit)

Cache

Cache lets the CPU get to the instructions and data it uses frequently quicker. Instead of going to the slow DRAM, going to the SRAM (cache) is quicker because it is built on the CPU and does not need to travel. L1 cache- Cache that is CPU specific and is on the CPU die (If you have a 6 core CPU every core will have its own L1 cache). L2 cache- This cache use to reside on the motherboard, but on modern motherboards it is built in side the CPU. Some CPUs will have the L2 cache be shared with all of their cores (For example, a 6 core CPU will have an L2 cache shared with all of them). L3- On newer CPUs and some CPUs will have these shared as well.

Page fault

Can be caused by memory issues but not necessarily system RAM problems. Many people get it confused and think that a page fault is a RAM issue. That is not always the case. When you get a memory error write it down and if it is the same every time it is most likely a RAM problem. If is different then you need to look else where.

backside bus

Connection between the CPU and the L2 cache

frontside bus

Connection between the CPU and the Northbridge. This bus connects the CPU, MCC, and RAM.

Parity

Detects errors in 1 bit and can not correct them

Error Correction Code (ECC)

Detects errors in multiple bit and can correct them. ECC is usually used in servers and you can tell if a stick is ECC if the chips on the module are divisible by 3. ECC RAM is also slower than non-ECC RAM. You can only use ECC if your motherboard supports it.

Clock Crystal

Determines the speed at which a CPU and the rest of the PC operates. This sets the speed for everything and there are multiple clock crystals on each motherboard. It sends out an electric pulse at a certain speed, many millions times per second. The signal then goes first to a clock chip that adjusts the pulse, increases it by a large multiple. If you clock a crystal to 1 GHz and then clock a 2.0 GHz CPU, the CPU will run at the speed of the crystal.

Disk thrashing

Disk thrashing is when Windows rushes to move programs between RAM and the page file (Basically when your virtual RAM is exchanging memory so much your hard drive LED begins to flicker excessively). Disk thrashing can make your PCs overall performance plummet.

Intel

Dominates the CPU market

CPU models

Each CPU has a name, make, and model number. Such as "Intel Core i7" or "AMD FX-8350 Black Edition"

Real parity errors

Errors that the MCC detects from the parity or ECC chips (if you have them). The OS then reports the problem in an error message, such as "Parity error at xxxx:xxxxxxxx," where xxxx:xxxxxxxx is a hexadecimal value (string of numbers and letters, such as A5F2:004EEAB9). If you get an error like this, write down the value. A real parity/ECC error shows up at the same place in memory each time and almost always indicates that you have a bad RAM stick.

Typical CMOS setup programs

Every BIOS makers CMOS looks different but do not let that confuse you. They all basically contain the same settings; you just have to be comfortable picking around. Some CMOS setup utilities will even let you use a mouse. UEFI does not specify a graphical or text based system setup utility. The two are unrelated. There are many older MOBOs with graphical system utilities that are 16 bit BIOS. On the 901 exam, it implies UEFI as graphical and the legacy as text mode.

Modify CMOS: The Setup Program

Every PC ships with a program built into the system ROM called the CMOS Setup Program or the System Setup Utility that lets you modify CMOS data

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)

Every device in the PC needs a BIOS. The BIOS is a program that enables it to talk to the CPU. The BIOS is stored on a ROM chip located on the MOBO.

System BIOS support

Every system BIOS has two types of hardware to support: hardware that does change and doesn't change (you can change your keyboard but not the keyboard controller built into the Southbridge) The system ROM chip stores the BIOs for devices that do not change like the keyboard and speakers (not the speakers that you use for playing music, the ones for beep codes on MOBO) The system ROM chip stores the BIOS for devices that change, like RAM and hard drives, but they system needs another place to store info about the specific details for a piece of hardware. This enables the system to differentiate between a Western Digital 1 TB HDD and a Samsung 850 EVO 500GB SSD, and yet still support both drives right out of the box.

Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)

Faster than SIMM sticks. Has a 64 bit data path.

Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)

For many years, the PC used 16 bit BIOS that requires x86 compliant hardware. That was fine until really large hard drives (3TB) came on the market. At that point, Intel released the BIOS used in modern systems, called the UEFI. Advantages of UEFI are: UEFI supports file systems that enable booting UEFI supports 32 bit or 64 bit booting UEFI handles all boot loading devices UEFI not dependent on x86 firmware Current systems - Mac, Linux, Windows - use UEFI and provide legacy support for traditional BIOS

Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM)

Has 184 pins These sticks are alot better than SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate SDRAM) because DDR RAM doubles the throughput of SDR SDRAM by making two processes for every clock cycle.

0 (binary number)

It means off

1 (binary number)

It means on

Talking to the keyboard

In the early days, the keyboard connected to an external data bus via a chip called Keyboard controller. Every time you press a key on your keyboard, a scanning chip in the keyboard notices which key you pressed. Then the scanner sends a coded pattern of ones and zeros - called the scan code - to the keyboard controller. Every key on your keyboard has a unique scan code.

Integrated Graphics Processing Unit

Instead of having a graphics card in your PCI slot, this is similar to a video card, but it is inside of your CPU. This overall enhances your CPUs performance.

Memory Controller Chip (MCC)

Let's the CPU and RAM have a flow of data

Triple channel architecture

Like Dual channel but has 3 sticks. Obviously, increases throughput. Only DDR3 and DDR4 can support triple channel.

Quad channel architecture

Like triple channel but uses 4 sticks. Increases throughput.

Overclocking

Making your CPU run faster than its rated clock speed. Overclocking can result in: voided warranty and a damaged CPU. Personally, I do not overclock because I do not want to take the risk of my CPU getting destroyed. But, as we all know, people are different.

Underclocking

Making your CPU run slower (similar to overclocking but instead of getting increase performance your CPU operates at a slower speed)

Mobile vs Desktop

Mobile and Desktop CPU's both have different needs. Mobile CPUs are desired to consume as little as electricity as possible (helps from over heating and to extend battery life).

Parallel execution

Modern CPUs can process multiple commands and parts of commands in parallel. The CPUs accomplish the parallelism through multiple pipelines, dedicated caches, and the capability to work with multiple threads or programs at one time.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Motherboards store device programming on a special chip called a ROM chip. A ROM chip stores programs, called services, exactly like RAM. But ROM differs from RAM in two important ways: ROM chips are nonvolatile, meaning that the info stored on ROM isn't erased when the computer is turned off. Second, ROM is read only, meaning that once you store a program on one, you can't change it. Modern MOBOs use a type of ROM called flash ROM that differs from traditional ROM in that you can update and change the contents through a very specific process called "flashing the ROM". Every MOBO has a flash ROM chip, called the system ROM chip because it contains code that enables your CPU to talk to the basic hardware of your PC. The ROM holds more than the BIOS, it contains the programming that allows your devices to talk. To talk to all of that hardware requires hundreds of little services. These hundreds of little programs stored on the system ROM chip on the MOBO are called, collectively, the system BIOS. Techs call programs stored on ROM chips of any sort firmware.

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

RDRAM was made by a company called Rambus Inc (hence the name RDRAM). With RDRAM every single RIMM has to be filled. So either you put a RDRAM stick in every RIMM or put a continuity module in every RIMM. RDRAM also has a heat sinking module on it to absorb heat. Has 184 pins 2.4 volts

Column Access Strobe (CAS)

One of the wires in the RAM that helps the memory controller find a particular bit of memory. Each of these wires requires electricity to charge up before it can do its job.

Rambus In-line Memory Module (RIMM)

Only RDRAM sticks can be put in this. If you try anything else it will not work.

OEM heatsink

Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) heat sink and fan assemblies that are included with most Intel retailed-boxed CPUs.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Performs calculations in the CPU. Handles integer math.

SRAM (Static RAM)

RAM that is built into the CPU. This RAM is very highspeed and is sometimes known as the "cache".

RAM capacity

RAM in the 90s was usually in the MB range (1 RAM stick may be up to 256 MB) but nowadays the amount of memory that each RAM can hold is big! Modern RAM can support 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, or 16GB a stick! Make sure each stick is the same capacity. Do not mix ram capacities cause the PC will run at the lowest RAM stick.

Virtualization

Running more than one operating system at a time (Using your Windows 8 to run Windows ME). Modern day CPUs have hard-based virtualization support.

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

SDRAM is synchronized with the system clock. SDRAM operates on a DIMM. 168 pins

Throttling

Saving energy by making the CPU run more slowly when demand is light

Random Access Memory (RAM)

See Chapter 5

Phantom parity errors

Shows up on systems that don't have parity and ECC memory. If Windows generates parity errors with different addresses, you most likely do not have a problem with RAM. These phantom errors can occur for a variety of reasons, including software problems, heat or dust, solar flares, etc etc.

Register

Small amount of storage available in the CPU. The register may hold a computer instructions, a storage address, or any kind of data.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

The CPU uses DRAM and it is the systems main memory. It has changed over the years and the newest RAM is DDR4 RAM. Has been the standard RAM in all computers since the 1970s.

pipeline stall

Sometimes a stage hits a complex command that requires more than one clock cycle, forcing the pipeline to stop. This is a pipeline stall. The decode stage tends to cause most of the pipeline stalls.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Temporary workspace where instructions are executed and data are processed. RAM is nearly in every electronic device today (printers, PCs, phones, etc).

Advanced tab (Graphical UEFI)

The Advanced tab gives BIOS component info about CPUs, hard drives, and optical drives and all the built in components, such as USB ports. In this tab, as you drill down to each subcategory, you can configure drive settings, enable and disable devices, and more.

Ai Tweaker (Graphic UEFI)

The Ai Tweaker tab lets you overclock both the CPU and RAM. You can change the clock multiplier, clock speeds, voltages, and more here.

Hyperthreading

The CPU can run 2 threads at a time. This gives a 15-25% performance increase.

Main tab (Graphic UEFI)

The Main tab offers some BIOS component info, such as surface details of amount of RAM and CPU speed, plus a couple of options to modify the language, date and time. The Main tab also allows you to configure BIOS security by setting an admin or user password. An admin password locks or unlocks access to the system setup utility. A user password locks or unlocks the computer booting to an OS.

We need to talk

The Northbridge acts as a primary bridge between the CPU and the rest of the computer. Your PC uses a lot of devices, so the industry decided to delegate some of the interconnecting work to a second chip, the Southbridge. The Northbridge deals with fast speed devices like the video card and RAM. The Southbridge deals with low speed devices such as the USB controller and hard drive controllers. North and Southbridge are sold together as a set. Which is why they call it a "chipset". Nowadays, the Northbridge is built on the CPU The Southbridge is called the I/O Controller Hub in Intel and Fusion Controller Hub in AMD. Every device and chipset on the MOBO connects through the External Data Bus

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The brain of the computer. Does most of the calculations on your computer.

64 bit processing

The bus is 64 bits wide and it can run compatible Operating Systems like Windows 8 and 8.1. They can also run 32 bit operating systems (32 bit CPUs can't run 64 bit applications). 32 bit CPUs and operating systems only supported 4GB of RAM, but with 64 you can run up to 16 EB of RAM (that's insanely huge).

Single sided RAM

The chips on the RAM are only on one side of the stick

Latency

The delay in RAMs response time. Latency is rated in CL. The CL is usually followed by a number and the higher the number, the higher the latency (CL3 RAM is faster than CL7 RAM). CL3 means that the memory delays three clock cycles before delivering the requested data; the "7" means a seven-cycle delay.

Clock speed

The maximum number of clock cycles that a CPU can handle is a given period of time. Fastest speed at which a CPU can operate. It is the CPU's maximum speed.

Non-Maskable Interrupt (NMI)

This is an interruption the CPU can not ignore. An NMI manifests as a BSoD (or a proprietary crash screen). If this happens just reboot the machine. Bad RAM sometimes triggers an NMI, although often the problem is buggy programming or clashing code.

Pin Grid Array (PGA)

The pins are on the CPU itself

Land Grid Array (LGA)

The pins are on the motherboard

Double sided RAM

There are chips on both sides of the RAM stick. Double-sided sticks basically two sticks of RAM soldered onto one board.

Dual Channel architecture

This is using two sticks of RAM to increase throughput. Dual channel is better than single channel cause instead of 1 stick of RAM doing all of the work you now have 2 sticks.

General purpose registers

There are many kind of registers in a CPU but the most common ones are AX, BX, CX, and DX. In today's processors 32 bit registers add an E for extended (EAX, EBX, etc) and 64 bit registers get an R (RAX, RBX, etc).

Do you need more RAM?

There are symptoms that can point to the need for more RAM: - If programs take forever to load and running programs seem to stall and move more slowly than you would like, the problem could be insufficient RAM To check your RAM usage go to the Task Manager and look at the processes tab. If it is high doing simple tasks you might want to consider an upgrade.

Thermal compound

There is a special paste that you must apply to the CPU and heat sink. If you do not the CPU will overheat. Place the compound in this order: Install the CPU in the socket, put the compound on the CPU, and then place the heatsink and fan on top of the thermal compound and CPU. Too much thermal compound can also cause your CPU to overheat. You have to make sure you put the right amount. Not too little or too much. Make sure to wear gloves cause the compound is toxic and could harm you.

Small Outline DIMM (SO-DIMM)

These are like DIMMs but smaller. These are used in small devices like laptops.

Zero Insertion Force sockets (ZIF)

These sockets have a handle that you must pull down to secure the CPU in place.

Registered RAM

This RAM has a register that resides between the RAM and the MCC. This little bit of extra circuitry helps compensate for electrical problems that crop up in systems with lots of memory modules, such as servers.

Serial Presence Detect (SPD)

This allows your motherboard to detect and automatically set up any DIMM you install.

Page file

This is when your physical RAM and your virtual RAM swap memory. This usually happens when you've loaded too many programs and the system has run out of real RAM. When it runs out of real RAM it has to in a way borrow RAM so it take some from your virtual RAM. When is has to borrow virtual RAM, starts creating a page file that resides somewhere on your hard drive. The page file works like a temporary storage box. Windows removes running programs temporarily from RAM into the page file so other programs can load and run. An important thing to remember is that Windows can not run an application that is in a page file, it just keeps it loaded but can't actually use it. So if you need to use it the application will be taken out of the page file and put back into the physical RAM. The RAM will decide what to put in its place for the page file.

Accessing the CMOS at boot

To access the CMOS at boot, you have to press a special button to start it up. The special button depends on the BIOS manufacturer.

Pipelining

To get a command from the data bus, do the calculation, and then get the answer back out on the data bus, a CPU takes at least four steps (each step is called a stage): 1. Fetch- gets data from the EDB 2. Decode- Figure out which command needs to be executed 3. Execute- perform the calculation 4. Write- puts the data back on the EDB

Accessing CMOS through Windows

Traditionally, you access a system's CMOS setup program at boot. In a functioning UEFI-based system running Windows 8 or 8.1, however, you can access setup from the Settings charm on the Charms bar. Charms - Change PC Settings - Update and Recovery - Recovery - Troubleshoot - Advanced Options - UEFI Firmware Settings This is not a practical way to access the CMOS as it is a lot quicker to just reboot the system.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)

Used for main system memory. Needs both a constant electrical charge and a periodic refresh of the circuits; other wise it loses data- that's what makes it Dynamic rather than static.

Code names

Used to keep track of different variations within models (for example you have to i7s. One is a "i7 Sandy Bridge" and the other is a "i7 Skylake"

Testing RAM

You could buy a RAM testing machine or do it the old fashion way. The old fashion way is this: When you boot your OS if you hear multiple beeps open the case and check your RAM. Once you have the case open take all of the sticks out of DIMMS. Next place ONE stick of RAM in a DIMM and start the computer up. If you hear multiple beeps that is your culprit, if you hear nothing then take it out cause that one is good. Another way is by using the Windows Memory Diagnostic tool. This tool is in Windows 7 and up.

Catastrophic Failure

You will know when it happens. Your computer will usually BSoD (Blue Screen of Death (technically called a Windows Stop error)). On Mac OS X you will get a pin wheel on the screen that doesn't go away. CompTIA calls the BSoD and pin wheel "proprietary crash screen". A catastrophic failure can also just be your computer getting a black screen accompanied by a smell of burnt electronics or a loud pop.