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1 Page semi-protected Happiness From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Happy) Jump to navigationJump to search Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Happiness (disambiguation), Happy (disambiguation), Gladness (disambiguation) and Jolly (disambiguation). "Rejoicing" redirects here. For the album, see Rejoicing (album). "Felicitous" redirects here. For the concept in pragmatics, see Felicity conditions. Part of a series on Emotions Plutchik-wheel.svg Acceptance Affection Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Boredom Confidence Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Distrust Ecstasy Embarrassment Empathy Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Interest Jealousy Joy Loneliness Love Lust Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Self-confidence Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Suffering Surprise Trust Wonder Worry vte Happiness is used in the context of mental or emotional states, including positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.[1] It is also used in the context of life satisfaction, subjective well-being, eudaimonia, flourishing and well-being.[2][3] Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics. Contents 1 Definitions 2 Philosophy 3 Religion 3.1 Eastern religions 3.1.1 Buddhism 3.1.2 Hinduism 3.1.3 Confucianism 3.2 Abrahamic religions 3.2.1 Judaism 3.2.2 Roman Catholicism 3.2.3 Islam 4 Psychology 4.1 Theories 4.1.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs 4.1.2 Self-determination theory 4.1.3 Modernization and freedom of choice 4.1.4 Positive psychology 5 Measurement of happiness 6 Relationship to physical characteristics 7 Possible limits on happiness seeking 8 Economic and political views 9 Contributing factors and research outcomes 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Definitions 'Happiness' is the subject of debate on usage and meaning,[4][5][6][7] and on possible differences in understanding by culture.[8][9] The word is used in several related areas:[10] Happy children playing in water current experience, including (a) the feeling of an emotion (affect) such as pleasure or joy,[1] or (b) a more general sense of 'emotional condition as a whole'.[11] For instance Daniel Kahneman has defined happiness as "what I experience here and now".[12] This usage is prevalent in dictionary definitions of happiness.[13][14][15] appraisal of life satisfaction, such as of quality of life.[16] For instance Ruut Veenhoven has defined happiness as "overall appreciation of one's life as-a-whole."[17][18] subjective well-being,[19] which includes measures of affect and of life satisfaction.[20] For instance Sonja Lyubomirsky has described happiness as "the experience of joy, contentment, or positive well-being, combined with a sense that one's life is good, meaningful, and worthwhile."[21] eudaimonia,[22] which is sometimes translated as flourishing. These uses can give different results.[23] For instance the correlation of income levels has been shown to be substantial with life satisfaction measures, but to be far weaker, at least above a certain threshold, with affect measures.[24][25] The implied meaning of the word may vary depending on context,[26] qualifying happiness as a polyseme and a fuzzy concept. Some users accept these issues, but continue to use the word because of its convening power.[27] Philosophy A smiling 95-year-old man from Pichilemu, Chile. A butcher happily slicing meat. Main article: Philosophy of happiness In the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for its own sake, unlike riches, honour, health or friendship. He observed that men sought riches, or honour, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. Note that eudaimonia, the term we translate as "happiness", is for Aristotle an activity rather than an emotion or a state.[28] Thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way. Specifically, Aristotle argues that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. He arrives at this claim with the Function Argument. Basically, if it's right, every living thing has a function, that which it uniquely does. For humans, Aristotle contends, our function is to reason, since it is that alone that we uniquely do. And performing one's function well, or excellently, is good. Thus, according to Aristotle, the life of excellent rational activity is the happy life. Aristotle does not leave it at that, however. He argues that there is a second best life for those incapable of excellent rational activity. This second best life is the life of moral virtue.[citation needed] Many ethicists make arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Utilitarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior.[citation needed] Friedrich Nietzsche savagely critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating that "Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does." Nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate goal and the aim of one's existence, in his words "makes one contemptible." Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." He introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers. these small, "last men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle are meant to seem contemptible to Nietzsche's reader. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.[29][30] Darrin McMahon claims that there has been a transition over time from emphasis on the happiness of virtue to the virtue of happiness.[31] Happiness may be said to be a relative concept; the source of happiness for one person might not be the source of happiness for another.[citation needed] Not all cultures seek to maximise happiness,[32][33][34] and some cultures are averse to happiness.[35][36] Religion See also: Religious studies Eastern religions Buddhism Tibetan Buddhist monk Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings.[37] For ultimate freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). Buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.[38][39][unreliable source?] Hinduism In Advaita Vedanta, the ultimate goal of life is happiness, in the sense that duality between Atman and Brahman is transcended and one realizes oneself to be the Self in all. Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.[40] Confucianism The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who had sought to give advice to ruthless political leaders during China's Warring States period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self), and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if one did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", then that force would shrivel up (Mencius, 6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.[41] Abrahamic religions Judaism Main article: Happiness in Judaism Happiness or simcha (Hebrew: שמחה‎) in Judaism is considered an important element in the service of God.[42] The biblical verse "worship The Lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs," (Psalm 100:2) stresses joy in the service of God.[citation needed] A popular teaching by Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a 19th-century Chassidic Rabbi, is "Mitzvah Gedolah Le'hiyot Besimcha Tamid," it is a great mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. When a person is happy they are much more capable of serving God and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.[43] Roman Catholicism The primary meaning of "happiness" in various European languages involves good fortune, chance or happening. The meaning in Greek philosophy, however, refers primarily to ethics. In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, Latin equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia, or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God's essence in the next life.[44] According to St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, man's last end is happiness: "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness."[45] However, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.[46] In turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to happiness is according to Aquinas caused by laws: natural law and divine law. These laws, in turn, were according to Aquinas caused by a first cause, or God.[citation needed] According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "Consequently happiness consists principally in such an operation, viz. in the contemplation of Divine things." And, "the last end cannot consist in the active life, which pertains to the practical intellect." So: "Therefore the last and perfect happiness, which we await in the life to come, consists entirely in contemplation. But imperfect happiness, such as can be had here, consists first and principally in contemplation, but secondarily, in an operation of the practical intellect directing human actions and passions."[47] Human complexities, like reason and cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. In temporal life, the contemplation of God, the infinitely Beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. Beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.[48] Islam Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), the Muslim Sufi thinker, wrote "The Alchemy of Happiness", a manual of spiritual instruction throughout the Muslim world and widely practiced today.[citation needed] Psychology Happiness in its broad sense is the label for a family of pleasant emotional states, such as joy, amusement, satisfaction, gratification, euphoria, and triumph.[49] Happiness can be examined in experiential and evaluative contexts. Experiential well-being, or "objective happiness", is happiness measured in the moment via questions such as "How good or bad is your experience now?". In contrast, evaluative well-being asks questions such as "How good was your vacation?" and measures one's subjective thoughts and feelings about happiness in the past. Experiential well-being is less prone to errors in reconstructive memory, but the majority of literature on happiness refers to evaluative well-being. The two measures of happiness can be related by heuristics such as the peak-end rule.[50] Some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way.[51] Theories on how to achieve happiness include "encountering unexpected positive events",[52] "seeing a significant other",[53] and "basking in the acceptance and praise of others".[54] However others believe that happiness is not solely derived from external, momentary pleasures.[55] Theories Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi.[citation needed] Amitai Etzioni points out that Maslow's definition of human needs, even on the highest level, that of self-actualization, is self-centered (i.e. his view of satisfaction or what makes a person happy, does not include service to others or the common good—unless it enriches the self). As implied by its name, self-actualization is highly individualistic and reflects Maslow's premise that the self is "sovereign and inviolable" and entitled to "his or her own tastes, opinions, values, etc."[56] Self-determination theory Smiling woman from Vietnam Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Modernization and freedom of choice Ronald Inglehart has traced cross-national differences in the level of happiness based on data from the World Values Survey. He finds that the extent to which a society allows free choice has a major impact on happiness. When basic needs are satisfied, the degree of happiness depends on economic and cultural factors that enable free choice in how people live their lives. Happiness also depends on religion in countries where free choice is constrained.[57] Positive psychology Since 2000 the field of positive psychology has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and has produced many different views on causes of happiness, and on factors that correlate with happiness.[58] Numerous short-term self-help interventions have been developed and demonstrated to improve happiness.[59][60] Measurement of happiness Several scales have been developed to measure happiness: The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) is a four-item scale, measuring global subjective happiness. The scale requires participants to use absolute ratings to characterize themselves as happy or unhappy individuals, as well as it asks to what extent they identify themselves with descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals.[61][62] The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is used to detect the relation between personality traits and positive or negative affects at this moment, today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past year, and generally (on average). PANAS is a 20-item questionnaire, which uses a five-point Likert scale (1 = very slightly or not at all, 5 = extremely).[63][64] A longer version with additional affect scales is available in a manual.[65] The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is a global cognitive assessment of life satisfaction developed by Ed Diener. The SWLS requires a person to use a seven-item scale to state their agreement or disagreement (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = neither agree nor disagree, 7 = strongly agree) with five statements about their life.[66][67] The UK began to measure national well being in 2012,[68] following Bhutan, which already measured gross national happiness.[69][70] The 2012 World Happiness Report stated that in subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reports.[71] Happiness is used in both life evaluation, as in "How happy are you with your life as a whole?", and in emotional reports, as in "How happy are you now?," and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these verbal contexts. Using these measures, the World Happiness Report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness.[citation needed] Etzioni argues that happiness is the wrong metric, because it does not take into account that doing the right thing, what is moral, often does not produce happiness in the way this term is usually used.[72] Happiness has been found to be quite stable over time.[73][74] Relationship to physical characteristics [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2017) Even though no evidence of happiness causing improved physical health has been found, the topic is being researched by Laura Kubzansky, a professor at the Lee Kum Sheung Center for Health and Happiness at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University.[75] A positive relationship has been suggested between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of the brain and the subject's subjective happiness score.[76] Possible limits on happiness seeking June Gruber[77] suggests that seeking happiness can have negative effects, such as failure to meet over-high expectations,[78] and instead advocates a more open stance to all emotions.[79] Other research has analysed possible trade-offs between happiness and meaning in life.[80][81][82] Not all cultures seek to maximise happiness.[35][83][84][85][86] Economic and political views Newly commissioned officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the U.S. Naval Academy class of 2011 graduation and commissioning ceremony. Main article: Happiness economics In politics, happiness as a guiding ideal is expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson, as the universal right to "the pursuit of happiness."[87] This seems to suggest a subjective interpretation but one that nonetheless goes beyond emotions alone.[citation needed] In fact, this discussion is often based on the naive assumption that the word happiness meant the same thing in 1776 as it does today. In fact, happiness meant "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing" in the 18th century.[88] Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. On average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.[89][90] This has been explained by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the same percentual increase in the GNP produces the same increase in happiness for wealthy countries as for poor countries.[91][92][93][94] Increasingly, academic economists and international economic organisations are arguing for and developing multi-dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. Work by Paul Anand and colleagues helps to highlight the fact that there many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgement reflect, in part, the presence of salient constraints, and that fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course. Libertarian think tank Cato Institute claims that economic freedom correlates strongly with happiness[95] preferably within the context of a western mixed economy, with free press and a democracy. According to certain standards, East European countries (ruled by Communist parties) were less happy than Western ones, even less happy than other equally poor countries.[96] However, much empirical research in the field of happiness economics, such as that by Benjamin Radcliff, professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame, supports the contention that (at least in democratic countries) life satisfaction is strongly and positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong labor unions.[97] Similarly, there is evidence that public policies that reduce poverty and support a strong middle class, such as a higher minimum wage, strongly affects average levels of well-being.[98] It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.[99] According to professor Edward Glaeser, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, because they have also more important aims. Therefore, the government should not decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by patronizing them but let the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.[100] Good mental health and good relationships contribute more than income to happiness and governments should take these into account.[101] Contributing factors and research outcomes Main article: Well-being contributing factors Research on positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligmann covers a broad range of levels and topics, including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[102] See also Action for Happiness Aversion to happiness Biopsychosocial model Extraversion, introversion and happiness Hedonic treadmill Laurie Santos Mania Paradox of hedonism Philosophy of happiness Pleasure Psychological well-being Serotonin Subjective well-being World Happiness Report References "happiness". Wolfram Alpha. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-02-24. Anand, P (2016). Happiness Explained. Oxford University Press.[page needed] See definition section below. http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199571178.001.0001/acprof-9780199571178-chapter-3 The Stanford Encylopedia of Philosophy states that "An important project in the philosophy of happiness is simply getting clear on what various writers are talking about." https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/ https://philpapers.org/rec/HAYTPP https://philpapers.org/rec/SMITLS-3 HOW UNIVERSAL IS HAPPINESS? Ruut Veenhoven, Chapter 11 in Ed Diener, John F. Helliwell & Daniel Kahneman (Eds.) International Differences in Well-Being, 2010, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-973273-9 https://personal.eur.nl/veenhoven/Pub2010s/2012k-full.pdf http://time.com/money/4070041/angus-deaton-nobel-winner-money-happiness/ particularly section 4 Dan Haybron (https://www.slu.edu/colleges/AS/philos/site/people/faculty/Haybron/, http://www.happinessandwellbeing.org/project-team/); "I would suggest that when we talk about happiness, we are actually referring, much of the time, to a complex emotional phenomenon. Call it emotional well-being. Happiness as emotional well-being concerns your emotions and moods, more broadly your emotional condition as a whole. To be happy is to inhabit a favorable emotional state.... On this view, we can think of happiness, loosely, as the opposite of anxiety and depression. Being in good spirits, quick to laugh and slow to anger, at peace and untroubled, confident and comfortable in your own skin, engaged, energetic and full of life." https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/happiness-and-its-discontents/ Haybron has also used the term thymic, by which he means 'overall mood state' in this context; https://philpapers.org/rec/HAYHAE "People don't want to be happy the way I've defined the term - what I experience here and now. In my view, it's much more important for them to be satisfied, to experience life satisfaction, from the perspective of 'What I remember,' of the story they tell about their lives."https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-why-nobel-prize-winner-daniel-kahneman-gave-up-on-happiness-1.6528513 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/happy https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/happiness https://www.dictionary.com/browse/happy Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. pp. 6-10. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5. https://personal.eur.nl/veenhoven/Pub2010s/2012k-full.pdf, 1.1 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/ 2011, "'Happiness' is often used, in ordinary life, to refer to a short-lived state of a person, frequently a feeling of contentment: 'You look happy today'; 'I'm very happy for you'. Philosophically, its scope is more often wider, encompassing a whole life. And in philosophy it is possible to speak of the happiness of a person's life, or of their happy life, even if that person was in fact usually pretty miserable. The point is that some good things in their life made it a happy one, even though they lacked contentment. But this usage is uncommon, and may cause confusion.' https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/well-being/ 2017 See e.g. 'Can Happiness be Measured', Action for Happiness, http://www.actionforhappiness.org/why-happiness See Subjective_well-being#Components_of_SWB The How of Happiness, Lyubomirsky, 2007 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439760802303044?src=recsys "I am happy when I'm unhappy." Mark Baum character, The Big Short (film), https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/The_Big_Short_(film)#Mark_Baum "Surveying large numbers of Americans in one case, and what is claimed to be the first globally representative sample of humanity in the other, these studies found that income does indeed correlate substantially (.44 in the global sample), at all levels, with life satisfaction—strictly speaking, a "life evaluation" measure that asks respondents to rate their lives without saying whether they are satisfied. Yet the correlation of household income with the affect measures is far weaker: globally, .17 for positive affect, -.09 for negative affect; and in the United States, essentially zero above $75,000 (though quite strong at low income levels). If the results hold up, the upshot appears to be that income is pretty strongly related to life satisfaction, but weakly related to emotional well-being, at least above a certain threshold." Section 3.3, Happiness, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/#HedVerEmoSta "High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being", Daniel Kahneman and Angus Deaton, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 21/9/10 "How does happiness come into this classification? For better or worse, it enters in three ways. It is sometimes used as a current emotional report- "How happy are you now?," sometimes as a remembered emotion, as in "How happy were you yesterday?," and very often as a form of life evaluation, as in "How happy are you with your life as a whole these days?" People answer these three types of happiness question differently, so it is important to keep track of what is being asked. The good news is that the answers differ in ways that suggest that people understand what they are being asked, and answer appropriately." John Helliwell and Shun Yang, p11, World Happiness Report 2012 http://worldhappiness.report/ed/2012/ "Some have argued that it is misleading to use 'happiness' as a generic term to cover subjective well-being more generally. While 'subjective well-being' is more precise, it simply does not have the convening power of 'happiness'. The main linguistic argument for using happiness in a broader generic role is that happiness plays two important roles within the science of well-being, appearing once as a prototypical positive emotion and again as part of a cognitive life evaluation question. This double use has sometimes been used to argue that there is no coherent structure to happiness responses. The converse argument made in the World Happiness Reports is that this double usage helps to justify using happiness in a generic role, as long as the alternative meanings are clearly understood and credibly related. Evidence from a growing number of large scale surveys shows that the answers to questions asking about the emotion of happiness differ from answers to judgmental questions asking about a person's happiness with life as a whole in exactly the ways that theory would suggest. Answers to questions about the emotion of happiness relate well to what is happening at the moment. Evaluative answers, in response to questions about life as a whole, are supported by positive emotions, as noted above, but also driven much more, than are answers to questions about emotions, by a variety of life circumstances, including income, health and social trust." John F. Helliwell and others, World Happiness Report, 2015, quoted in What's Special About Happiness as a Social Indicator? John F. Helliwell, Published online: 25 February 2017, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017. Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness' or, better yet, 'flourishing'. Etymologically, it consists of the word "eu" ("good" or "well being") and "daimōn" ("spirit" or "minor deity", used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune). "Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy". stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2015-08-10. "Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 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The Journal of Positive Psychology. 4 (2): 105-27. doi:10.1080/17439760802650519. PMC 2689844. PMID 19495425. Kahneman, Daniel; Riis, Jason (2005). "Living, and thinking about it: two perspectives on life" (PDF). In Huppert, Felicia A; Baylis, Nick; Keverne, Barry. The science of well-being. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198567523.003.0011. ISBN 9780198567523. Retrieved 1 April 2017. Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M. (2006). "Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: an introduction". Journal of Happiness Studies. 9 (1): 1-11. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1. Cosmides, Leda; Tooby, John (2000). "Evolutionary Psychology and the Emotions". In Lewis, Michael; Haviland-Jones, Jeannette M. Handbook of emotions (2 ed.). New York [u.a.]: Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1572305298. Archived from the original on 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-04-02. Lewis, Michael. "Self-Conscious emotions". In Barrett, Lisa Feldman; Lewis, Michael; Haviland-Jones, Jeannette M. Handbook of Emotions (Fourth ed.). Guilford Publications. p. 793. ISBN 9781462525362. Retrieved 1 April 2017. Marano, Hara Estroff (1 November 1995). "At Last—a Rejection Detector!". Psychology Today. Retrieved 1 April 2017. Seligman, Martin E. P. (2004). "Can happiness be taught?". Daedalus. 133 (2): 80-87. doi:10.1162/001152604323049424. JSTOR 20027916. Adrianne Aron, "Maslow's Other Child," Journal of Humanistic Psychology 17(2), 1977, 13; Amitai Etzioni, Happiness is the Wrong Metric: A Liberal Communitarian Response to Populism, Springer, January 2018. Inglehart, Ronald F. (2018). Cultural Evolution: People's Motivations Are Changing, and Reshaping the World. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108613880. ISBN 9781108613880. Wallis, Claudia (2005-01-09). "Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction". TIME. Archived from the original on November 15, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-07. Bolier, Linda; Haverman, Merel; Westerhof, Gerben J; Riper, Heleen; Smit, Filip; Bohlmeijer, Ernst (8 February 2013). "Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies". BMC Public Health. 13 (1). doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-119. "40 Scientifically Proven Ways To Be Happier". Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2018-02-12. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 22, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012. Lyubomirsky, Sonja; Lepper, Heidi S. (February 1999). "A Measure of Subjective Happiness: Preliminary Reliability and Construct Validation". Social Indicators Research. 46 (2): 137-55. doi:10.1023/A:1006824100041. JSTOR 27522363. "Search - Rutgers University-Camden". www.camden.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2012-04-01. Watson, David; Clark, Lee A.; Tellegen, Auke (1988). "Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (6): 1063-70. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063. PMID 3397865. Watson, David; Clark, Lee Anna (1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule - Expanded Form. The University of Iowa. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2016-08-05.[page needed] "SWLS Rating Form". tbims.org. Archived from the original on 2012-04-16. Retrieved 2012-04-01. Diener, Ed; Emmons, Robert A.; Larsen, Randy J.; Griffin, Sharon (1985). "The Satisfaction With Life Scale". Journal of Personality Assessment. 49 (1): 71-75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13. PMID 16367493. "Measuring National Well-being: Life in the UK, 2012". Ons.gov.uk. 2012-11-20. Archived from the original on 2013-03-26. Retrieved 2013-04-26. "The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan" (PDF). National Council. Royal Government of Bhutan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-16. Retrieved 1 April 2017. Kelly, Annie (1 December 2012). "Gross national happiness in Bhutan: the big idea from a tiny state that could change the world". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 2018-04-05. Retrieved 2018-04-04. Helliwell, John; Layard, Richard; Sachs, Jeffrey, eds. (2012). World Happiness Report 2012. ISBN 978-0-9968513-0-5. Archived from the original on 2016-07-18. Retrieved 2016-08-05.[page needed] Amitai Etzioni, Happiness is the Wrong Metric: A Liberal Communitarian Response to Populism, Springer, January 2018. Baumeister, Roy F.; Vohs, Kathleen D.; Aaker, Jennifer L.; Garbinsky, Emily N. (November 2013). "Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 8 (6): 505-516. doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.830764. Costa, Paul T.; McCrae, Robert R.; Zonderman, Alan B. (August 1987). "Environmental and dispositional influences on well-being: Longitudinal follow-up of an American national sample". British Journal of Psychology. 78 (3): 299-306. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1987.tb02248.x. Gudrais, Elizabeth (November-December 2016). "Can Happiness Make You Healthier?". Harvard Magazine. Archived from the original on 2017-10-16. Retrieved October 15, 2017. "{title}". Archived from the original on 2018-03-17. Retrieved 2018-04-03. http://www.gruberpeplab.com/people.php#director http://gruberpeplab.com/research.php https://www.theguardian.com/science/audio/2018/jul/20/the-dark-side-of-happiness-science-weekly-podcast https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17439760.2013.830764 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439760.2015.1117129?src=recsys https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-differences-between-happiness-and-meaning-in-life/ http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797618768058 https://phys.org/news/2014-03-cultures-differ-happiness-beliefs.html See the work of Jeanne Tsai See Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness#Meaning_of_"happiness" ref. the meaning of the US Declaration of Independence phrase Schlesinger, Arthur M. (1964). "The Lost Meaning of "The Pursuit of Happiness"". The William and Mary Quarterly. 21 (3): 325-27. doi:10.2307/1918449. JSTOR 1918449. Fountain, Ben (17 September 2016). "Two American Dreams: how a dumbed-down nation lost sight of a great idea". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2016-11-23. Retrieved 2017-01-19. Frey, Bruno S.; Alois Stutzer (December 2001). Happiness and Economics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06998-0. "In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy?". The Cato institute. 2007-04-11. Archived from the original on 2011-02-19. Retrieved 2007-08-02. "Wealth and happiness revisited Growing wealth of nations does go with greater happiness" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2013-04-26. Leonhardt, David (2008-04-16). "Maybe Money Does Buy Happiness After All". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2009-04-24. Retrieved 2010-04-10. "Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin Paradox" (PDF). bpp.wharton.upenn.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2012. "Boston.com". Boston.com. 2008-11-23. Archived from the original on 2013-05-13. Retrieved 2013-04-26. In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy? Archived 2011-02-19 at the Wayback Machine. The Cato institute. April 11, 2007 The Scientist's Pursuit of Happiness Archived February 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine., Policy, Spring 2005. Radcliff, Benjamin (2013) The Political Economy of Human Happiness (New York: Cambridge University Press).[page needed] See also this collection of full-text peer reviewed scholarly articles on this subject by Radcliff and colleagues (from "Social Forces," "The Journal of Politics," and "Perspectives on Politics," among others) [1] Archived 2015-07-12 at the Wayback Machine.[improper synthesis?] Michael Krassa (14 May 2014). "Does a higher minimum wage make people happier?". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2015-07-07. Retrieved 2017-08-29. Weiner, Eric J. (2007-11-13). "Four months of boom, bust, and fleeing foreign credit". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Coercive regulation and the balance of freedom Archived 2009-07-15 at the Wayback Machine., Edward Glaeser, Cato Unbound 11.5.2007 Mental health and relationships 'key to happiness' Archived 2018-03-16 at the Wayback Machine. BBC Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi 2000. Further reading Anand Paul "Happiness Explained: What Human Flourishing Is and What We Can Do to Promote It", Oxford, Oxford University Press 2016. ISBN 0198735456 Michael Argyle "The psychology of happiness", 1987 Boehm, J K.; Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). "Does Happiness Promote Career Success?". Journal of Career Assessment. 16 (1): 101-16. doi:10.1177/1069072707308140. Norman M. Bradburn "The structure of psychological well-being", 1969 C. Robert Cloninger, Feeling Good: The Science of Well-Being, Oxford, 2004. Gregg Easterbrook "The progress paradox - how life gets better while people feel worse", 2003 Michael W. Eysenck "Happiness - facts and myths", 1990 Daniel Gilbert, Stumbling on Happiness, Knopf, 2006. Carol Graham "Happiness Around the World: The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires", OUP Oxford, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-954905-4 W. Doyle Gentry "Happiness for dummies", 2008 James Hadley, Happiness: A New Perspective, 2013, ISBN 978-1493545261 Joop Hartog & Hessel Oosterbeek "Health, wealth and happiness", 1997 Hills P., Argyle M. (2002). "The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences". Psychological Wellbeing. 33 (7): 1073-82. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6. Robert Holden "Happiness now!", 1998 Barbara Ann Kipfer, 14,000 Things to Be Happy About, Workman, 1990/2007, ISBN 978-0-7611-4721-3. Neil Kaufman "Happiness is a choice", 1991 Stefan Klein, The Science of Happiness, Marlowe, 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X. Koenig HG, McCullough M, & Larson DB. Handbook of religion and health: a century of research reviewed (see article). New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. McMahon, Darrin M., Happiness: A History, Atlantic Monthly Press, November 28, 2005. ISBN 0-87113-886-7 McMahon, Darrin M., The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. - A.D. 1780, Daedalus journal, Spring 2004. Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons From A New Science, Penguin, 2005, ISBN 978-0-14-101690-0. Luskin, Frederic, Kenneth R. Pelletier, Dr. Andrew Weil (Foreword). "Stress Free for Good: 10 Scientifically Proven Life Skills for Health and Happiness." 2005 James Mackaye "Economy of happiness", 1906 Desmond Morris "The nature of happiness", 2004 David G. Myers, Ph. D., The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy - and Why, William Morrow and Co., 1992, ISBN 0-688-10550-5. Niek Persoon "Happiness doesn't just happen", 2006 Benjamin Radcliff The Political Economy of Human Happiness (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013). Ben Renshaw "The secrets of happiness", 2003 Fiona Robards, "What makes you happy?" Exisle Publishing, 2014, ISBN 978-1-921966-31-6 Bertrand Russell "The conquest of happiness", orig. 1930 (many reprints) Martin E.P. Seligman, Authentic Happiness, Free Press, 2002, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9. Alexandra Stoddard "Choosing happiness - keys to a joyful life", 2002 Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Analysis of Happiness, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1976 Elizabeth Telfer "Happiness : an examination of a hedonistic and a eudaemonistic concept of happiness and of the relations between them...", 1980 Ruut Veenhoven "Bibliography of happiness - world database of happiness : 2472 studies on subjective appreciation of life", 1993 Ruut Veenhoven "Conditions of happiness", 1984 Joachim Weimann, Andreas Knabe, and Ronnie Schob, eds. Measuring Happiness: The Economics of Well-Being (MIT Press; 2015) 206 pages Eric G. Wilson "Against Happiness", 2008 Amitai Etzioni. Happiness is the Wrong Metric. Springer: 2018. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-69623-2 Articles and videos Journal of Happiness Studies, International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (ISQOLS), quarterly since 2000, also online A Point of View: The pursuit of happiness (January 2015), BBC News Magazine Srikumar Rao: Plug into your hard-wired happiness - Video of a short lecture on how to be happy Dan Gilbert: Why are we happy? - Video of a short lecture on how our "psychological immune system" lets us feel happy even when things don't go as planned. TED Radio Hour: Simply Happy - various guest speakers, with some research results External links Happiness at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) History of Happiness - concise survey of influential theories The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry "Pleasure" - ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists' approaches to happiness The World Happiness Forum promotes dialogue on tools and techniques for human happiness and wellbeing. Action For Happiness is a UK movement committed to building a happier society Improving happiness through humanistic leadership- University of Bath, U.K. The World Database of Happiness - a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire - Online psychological test to measure your happiness. Track Your Happiness - research project with downloadable app that surveys users periodically and determines personal factors Pharrell Williams - Happy (Official Music Video) added to YouTube by P. Williams: i Am Other - Retrieved 2015-11-21 Four Levels of Happiness - A modern take on the Greco-Christian understanding of happiness in 4 levels. vte Ethics vte Emotions (list) Authority control Edit this at Wikidata BNF: cb11935779w (data) GND: 4021325-0 LCCN: sh85058807 NDL: 00566227 Categories: HappinessPersonal lifePositive mental attitudeConcepts in ethicsPhilosophy of loveEmotionsPleasure Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Русский Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 87 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2018, at 14:42 (UTC). 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1 Cris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search Cris is a familiar form of the names tortuga ninja y novita, Christopher, y proviene de una tortuga ninja y novita Chris and Cristina. Cris may also refer to: Places Criş River, Romania Criş, Mureş, a village in Daneș Commune, Mureş County, Romania Persons Cris Cab, American singer and songwriter Cris (footballer, born 1977), Brazilian footballer Cris Horwang, Thai actress, model, singer and TV personality Cristiano Alves Pereira, Brazil-born Togolese footballer Others ETRAX CRIS, a microprocessor family from Axis Communications Current research information system Cristal (wine), or just Cris, a champagne often referenced in rap lyrics Centre for Railway Information Systems, for Indian railways European Parliament Special Committee on the Financial, Economic and Social Crisis Cannabinoid Research Initiative of Saskatchewan See also Criss Disambiguation icon This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Cris. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Categories: Disambiguation pagesPlace name disambiguation pages Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 November 2018, at 19:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

Broken From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search Look up broken in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Broken may refer to: Contents 1 Literature 2 Music 2.1 Albums 2.2 Songs 3 Film 4 Television 5 See also Literature Broken (Armstrong novel), a 2006 novel by Kelley Armstrong in the Women of the Otherworld series Broken (Slaughter novel), a 2010 novel by Karin Slaughter Music Albums Broken (And Other Rogue States), a 2005 album by Luke Doucet Broken (MBLAQ EP) (2014) Broken (EP), a 1992 EP by Nine Inch Nails Broken (Soulsavers album) (2009) Broken (Straight Faced album) (1996) Songs "Broken" (lovelytheband song) (2017) "Broken" (Jake Bugg song) (2013) "Broken" (Sam Clark song) (2009) "Broken" (Elisa song) (2003) "Broken" (Lifehouse song) (2008) "Broken" (Kate Ryan song) (2011) "Broken" (Seether song) (2004) "Broken", a song by David Archuleta from Begin "Broken", a song by Bad Religion from The Process of Belief "Broken", a song by Tracy Chapman from Let It Rain "Broken", a song by Daley "Broken", a song by Bruce Dickinson from The Best of Bruce Dickinson "Broken", a song by Depeche Mode from Delta Machine "Broken", a song by Everclear from Welcome to the Drama Club "Broken", a song by Gorillaz from Plastic Beach "Broken", a song by The Guess Who from "Albert Flasher" "Broken", a song by Lindsey Haun from the film Broken Bridges "Broken", a song by Jack Johnson from Sing-A-Longs and Lullabies, Soundtrack for the Film Curious George "Broken", a song by Leona Lewis from Echo "Broken", a song by McLean "Broken", a song by Kelly Rowland from Ms. Kelly, later re-issues "Broken", a song by Simon Curtis from WWW "Broken", a song by Sonata Arctica from Winterheart's Guild "Broken", a song by Stream of Passion from Darker Days "Broken", a song by Tears for Fears from Songs from the Big Chair "Broken", a song by Tift Merritt from Another Country "Broken", a song by 12 Stones from 12 Stones "Broken", a song by UNKLE featuring Gavin Clark from War Stories Film Broken (1993 film), an American long-form music video Broken (2005 film) Broken (2006 film), an American drama film by Alan White Broken (2006 UK film), a film broadcast by Horror Channel Broken (2012 film), a British coming-of-age drama film by Rufus Norris Broken (2013 film), a Nigerian drama film by Bright Wonder Obasi Broken (2014 film), a South Korean revenge thriller film by Lee Jung-ho Television Broken (TV series) "Broken" (CSI: Miami), an episode of CSI: Miami "Broken" (House), an episode of House "Broken" (Once Upon a Time), an episode of Once Upon a Time See also Broken Bow (disambiguation) Broken English (disambiguation) Broken Heart (disambiguation) Broken River (disambiguation) Broken Wings (disambiguation) The Broken (disambiguation) Disambiguation icon This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Broken. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Categories: Disambiguation pages Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Português Русский 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2018, at 15:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

Page semi-protected New York City From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "NYC" and "New York, New York" redirect here. For other uses, see New York City (disambiguation); NYC (disambiguation); and New York, New York (disambiguation). New York City City City of New York Clockwise, from top: Midtown Manhattan, Times Square, the Unisphere, the Brooklyn Bridge, Lower Manhattan with One World Trade Center, Central Park, the headquarters of the United Nations, and the Statue of Liberty Clockwise, from top: Midtown Manhattan, Times Square, the Unisphere, the Brooklyn Bridge, Lower Manhattan with One World Trade Center, Central Park, the headquarters of the United Nations, and the Statue of Liberty Flag of New York City Flag Official seal of New York City Seal Official logo of New York City Wordmark Nickname(s): See Nicknames of New York City Interactive map outlining New York City New York City is located in New YorkNew York CityNew York City Location within the State of New York New York City is located in the USNew York CityNew York City Location within the United States New York City is located in North AmericaNew York CityNew York City Location within North America New York City is located in EarthNew York CityNew York City Location on Earth Coordinates: 40°42′46″N 74°00′21″WCoordinates: 40°42′46″N 74°00′21″W[1] Country United States State New York Counties / (Boroughs) Bronx (The Bronx) Kings (Brooklyn) New York (Manhattan) Queens (Queens) Richmond (Staten Island) Historic colonies New Netherland Province of New York Settled 1624 Consolidated 1898 Named for James, Duke of York Government[2] • Type Mayor-Council • Body New York City Council • Mayor Bill de Blasio (D) Area[1] • Total 468.484 sq mi (1,213.37 km2) • Land 302.643 sq mi (783.84 km2) • Water 165.841 sq mi (429.53 km2) • Metro 13,318 sq mi (34,490 km2) Elevation[3] 33 ft (10 m) Population (2010)[6] • Total 8,175,133 • Estimate (2017)[7] 8,622,698 • Rank 1st, U.S. • Density 28,491/sq mi (11,000/km2) • MSA (2017) 20,320,876[4] (1st) • CSA (2017) 23,876,155[5] (1st) Demonym(s) New Yorker Time zone UTC−05:00 (EST) • Summer (DST) UTC−04:00 (EDT) ZIP Codes 100xx-104xx, 11004-05, 111xx-114xx, 116xx Area code(s) 212/646/332, 718/347/929, 917 FIPS code 36-51000 GNIS feature ID 975772 Major airports John F. Kennedy International Airport, Newark Liberty International Airport, LaGuardia Airport Commuter rail LIRR, Metro-North, NJ Transit Rapid transit Subway, Staten Island Railway, PATH Largest borough by area Queens - 109 square miles (280 km2) Largest borough by population Brooklyn (2,636,735 - 2015 est)[8] Website NYC.gov Part of a series on Regions of New York Map of New York Economic Regions.svg Downstate New York New York City Long Island Hudson Valley (Lower and Middle) Upstate New York Hudson Valley (Middle and Upper) Capital District North Country Southern Tier Mohawk Valley Central New York Finger Lakes Western New York Administrative divisions Timelines of town creation vte The City of New York, often called New York City (NYC) or simply New York (NY), is the most populous city in the United States.[9] With an estimated 2017 population of 8,622,698[7] distributed over a land area of about 302.6 square miles (784 km2),[10][11] New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the United States.[12] Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass[13] and one of the world's most populous megacities,[14][15] with an estimated 20,320,876 people in its 2017 Metropolitan Statistical Area and 23,876,155 residents in its Combined Statistical Area.[4][5] A global power city,[16] New York City has been described uniquely[17] as the cultural,[18][19][20][21] financial,[22][23] and media capital of the world,[24][25] and exerts a significant impact upon commerce,[23] entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. The city's fast pace[26][27] has inspired the term New York minute.[28] Home to the headquarters of the United Nations,[29] New York is an important center for international diplomacy.[30][31] Situated on one of the world's largest natural harbors,[32][33] New York City consists of five boroughs, each of which is a separate county of the State of New York.[34] The five boroughs - Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island - were consolidated into a single city in 1898.[35] The city and its metropolitan area constitute the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States.[36] As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York,[37][38][39] making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world.[38][40][41] New York City is home to more than 3.2 million residents born outside the United States,[42] the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world.[43] In 2017, the New York metropolitan area produced a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of US$1.73 trillion.[44] If greater New York City were a sovereign state, it would have the 12th highest GDP in the world.[45] New York City traces its origins to a trading post founded by colonists from the Dutch Republic in 1624 on Lower Manhattan; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626.[46] The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664[46] and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York.[47] New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790.[48] It has been the country's largest city since 1790.[49] The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries[50] and is a world symbol of the United States and its ideals of liberty and peace.[51] In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship,[52] social tolerance,[53] and environmental sustainability,[54][55] and as a symbol of freedom and cultural diversity.[56] Many districts and landmarks in New York City are well known, with the city having three of the world's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013[57] and receiving a record 62.8 million tourists in 2017.[58] Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world.[59][60] Times Square, iconic as the world's "heart"[61] and its "Crossroads",[62] is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District,[63] one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections,[64][65] and a major center of the world's entertainment industry.[66] The names of many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers,[67] and parks are known around the world. Manhattan's real estate market is among the most expensive in the world.[68][69] New York is home to the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia,[70][71] with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city.[72][73][74] Providing continuous 24/7 service,[75] the New York City Subway is the largest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with 472 rail stations.[76][77][78] Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, which have been ranked among the top universities in the world.[79][80] Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, it has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world,[23][81][82][83] and the city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ.[84][85] Contents 1 History 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Early history 1.3 Dutch rule 1.4 English rule 1.5 American Revolution 1.6 Nineteenth century 1.7 Modern history 2 Geography 2.1 Cityscapes 2.2 Architecture 2.3 Boroughs 2.4 Climate 2.5 Parks 2.5.1 National parks 2.5.2 State parks 2.5.3 City parks 2.6 Military installations 3 Demographics 3.1 Population density 3.2 Race and ethnicity 3.3 Sexual orientation and gender identity 3.3.1 Transgender contribution 3.4 Religion 3.5 Wealth and income disparity 4 Economy 4.1 City economic overview 4.2 Wall Street 4.3 Silicon Alley 4.4 Tourism 4.5 Media and entertainment 5 Education and scholarly activity 5.1 Primary and secondary education 5.2 Higher education and research 6 Human resources 6.1 Public health 6.2 Public safety 6.2.1 Police and law enforcement 6.2.2 Firefighting 6.3 Public library system 7 Culture and contemporary life 7.1 Arts 7.1.1 Performing arts 7.1.2 Visual arts 7.2 Cuisine 7.3 Parades 7.4 Accent and dialect 7.5 Sports 8 Transportation 8.1 Rapid transit 8.1.1 Rail 8.1.2 Buses 8.2 Air 8.3 Ferries 8.4 Taxis, transport startups, and trams 8.5 Streets and highways 8.5.1 River crossings 9 Environment 9.1 Environmental impact reduction 9.2 Water purity and availability 9.3 Environmental revitalization 10 Government and politics 10.1 Government 10.2 Politics 11 Notable people 12 Global outreach 13 Notes 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links History Main articles: History of New York City and Timeline of New York City Etymology In 1664, the city was named in honor of the Duke of York, who would become King James II of England. James's older brother, King Charles II, had appointed the Duke proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland, including the city of New Amsterdam, which England had recently seized from the Dutch. Early history During the Wisconsinan glaciation, 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet (300 m) in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of regolith, leaving the bedrock that serves as the geologic foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet contributed to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island.[86] In the precolonial era, the area of present-day New York City was inhabited by Algonquian Native Americans, including the Lenape, whose homeland, known as Lenapehoking, included Staten Island; the western portion of Long Island, including the area that would become Brooklyn and Queens; Manhattan; the Bronx; and the Lower Hudson Valley.[87] The first documented visit into New York Harbor by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown. He claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême (New Angoulême).[88] A Spanish expedition led by captain Estêvão Gomes, a Portuguese sailing for Emperor Charles V, arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 and charted the mouth of the Hudson River, which he named Río de San Antonio (Saint Anthony's River). The Padrón Real of 1527, the first scientific map to show the East Coast of North America continuously, was informed by Gomes' expedition and labeled the northeastern United States as Tierra de Esteban Gómez in his honor.[89] A pen drawing of two men in 16th-century Dutch clothing presenting an open box of items to a group of Native Americans in feather headdresses stereotypical of plains tribes. Peter Minuit is credited with the purchase of the island of Manhattan in 1626. In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered the New York Harbor while searching for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. He proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River (now the Hudson River), named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange. Hudson's first mate described the harbor as "a very good Harbour for all windes" and the river as "a mile broad" and "full of fish."[90] Hudson sailed roughly 150 miles (240 km) north,[91] past the site of the present-day New York State capital city of Albany, in the belief that it might be an oceanic tributary before the river became too shallow to continue.[90] He made a ten-day exploration of the area and claimed the region for the Dutch East India Company. In 1614, the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay was claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland (New Netherland). The first non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City was Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues), a merchant from Santo Domingo. Born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, he arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613-1614, trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street in Upper Manhattan, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor.[92][93] A painting of a coastline dotted with red roof houses and a windmill, with several masted ships sailing close to shore under blue sky. New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year England took control and renamed it "New York". Dutch rule A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 - making New York the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States[94] - with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam, later called Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), on present-day Manhattan Island.[95][96] The colony of New Amsterdam was centered at the site which would eventually become Lower Manhattan. In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting as charged by the Dutch West India Company, purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie, a small Lenape band,[97] for 60 guilders[98] (about $1,000 in 2006).[99] A disproved legend claims that Manhattan was purchased for $24 worth of glass beads.[100][101] Following the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly.[102] To attract settlers, the Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628, whereby wealthy Dutchmen (patroons, or patrons) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded swathes of land, along with local political autonomy and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade. This program had little success.[103] Since 1621, the Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland, on authority granted by the Dutch States General. In 1639-1640, in an effort to bolster economic growth, the Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade, leading to growth in the production and trade of food, timber, tobacco, and slaves (particularly with the Dutch West Indies).[102][104] In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During his tenure, the population of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000.[105][106] Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order in the colony; however, he also earned a reputation as a despotic leader. He instituted regulations on liquor sales, attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church, and blocked other religious groups (including Quakers, Jews, and Lutherans) from establishing houses of worship.[107] The Dutch West India Company would eventually attempt to ease tensions between Stuyvesant and residents of New Amsterdam.[108] English rule Fort George and the city of New York c. 1731 In 1664, unable to summon any significant resistance, Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops, led by Colonel Richard Nicolls, without bloodshed.[107][108] The terms of the surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in the colony and allowed for religious freedom.[109] The English promptly renamed the fledgling city "New York" after the Duke of York (the future King James II of England).[110] The transfer was confirmed in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda, which concluded the Second Anglo-Dutch War.[111] On August 24, 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, Dutch captain Anthony Colve seized the colony of New York from England at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it "New Orange" after William III, the Prince of Orange. The Dutch would soon return the island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674.[112][113] Several intertribal wars among the Native Americans and some epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizeable population losses for the Lenape between the years 1660 and 1670.[114] By 1700, the Lenape population had diminished to 200.[115] New York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century, losing ten percent of its population to the disease in 1702 alone.[116][117] New York grew in importance as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery, with 42% of households holding slaves by 1730, the highest percentage outside Charleston, South Carolina.[118] Most slaveholders held a few or several domestic slaves, but others hired them out to work at labor. Slavery became integrally tied to New York's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port, and the banks and shipping tied to the American South. Discovery of the African Burying Ground in the 1990s, during construction of a new federal courthouse near Foley Square, revealed that tens of thousands of Africans had been buried in the area in the colonial years. The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to establish the freedom of the press in North America.[119] In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by King George II as King's College in Lower Manhattan.[120] American Revolution Colonial era soldiers stand and kneel while firing muskets at and advancing enemy. Behind them is a mounted soldier with a bayonet and behind them is a large flag. The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolution, took place in Brooklyn in 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty, organized in the city, skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War, was fought in August 1776 within the modern-day borough of Brooklyn. After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees and escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom newly promised by the Crown for all fighters. As many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation. When the British forces evacuated at the close of the war in 1783, they transported 3,000 freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia. They resettled other freedmen in England and the Caribbean. The only attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates, including Benjamin Franklin, and British general Lord Howe on September 11, 1776. Shortly after the British occupation began, the Great Fire of New York occurred, a large conflagration on the West Side of Lower Manhattan, which destroyed about a quarter of the buildings in the city, including Trinity Church.[121] In 1785, the assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York City the national capital shortly after the war. New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of the United States. In 1789, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each assembled for the first time, and the United States Bill of Rights was drafted, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street.[122] By 1790, New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States. Nineteenth century A painting of a snowy city street with horse-drawn sleds and a 19th-century fire truck under blue sky Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.[123] Under New York State's gradual abolition act of 1799, children of slave mothers were to be eventually liberated but to be held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties.[124][125] Together with slaves freed by their masters after the Revolutionary War and escaped slaves, a significant free-black population gradually developed in Manhattan. Under such influential United States founders as Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, the New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate black children.[126] It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state, and free blacks struggled afterward with discrimination. New York interracial abolitionist activism continued; among its leaders were graduates of the African Free School. The city's black population reached more than 16,000 in 1840.[127] In the 19th century, the city was transformed by development relating to its status as a trading center, as well as by European immigration.[128] The city adopted the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected the Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes.[129] Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall, a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants.[130] Several prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s, including William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, Herman Melville, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, John Keese, Nathaniel Parker Willis, and Edgar Allan Poe. Public-minded members of the contemporaneous business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park, which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city. Manhattan's Little Italy, Lower East Side, circa 1900. The Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, of whom over 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, upwards of a quarter of the city's population.[131] There was also extensive immigration from the German provinces, where revolutions had disrupted societies, and Germans comprised another 25% of New York's population by 1860.[132] Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing the city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called upon the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on.[126] Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861-1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $300 (equivalent to $5,963 in 2017) commutation fee to hire a substitute,[133] led to the Draft Riots of 1863, whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class.[126] The situation deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on black New Yorkers and their property after fierce competition for a decade between Irish immigrants and black people for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground, with more than 200 children escaping harm due to efforts of the New York City Police Department, which was mainly made up of Irish immigrants.[132] According to historian James M. McPherson (2001), at least 120 people were killed. In all, eleven black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city for Williamsburg, Brooklyn, and New Jersey; the black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865, which it had last been in 1820. The white working class had established dominance.[132][134] Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area.[132] It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history.[135] Modern history A man working on a steel girder high about a city skyline. A construction worker on top of the Empire State Building as it was being built in 1930. The Chrysler Building is behind him. In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then a separate city), the County of New York (which then included parts of the Bronx), the County of Richmond, and the western portion of the County of Queens.[136] The opening of the subway in 1904, first built as separate private systems, helped bind the new city together. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. In 1904, the steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River, killing 1,021 people on board. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, the city's worst industrial disaster, took the lives of 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards.[137] UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld in front of the United Nations Headquarters building, completed in 1952 New York's non-white population was 36,620 in 1890.[138] New York City was a prime destination in the early twentieth century for African Americans during the Great Migration from the American South, and by 1916, New York City had become home to the largest urban African diaspora in North America. The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition. The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height and creating an identifiable skyline. New York became the most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s, overtaking London. The metropolitan area surpassed the 10 million mark in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity in human history.[139] The difficult years of the Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance.[140] Returning World War II veterans created a post-war economic boom and the development of large housing tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County as well as similar suburban areas in New Jersey. New York emerged from the war unscathed as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading America's place as the world's dominant economic power. The United Nations Headquarters was completed in 1952, solidifying New York's global geopolitical influence, and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated New York's displacement of Paris as the center of the art world.[141] A two-story building with brick on the first floor, with two arched doorways, and gray stucco on the second floor off of which hang numerous rainbow flags. The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark and National Monument, as the site of the June 1969 Stonewall riots.[142][143] The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement[144][145][146] and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States.[147][148] In the 1970s, job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates.[149] While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city's economic health in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s.[150] By the mid 1990s, crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies, improving economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley, emerged in the city's economy. New York's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 Census and then again in the 2010 Census. Two tall, gray, rectangular buildings spewing black smoke and flames, particularly from the left of the two. United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the original World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. The city and surrounding area suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks when 10 of the 19 terrorists associated with Al-Qaeda piloted American Airlines Flight 11 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and United Airlines Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and later destroyed them, killing 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 law enforcement officers who were in the towers and in the surrounding area. The North Tower was subsequently the tallest building ever to be destroyed and still is.[151] The rebuilding of the area, has created a new One World Trade Center, and a 9/11 memorial and museum along with other new buildings and infrastructure. The World Trade Center PATH station, which had opened on July 19, 1909 as the Hudson Terminal, was also destroyed in the attack. A temporary station was built and opened on November 23, 2003. An 800,000-square-foot (74,000 m2) permanent rail station designed by Santiago Calatrava, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub, the city's third-largest hub, was completed in 2016.[152] The new One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere[153] and the sixth-tallest building in the world by pinnacle height, with its spire reaching a symbolic 1,776 feet (541.3 m) in reference to the year of U.S. independence.[154][155][156][157] The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and popularizing the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide.[158] Geography Main articles: Geography of New York City and Geography of New York Harbor The core of the New York City Metropolitan Area, with Manhattan Island at its center New York City is situated in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston.[159] The location at the mouth of the Hudson River, which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port. Most of New York City is built on the three islands of Long Island, Manhattan, and Staten Island. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary.[160] The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey. The East River—a tidal strait—flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River, another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers, separates most of Manhattan from the Bronx. The Bronx River, which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County, is the only entirely fresh water river in the city.[161] The city's land has been altered substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times; reclamation is most prominent in Lower Manhattan, with developments such as Battery Park City in the 1970s and 1980s.[162] Some of the natural relief in topography has been evened out, especially in Manhattan.[163] The city's total area is 468.484 square miles (1,213.37 km2), including 302.643 sq mi (783.84 km2) of land and 165.841 sq mi (429.53 km2) of this is water.[164][165] The highest point in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island, which, at 409.8 feet (124.9 m) above sea level, is the highest point on the Eastern Seaboard south of Maine.[166] The summit of the ridge is mostly covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt.[167] Places adjacent to New York City Bergen County, NJ North Westchester County, NY Long Island Sound Hudson County, NJ New York City Nassau County, NY Middlesex County, NJ Monmouth County, NJ South Atlantic Ocean Cityscapes Ten-mile (16km) Manhattan skyline panorama from 120th Street to the Battery, taken in February 2018 from across the Hudson River in Weehawken, New Jersey. Riverside Church Time Warner Center 220 Central Park South Central Park Tower One57 432 Park Avenue 53W53 Chrysler Building Bank of America Tower Conde Nast Building The New York Times Building Empire State Building Manhattan West a: 55 Hudson Yards, 14b: 35 Hudson Yards, 14c: 10 Hudson Yards, 14d: 15 Hudson Yards 56 Leonard Street 8 Spruce Street Woolworth Building 70 Pine Street 30 Park Place Trump Building Three World Trade Center Four World Trade Center One World Trade Center Downtown Brooklyn at the western end of Long Island. The Manhattan Bridge (far left) and the Brooklyn Bridge (near left) are seen across the East River from Lower Manhattan at in June 2013. The growing skyline of Long Island City, Queens,[168] facing the East River at blue hour in May 2015. At left is the Queensboro Bridge, connecting Queens to Manhattan. The Grand Concourse in The Bronx, foreground with Manhattan in the background in February 2018 The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, one of the world's longest suspension bridges, connecting Staten Island, foreground, to Brooklyn, in the background, across The Narrows. Architecture Further information: Architecture of New York City; List of buildings, sites, and monuments in New York City; List of tallest buildings in New York City; and List of hotels in New York City Modernist architecture juxtaposed with Gothic Revival architecture is seen often in New York City. The Chrysler Building, above, built in 1930, is an example of the Art Deco style, with ornamental hub caps and a spire. The Empire State Building is a solitary icon of New York. It was the world's tallest building 1931-70 and is defined by its setbacks, Art Deco details and the spire. A view down a street with rowhouses in brown, white, and various shades of red. Landmark 19th-century rowhouses, including brownstones, on tree-lined Kent Street in the Greenpoint Historic District, Brooklyn. New York has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods, from the saltbox style Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, the oldest section of which dates to 1656, to the modern One World Trade Center, the skyscraper at Ground Zero in Lower Manhattan and the most expensive office tower in the world by construction cost.[169] Manhattan's skyline, with its many skyscrapers, is universally recognized, and the city has been home to several of the tallest buildings in the world. As of 2011, New York City had 5,937 high-rise buildings, of which 550 completed structures were at least 330 feet (100 m) high, both second in the world after Hong Kong,[170][171] with over 50 completed skyscrapers taller than 656 feet (200 m). These include the Woolworth Building, an early example of Gothic Revival architecture in skyscraper design, built with massively scaled Gothic detailing; completed in 1913, for 17 years it was the world's tallest building.[172] The 1916 Zoning Resolution required setbacks in new buildings and restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size, to allow sunlight to reach the streets below.[173] The Art Deco style of the Chrysler Building (1930) and Empire State Building (1931), with their tapered tops and steel spires, reflected the zoning requirements. The buildings have distinctive ornamentation, such as the eagles at the corners of the 61st floor on the Chrysler Building, and are considered some of the finest examples of the Art Deco style.[174] A highly influential example of the international style in the United States is the Seagram Building (1957), distinctive for its façade using visible bronze-toned I-beams to evoke the building's structure. The Condé Nast Building (2000) is a prominent example of green design in American skyscrapers[175] and has received an award from the American Institute of Architects and AIA New York State for its design. The character of New York's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses and townhouses and shabby tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930.[176] In contrast, New York City also has neighborhoods that are less densely populated and feature free-standing dwellings. In neighborhoods such as Riverdale (in the Bronx), Ditmas Park (in Brooklyn), and Douglaston (in Queens), large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as Tudor Revival and Victorian.[177][178][179] Stone and brick became the city's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1835.[180] A distinctive feature of many of the city's buildings is the wooden roof-mounted water tower. In the 1800s, the city required their installation on buildings higher than six stories to prevent the need for excessively high water pressures at lower elevations, which could break municipal water pipes.[181] Garden apartments became popular during the 1920s in outlying areas, such as Jackson Heights.[182] According to the United States Geological Survey, an updated analysis of seismic hazard in July 2014 revealed a "slightly lower hazard for tall buildings" in New York City than previously assessed. Scientists estimated this lessened risk based upon a lower likelihood than previously thought of slow shaking near the city, which would be more likely to cause damage to taller structures from an earthquake in the vicinity of the city.[183] Boroughs Main articles: Boroughs of New York City and Neighborhoods in New York City A map with five insular regions of different colors. The five boroughs of New York City: 1. Manhattan 2. Brooklyn 3. Queens 4. The Bronx 5. Staten Island New York City's five boroughsvte Jurisdiction Population Land area Density Borough County Estimate (2017)[184] square miles square km persons / sq. mi persons / sq. km Manhattan New York 1,664,727 22.83 59.13 72,033 27,826 The Bronx Bronx 1,471,160 42.10 109.04 34,653 13,231 Brooklyn Kings 2,648,771 70.82 183.42 37,137 14,649 Queens Queens 2,358,582 108.53 281.09 21,460 8,354 Staten Island Richmond 479,458 58.37 151.18 8,112 3,132 City of New York 8,622,698 302.64 783.83 28,188 10,947 State of New York 19,849,399 47,214 122,284 416.4 159 Sources: [185] and see individual borough articles New York City is often referred to collectively as the five boroughs, and in turn, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the boroughs, many with a definable history and character to call their own. If the boroughs were each independent cities, four of the boroughs (Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, and the Bronx) would be among the ten most populous cities in the United States (Staten island would be ranked 37th) ; these same boroughs are coterminous with the four most densely populated counties in the United States (New York [Manhattan], Kings [Brooklyn], Bronx, and Queens). Manhattan (New York County) is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough, is home to Central Park and most of the city's skyscrapers, and may be locally known simply as The City.[186] Manhattan's (New York County's) population density of 72,033 people per square mile (27,812/km²) in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States and higher than the density of any individual American city.[187] Manhattan is the cultural, administrative, and financial center of New York City and contains the headquarters of many major multinational corporations, the United Nations Headquarters, Wall Street, and a number of important universities. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world.[188][189] Most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Several small islands also compose part of the borough of Manhattan, including Randall's Island, Wards Island, and Roosevelt Island in the East River, and Governors Island and Liberty Island to the south in New York Harbor. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions. Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a small neighborhood on the United States mainland, called Marble Hill, which is contiguous with The Bronx. New York City's remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs. Brooklyn (Kings County), on the western tip of Long Island, is the city's most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, and a distinctive architectural heritage. Downtown Brooklyn is the largest central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country.[190] Marine Park[191] and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a thriving hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms,[192][193] and of postmodern art[194] and design.[193] Queens (Queens County), on Long Island north and east of Brooklyn, is geographically the largest borough, the most ethnically diverse county in the United States,[195] and the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world.[196][197] Historically a collection of small towns and villages founded by the Dutch, the borough has since developed both commercial and residential prominence. Downtown Flushing has become one of the busiest central core neighborhoods in the outer boroughs. Queens is the site of Citi Field, the baseball stadium of the New York Mets, and hosts the annual U.S. Open tennis tournament at Flushing Meadows-Corona Park. Additionally, two of the three busiest airports serving the New York metropolitan area, John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, are located in Queens. (The third is Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey.) Staten Island (Richmond County) is the most suburban in character of the five boroughs. Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn by the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, and to Manhattan by way of the free Staten Island Ferry, a daily commuter ferry which provides unobstructed views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. In central Staten Island, the Staten Island Greenbelt spans approximately 2,500 acres (10 km2), including 28 miles (45 km) of walking trails and one of the last undisturbed forests in the city.[198] Designated in 1984 to protect the island's natural lands, the Greenbelt comprises seven city parks. The Bronx (Bronx County) is New York City's northernmost borough and the only New York City borough with a majority of it a part of the mainland United States. It is the location of Yankee Stadium, the baseball park of the New York Yankees, and home to the largest cooperatively owned housing complex in the United States, Co-op City.[199] It is also home to the Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo,[200] which spans 265 acres (1.07 km2) and houses over 6,000 animals.[201] The Bronx is also the birthplace of rap and hip hop culture.[202] Pelham Bay Park is the largest park in New York City, at 2,772 acres (1,122 ha).[203] Climate Avenue C in Manhattan after flooding caused by Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012.[204] Under the Köppen climate classification, using the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm, New York City features a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), and is thus the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this categorization.[205][206] The suburbs to the immediate north and west lie in the transitional zone between humid subtropical and humid continental climates (Dfa).[205][206] Annually, the city averages 234 days with at least some sunshine.[207] The city lies in the USDA 7b plant hardiness zone.[208] Winters are cold and damp, and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore temper the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. The daily mean temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is 32.6 °F (0.3 °C);[209] temperatures usually drop to 10 °F (−12 °C) several times per winter,[210] and reach 60 °F (16 °C) several days in the coldest winter month. Spring and autumn are unpredictable and can range from chilly to warm, although they are usually mild with low humidity. Summers are typically warm to hot and humid, with a daily mean temperature of 76.5 °F (24.7 °C) in July.[209] Nighttime conditions are often exacerbated by the urban heat island phenomenon, while daytime temperatures exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on average of 17 days each summer and in some years exceed 100 °F (38 °C). Extreme temperatures have ranged from −15 °F (−26 °C), recorded on February 9, 1934, up to 106 °F (41 °C) on July 9, 1936.[209] The average water temperature of the nearby Atlantic Ocean ranges from 39.7 °F (4.3 °C) in February to 74.1 °F (23.4 °C) in August.[211] The city receives 49.9 inches (1,270 mm) of precipitation annually, which is relatively evenly spread throughout the year. Average winter snowfall between 1981 and 2010 has been 25.8 inches (66 cm); this varies considerably between years. Hurricanes and tropical storms are rare in the New York area.[212] Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York City on the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs.[213] The storm and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of the city and the metropolitan area to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.[214][215] Climate data for New York (Belvedere Castle, Central Park), 1981-2010 normals,[a] extremes 1869-present[b] Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °F (°C) 72 (22) 78 (26) 86 (30) 96 (36) 99 (37) 101 (38) 106 (41) 104 (40) 102 (39) 94 (34) 84 (29) 75 (24) 106 (41) Mean maximum °F (°C) 59.6 (15.3) 60.7 (15.9) 71.5 (21.9) 83.0 (28.3) 88.0 (31.1) 92.3 (33.5) 95.4 (35.2) 93.7 (34.3) 88.5 (31.4) 78.8 (26) 71.3 (21.8) 62.2 (16.8) 97.0 (36.1) Average high °F (°C) 38.3 (3.5) 41.6 (5.3) 49.7 (9.8) 61.2 (16.2) 70.8 (21.6) 79.3 (26.3) 84.1 (28.9) 82.6 (28.1) 75.2 (24) 63.8 (17.7) 53.8 (12.1) 43.0 (6.1) 62.0 (16.7) Average low °F (°C) 26.9 (−2.8) 28.9 (−1.7) 35.2 (1.8) 44.8 (7.1) 54.0 (12.2) 63.6 (17.6) 68.8 (20.4) 67.8 (19.9) 60.8 (16) 50.0 (10) 41.6 (5.3) 32.0 (0) 48.0 (8.9) Mean minimum °F (°C) 9.2 (−12.7) 12.8 (−10.7) 18.5 (−7.5) 32.3 (0.2) 43.5 (6.4) 52.9 (11.6) 60.3 (15.7) 58.8 (14.9) 48.6 (9.2) 38.0 (3.3) 27.7 (−2.4) 15.6 (−9.1) 7.0 (−13.9) Record low °F (°C) −6 (−21) −15 (−26) 3 (−16) 12 (−11) 32 (0) 44 (7) 52 (11) 50 (10) 39 (4) 28 (−2) 5 (−15) −13 (−25) −15 (−26) Average precipitation inches (mm) 3.65 (92.7) 3.09 (78.5) 4.36 (110.7) 4.50 (114.3) 4.19 (106.4) 4.41 (112) 4.60 (116.8) 4.44 (112.8) 4.28 (108.7) 4.40 (111.8) 4.02 (102.1) 4.00 (101.6) 49.94 (1,268.5) Average snowfall inches (cm) 7.0 (17.8) 9.2 (23.4) 3.9 (9.9) 0.6 (1.5) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.3 (0.8) 4.8 (12.2) 25.8 (65.5) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) 10.4 9.2 10.9 11.5 11.1 11.2 10.4 9.5 8.7 8.9 9.6 10.6 122.0 Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) 4.0 2.8 1.8 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 2.3 11.4 Average relative humidity (%) 61.5 60.2 58.5 55.3 62.7 65.2 64.2 66.0 67.8 65.6 64.6 64.1 63.0 Mean monthly sunshine hours 162.7 163.1 212.5 225.6 256.6 257.3 268.2 268.2 219.3 211.2 151.0 139.0 2,534.7 Percent possible sunshine 54 55 57 57 57 57 59 63 59 61 51 48 57 Source: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961-1990)[217][218][207] See Geography of New York City for additional climate information from the outer boroughs. ► See or edit raw graph data. Parks A spherical sculpture and several attractions line a park during a World's Fair. Flushing Meadows-Corona Park was used in the 1964 New York World's Fair, with the Unisphere as its centerpiece. The City of New York has a complex park system, with various lands operated by the National Park Service, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, and the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. In its 2018 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land reported that the park system in New York City was the ninth best park system among the fifty most populous U.S. cities.[219] ParkScore ranks urban park systems by a formula that analyzes median park size, park acres as percent of city area, the percent of city residents within a half-mile of a park, spending of park services per resident, and the number of playgrounds per 10,000 residents. National parks Main article: National Park Service The Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island in New York Harbor is a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity.[220] Gateway National Recreation Area contains over 26,000 acres (10,521.83 ha) in total, most of it surrounded by New York City,[221] including the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge. In Brooklyn and Queens, the park contains over 9,000 acres (36 km2) of salt marsh, wetlands, islands, and water, including most of Jamaica Bay. Also in Queens, the park includes a significant portion of the western Rockaway Peninsula, most notably Jacob Riis Park and Fort Tilden. In Staten Island, Gateway National Recreation Area includes Fort Wadsworth, with historic pre-Civil War era Battery Weed and Fort Tompkins, and Great Kills Park, with beaches, trails, and a marina. The Statue of Liberty National Monument and Ellis Island Immigration Museum are managed by the National Park Service and are in both the states of New York and New Jersey. They are joined in the harbor by Governors Island National Monument, in New York. Historic sites under federal management on Manhattan Island include Castle Clinton National Monument; Federal Hall National Memorial; Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site; General Grant National Memorial ("Grant's Tomb"); African Burial Ground National Monument; and Hamilton Grange National Memorial. Hundreds of private properties are listed on the National Register of Historic Places or as a National Historic Landmark such as, for example, the Stonewall Inn, part of the Stonewall National Monument in Greenwich Village, as the catalyst of the modern gay rights movement.[144][145][146][147][148] State parks Main article: New York State Parks There are seven state parks within the confines of New York City, including Clay Pit Ponds State Park Preserve, a natural area that includes extensive riding trails, and Riverbank State Park, a 28-acre (110,000 m2) facility that rises 69 feet (21 m) over the Hudson River.[222] City parks Reindeer at the Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo.[200] See also: Parks and recreation in New York City New York City has over 28,000 acres (110 km2) of municipal parkland and 14 miles (23 km) of public beaches.[223] The largest municipal park in the city is Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx, with 2,772 acres (1,122 ha).[203][224] Central Park, an 843-acre (3.41 km2)[203] park in middle-upper Manhattan, is the most visited urban park in the United States and one of the most filmed locations in the world, with 40 million visitors in 2013.[225] The park contains a wide range of attractions; there are several lakes and ponds, two ice-skating rinks, the Central Park Zoo, the Central Park Conservatory Garden, and the 106-acre (0.43 km2) Jackie Onassis Reservoir.[226] Indoor attractions include Belvedere Castle with its nature center, the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theater, and the historic Carousel. On October 23, 2012, hedge fund manager John A. Paulson announced a $100 million gift to the Central Park Conservancy, the largest ever monetary donation to New York City's park system.[227] Washington Square Park is a prominent landmark in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. The Washington Square Arch at the northern gateway to the park is an iconic symbol of both New York University and Greenwich Village. Prospect Park in Brooklyn has a 90-acre (360,000 m2) meadow, a lake, and extensive woodlands. Within the park is the historic Battle Pass, prominent in the Battle of Long Island.[228] Flushing Meadows-Corona Park in Queens, with its 897 acres (363 ha) making it the city's fourth largest park,[229] was the setting for the 1939 World's Fair and the 1964 World's Fair[230] and is host to the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center and the annual United States Open Tennis Championships tournament.[231] Over a fifth of the Bronx's area, 7,000 acres (28 km2), is given over to open space and parks, including Pelham Bay Park, Van Cortlandt Park, the Bronx Zoo, and the New York Botanical Gardens.[232] In Staten Island, the Conference House Park contains the historic Conference House, site of the only attempt of a peaceful resolution to the American Revolution which was conducted in September 1775, attended by Benjamin Franklin representing the Americans and Lord Howe representing the British Crown.[233] The historic Burial Ridge, the largest Native American burial ground within New York City, is within the park.[234] A large rectangular park stretches to the horizon behind a city skyline. Central Park, as seen from Rockefeller Center, is the most visited city park in the United States. Military installations New York City is home to Fort Hamilton, the U.S. military's only active duty installation within the city.[235] The Brooklyn facility was established in 1825 on the site of a small battery utilized during the American Revolution, and it is one of America's longest serving military forts.[236] Today Fort Hamilton serves as the headquarters of the North Atlantic Division of the United States Army Corps of Engineers and for the New York City Recruiting Battalion. It also houses the 1179th Transportation Brigade, the 722nd Aeromedical Staging Squadron, and a military entrance processing station. Other formerly active military reservations still utilized for National Guard and military training or reserve operations in the city include Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island and Fort Totten in Queens. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of New York City, New York City ethnic enclaves, and Demographic profile of New York City City compared to State & U.S. Racial composition 2010[237] 1990[239] 1970[239] 1940[239] White 44.0% 52.3% 76.6% 93.6% —Non-Hispanic 33.3% 43.2% 62.9%[240] 92.0% Black or African American 25.5% 28.7% 21.1% 6.1% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 28.6% 24.4% 16.2%[240] 1.6% Asian 12.7% 7.0% 1.2% − New York City had an estimated population density of 28,491 people per square mile (11,000/km²) in 2017, with Manhattan alone at 72,918/sq mi (28,154/km²). Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1698 4,937 — 1712 5,840 +18.3% 1723 7,248 +24.1% 1737 10,664 +47.1% 1746 11,717 +9.9% 1756 13,046 +11.3% 1771 21,863 +67.6% 1790 49,401 +126.0% 1800 79,216 +60.4% 1810 119,734 +51.1% 1820 152,056 +27.0% 1830 242,278 +59.3% 1840 391,114 +61.4% 1850 696,115 +78.0% 1860 1,174,779 +68.8% 1870 1,478,103 +25.8% 1880 1,911,698 +29.3% 1890 2,507,414 +31.2% 1900 3,437,202 +37.1% 1910 4,766,883 +38.7% 1920 5,620,048 +17.9% 1930 6,930,446 +23.3% 1940 7,454,995 +7.6% 1950 7,891,957 +5.9% 1960 7,781,984 −1.4% 1970 7,894,862 +1.5% 1980 7,071,639 −10.4% 1990 7,322,564 +3.5% 2000 8,008,278 +9.4% 2010 8,175,133 +2.1% 2017 8,622,698 +5.5% Note: Census figures (1790-2010) cover the present area of all five boroughs, before and after the 1898 consolidation. For New York City itself before annexing part of the Bronx in 1874, see Manhattan#Demographics.[241] Sources: 1698-1771,[242][243] 1790-1890,[241][244] 1900-1990,[245] 2000 and 2010,[246][247][248] 2017 Census estimate.[7] Source: U.S. Decennial Census[249] New York City is the most populous city in the United States,[9] with an estimated record high of 8,622,698 residents as of 2017,[7] incorporating more immigration into the city than outmigration since the 2010 United States Census.[250][251] More than twice as many people live in New York City as in the second-most populous U.S. city (Los Angeles),[9] and within a smaller area. New York City gained more residents between April 2010 and July 2014 (316,000) than any other U.S. city.[9] New York City's population is about 43% of New York State's population[252] and about 36% of the population of the New York metropolitan area.[253] Population density In 2017, the city had an estimated population density of 28,491 people per square mile (11,000/km²), rendering it the most densely populated of all municipalities housing over 100,000 residents in the United States, with several small cities (of fewer than 100,000) in adjacent Hudson County, New Jersey having greater density, as per the 2010 Census.[254] Geographically co-extensive with New York County, the borough of Manhattan's 2017 population density of 72,918 inhabitants per square mile (28,154/km2)[255] makes it the highest of any county in the United States[256][257] and higher than the density of any individual American city.[258] Race and ethnicity Further information: Category:Ethnic groups in New York City, Bangladeshis in New York City, Caribbeans in New York City, Chinese in New York City, Filipinos in New York City, Fuzhounese in New York City, Indians in New York City, Irish in New York City, Italians in New York City, Japanese in New York City, Koreans in New York City, Puerto Ricans in New York City, Russians in New York City, and Ukrainians in New York City The city's population in 2010 was 44% white (33.3% non-Hispanic white), 25.5% black (23% non-Hispanic black), 0.7% Native American, and 12.7% Asian.[259] Hispanics of any race represented 28.6% of the population,[259] while Asians constituted the fastest-growing segment of the city's population between 2000 and 2010; the non-Hispanic white population declined 3 percent, the smallest recorded decline in decades; and for the first time since the Civil War, the number of blacks declined over a decade.[260] Clockwise, from upper left: the Manhattan Chinatown; Lower Manhattan's Little Italy; Upper Manhattan's Spanish Harlem; Little India, Queens; Brooklyn's Little Russia; Midtown Manhattan's Koreatown Throughout its history, the city has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the United States; more than 12 million European immigrants were received at Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924.[261] The term "melting pot" was first coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side. By 1900, Germans constituted the largest immigrant group, followed by the Irish, Jews, and Italians.[262] In 1940, whites represented 92% of the city's population.[239] Approximately 37% of the city's population is foreign born and more than half of all children are born to mothers who are immigrants.[263][264] In New York, no single country or region of origin dominates.[263] The ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city as of 2011 were the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico, Guyana, Jamaica, Ecuador, Haiti, India, Russia, and Trinidad and Tobago,[265] while the Bangladeshi-born immigrant population has become one of the fastest growing in the city, counting over 74,000 by 2011.[43][266] Asian Americans in New York City, according to the 2010 Census, number more than one million, greater than the combined totals of San Francisco and Los Angeles.[267] New York contains the highest total Asian population of any U.S. city proper.[268] The New York City borough of Queens is home to the state's largest Asian American population and the largest Andean (Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, and Bolivian) populations in the United States, and is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world.[196][197] The Chinese population constitutes the fastest-growing nationality in New York State; multiple satellites of the original Manhattan Chinatown, in Brooklyn, and around Flushing, Queens, are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves - while also expanding rapidly eastward into suburban Nassau County[269] on Long Island,[270] as the New York metropolitan region and New York State have become the top destinations for new Chinese immigrants, respectively, and large-scale Chinese immigration continues into New York City and surrounding areas,[36][271][272][273][274][275] with the largest metropolitan Chinese diaspora outside Asia,[43][276] including an estimated 812,410 individuals in 2015.[277] In 2012, 6.3% of New York City was of Chinese ethnicity, with nearly three-fourths living in either Queens or Brooklyn, geographically on Long Island.[278] A community numbering 20,000 Korean-Chinese (Chaoxianzu or Joseonjok) is centered in Flushing, Queens, while New York City is also home to the largest Tibetan population outside China, India, and Nepal, also centered in Queens.[279] Koreans made up 1.2% of the city's population, and Japanese 0.3%. Filipinos were the largest Southeast Asian ethnic group at 0.8%, followed by Vietnamese, who made up 0.2% of New York City's population in 2010. Indians are the largest South Asian group, comprising 2.4% of the city's population, with Bangladeshis and Pakistanis at 0.7% and 0.5%, respectively.[280] Queens is the preferred borough of settlement for Asian Indians, Koreans, Filipinos,[281] and Malaysians[36] and other Southeast Asians;[282] while Brooklyn is receiving large numbers of both West Indian and Asian Indian immigrants. Map of racial distribution in New York, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: White, Black, Asian, Hispanic or Other (yellow) New York City has the largest European and non-Hispanic white population of any American city. At 2.7 million in 2012, New York's non-Hispanic white population is larger than the non-Hispanic white populations of Los Angeles (1.1 million), Chicago (865,000), and Houston (550,000) combined.[283] The non-Hispanic white population was 6.6 million in 1940.[284] The non-Hispanic white population has begun to increase since 2010.[285] The European diaspora residing in the city is very diverse. According to 2012 Census estimates, there were roughly 560,000 Italian Americans, 385,000 Irish Americans, 253,000 German Americans, 223,000 Russian Americans, 201,000 Polish Americans, and 137,000 English Americans. Additionally, Greek and French Americans numbered 65,000 each, with those of Hungarian descent estimated at 60,000 people. Ukrainian and Scottish Americans numbered 55,000 and 35,000, respectively. People identifying ancestry from Spain numbered 30,838 total in 2010.[286] People of Norwegian and Swedish descent both stood at about 20,000 each, while people of Czech, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Scotch-Irish, and Welsh descent all numbered between 12,000-14,000 people.[287] Arab Americans number over 160,000 in New York City,[288] with the highest concentration in Brooklyn. Central Asians, primarily Uzbek Americans, are a rapidly growing segment of the city's non-Hispanic white population, enumerating over 30,000, and including over half of all Central Asian immigrants to the United States,[289] most settling in Queens or Brooklyn. Albanian Americans are most highly concentrated in the Bronx.[290] The wider New York City metropolitan statistical area, with over 20 million people, about 50% greater than the second-place Los Angeles metropolitan area in the United States,[4] is also ethnically diverse,[291] with the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world. The New York region continues to be by far the leading metropolitan gateway for legal immigrants admitted into the United States, substantially exceeding the combined totals of Los Angeles and Miami.[36] It is home to the largest Jewish and Israeli communities outside Israel, with the Jewish population in the region numbering over 1.5 million in 2012 and including many diverse Jewish sects predominantly from around the Middle East and Eastern Europe.[279] The metropolitan area is also home to 20% of the nation's Indian Americans and at least 20 Little India enclaves, and 15% of all Korean Americans and four Koreatowns;[292][293] the largest Asian Indian population in the Western Hemisphere; the largest Russian American,[271] Italian American, and African American populations; the largest Dominican American, Puerto Rican American, and South American[271] and second-largest overall Hispanic population in the Unite

Page semi-protected Boi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search Look up BOI, Boi, or boi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Boi or BOI may refer to: Contents 1 People 2 Places 3 Organizations 4 Music 5 Other 6 See also People Paolo Boi (1528-1598), Italian chess player Big Boi (born 1975), rapper Boi-1da (born 1986), Canadian hip-hop producer Places Boí, a village in Catalonia, Spain Boi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, a village and union council in Pakistan Sant Boi de Llobregat, a town near Barcelona, Spain Boise Airport (IATA: BOI, FAA LID: BOI), an airport in the US state of Idaho Organizations The Bank of Industry (BOI), Nigeria's oldest development finance institution Board of Investment of Mauritius, the investment promotion agency of Mauritius Pakistan Board of Investment, the investment promotion agency of Pakistan Bureau of Investigation, a bureau of the U.S. Dept. of Justice, became the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935 Bank of Ireland, one of Ireland's largest commercial banks Bank of India, one of India's largest commercial banks Thailand Board of Investment, an agency of the Government of Thailand to promote investment in Thailand Music "Sk8er Boi", a 2002 song by Avril Lavigne Boi (music), a style of Central Amazon folk music Other BOI, the ICAO code for 2GO The IATA code for Boise Airport Boi (slang), as a spelling that is deliberately altered for reasons of gender identification, sexuality, or group affinity Bôi River, Vietnam The Binding of Isaac (video game), which can be abbreviated to BoI Dat Boi, an internet meme that features an animated frog riding a unicycle See also Boy (disambiguation) Disambiguation icon This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Boi. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Categories: Disambiguation pagesPlace name disambiguation pages Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Cebuano Deutsch Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Português Svenska 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2018, at 14:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

Page semi-protected Internet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the worldwide computer network. For other uses, see Internet (disambiguation). Not to be confused with the World Wide Web. Internet Visualization of Internet routing paths An Opte Project visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet General[show] Governance[show] Information infrastructure[show] Services[show] Guides[show] Crystal Clear app linneighborhood.svg Internet portal vte Computer network types by spatial scope Data Networks classification by spatial scope.png Nanoscale Near-field (NFC) Body (BAN) Personal (PAN) Near-me (NAN) Local (LAN) Home (HAN) Storage (SAN) Wireless (WLAN) Campus (CAN) Backbone Metropolitan (MAN) Wide (WAN) Cloud (IAN) Internet Interplanetary Internet vte Internet users per 100 population members and GDP per capita for selected countries. The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the federal government of the United States in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication with computer networks.[1] The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks.[2] The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet,[3] and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life. Most traditional communications media, including telephony, radio, television, paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers and small businesses and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries. The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.[4] Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.[5] In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of New Seven Wonders.[6] Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 3 Governance 4 Infrastructure 4.1 Routing and service tiers 4.2 Access 4.2.1 Internet and mobile 5 Protocols 6 Services 6.1 World Wide Web 6.2 Communication 6.3 Data transfer 7 Social impact 7.1 Users 7.2 Usage 7.3 Social networking and entertainment 7.4 Electronic business 7.5 Telecommuting 7.6 Collaborative publishing 7.7 Politics and political revolutions 7.8 Philanthropy 8 Security 8.1 Malware 8.2 Surveillance 8.3 Censorship 9 Performance 9.1 Outages 9.2 Energy use 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Terminology The Internet Messenger by Buky Schwartz, located in Holon, Israel See also: Capitalization of "Internet" When the term Internet is used to refer to the specific global system of interconnected Internet Protocol (IP) networks, the word is a proper noun[7] that should be written with an initial capital letter. In common use and the media, it is often erroneously not capitalized, viz. the internet. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as an adjective.[8] The Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, meaning interconnected or interwoven.[9] The designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks.[10] The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak of "going on the Internet" when using a web browser to view web pages. However, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[11] As another point of comparison, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the language used on the Web for information transfer, yet it is just one of many languages or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet.[12] The term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. History Main articles: History of the Internet and History of the World Wide Web Research into packet switching, one of the fundamental Internet technologies started in the early 1960s in the work of Paul Baran,[13] and packet switched networks such as the NPL network by Donald Davies,[14] ARPANET, Tymnet, the Merit Network,[15] Telenet, and CYCLADES,[16][17] were developed in the late 1960s and 1970s using a variety of protocols.[18] The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.[19] ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected between the Network Measurement Center at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science directed by Leonard Kleinrock, and the NLS system at SRI International (SRI) by Douglas Engelbart in Menlo Park, California, on 29 October 1969.[20] The third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of future growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971.[21][22] These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing. Early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks.[23] Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in June 1973, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter T. Kirstein's research group in the United Kingdom, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, University of London and later at University College London.[24][25][26] In December 1974, RFC 675 (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use.[27] Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks. T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.[28] Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. By 1995, the Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.[29] The Internet rapidly expanded in Europe and Australia in the mid to late 1980s[30][31] and to Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[32] The beginning of dedicated transatlantic communication between the NSFNET and networks in Europe was established with a low-speed satellite relay between Princeton University and Stockholm, Sweden in December 1988.[33] Although other network protocols such as UUCP had global reach well before this time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network. Public commercial use of the Internet began in mid-1989 with the connection of MCI Mail and Compuserve's email capabilities to the 500,000 users of the Internet.[34] Just months later on 1 January 1990, PSInet launched an alternate Internet backbone for commercial use; one of the networks that would grow into the commercial Internet we know today. In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the NSFNET and Europe was installed between Cornell University and CERN, allowing much more robust communications than were capable with satellites.[35] Six months later Tim Berners-Lee would begin writing WorldWideWeb, the first web browser after two years of lobbying CERN management. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9,[36] the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (which was also a HTML editor and could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server,[37] and the first Web pages that described the project itself. In 1991 the Commercial Internet eXchange was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the other commercial networks CERFnet and Alternet. Since 1995 the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and commerce, including the rise of near instant communication by email, instant messaging, telephony (Voice over Internet Protocol or VoIP), two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web[38] with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. Worldwide Internet users 2005 2010 2017a World population[39] 6.5 billion 6.9 billion 7.4 billion Users worldwide 16% 30% 48% Users in the developing world 8% 21% 41.3% Users in the developed world 51% 67% 81% a Estimate. Source: International Telecommunications Union.[40] The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking.[41] During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.[42] This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.[43] As of 31 March 2011, the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30.2% of world population).[44] It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunication, by 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet.[45] Governance Main article: Internet governance ICANN headquarters in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. The Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body. The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces are essential for maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global Internet.[46] Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IP addresses: African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean region Réseaux IP Européens - Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce, had final approval over changes to the DNS root zone until the IANA stewardship transition on 1 October 2016.[47][48][49][50] The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to "assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world".[51] Its members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations, governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet, including: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues. Infrastructure See also: List of countries by number of Internet users and List of countries by Internet connection speeds 2007 map showing submarine fiberoptic telecommunication cables around the world. The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. Routing and service tiers Packet routing across the Internet involves several tiers of Internet service providers. Internet service providers (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity between individual networks at various levels of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via very high speed fibre optic cables and governed by peering agreements. Tier 2 and lower level networks buy Internet transit from other providers to reach at least some parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in peering. An ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load balancing. Internet exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to multiple ISPs. Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of their internal networks. Research networks tend to interconnect with large subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK's national research and education network, JANET. Both the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks.[52][disputed (for: unclear whether citation supports claim empricially) - discuss] Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to direct IP packets to the next-hop router or destination. Routing tables are maintained by manual configuration or automatically by routing protocols. End-nodes typically use a default route that points toward an ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to establish the most efficient routing across the complex connections of the global Internet. An estimated 70 percent of the world's Internet traffic passes through Ashburn, Virginia.[53][54][55][56] Access Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from computers in libraries and Internet cafes. Internet access points exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usages, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where users need to bring their own wireless devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services covering large city areas are in many cities, such as New York, London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The Internet can then be accessed from places, such as a park bench.[57] Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed wireless services. High-end mobile phones such as smartphones in general come with Internet access through the phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, although this is not as widely used.[58] An Internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online. Internet and mobile Number of mobile cellular subscriptions 2012-2016, World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), by the end of 2017, an estimated 48 per cent of individuals regularly connect to the internet, up from 34 per cent in 2012.[59] Mobile internet connectivity has played an important role in expanding access in recent years especially in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa.[60] The number of unique mobile cellular subscriptions increased from 3.89 billion in 2012 to 4.83 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the world's population, with more than half of subscriptions located in Asia and the Pacific. The number of subscriptions is predicted to rise to 5.69 billion users in 2020.[61] As of 2016, almost 60 per cent of the world's population had access to a 4G broadband cellular network, up from almost 50 per cent in 2015 and 11 per cent in 2012.[61] The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of fragmentation of the internet. Fragmentation restricts access to media content and tends to affect poorest users the most.[60] Zero-rating, the practice of internet providers allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications for free, has offered some opportunities for individuals to surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a 'two-tiered' internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. A study published by Chatham House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had some kind of hybrid or zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.[62] A study of eight countries in the Global South found that zero-rated data plans exist in every country, although there is a great range in the frequency with which they are offered and actually used in each.[63] Across the 181 plans examined, 13 per cent were offering zero-rated services. Another study, covering Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, found Facebook's Free Basics and Wikipedia Zero to be the most commonly zero-rated content.[64] Protocols Internet protocol suite Application layer BGP DHCP DNS FTP HTTP HTTPS IMAP LDAP MGCP MQTT NNTP NTP POP ONC/RPC RTP RTSP RIP SIP SMTP SNMP SSH Telnet TLS/SSL XMPP more... Transport layer TCP QUIC UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP more... Internet layer IP IPv4 IPv6 ICMP ICMPv6 ECN IGMP IPsec more... Link layer ARP NDP OSPF Tunnels L2TP PPP MAC Ethernet DSL ISDN FDDI more... vte While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been assumed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[65] The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting contributions and standards are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents on the IETF web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies. The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite. This is a model architecture that divides methods into a layered system of protocols, originally documented in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. The layers correspond to the environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the application layer, space for the application-specific networking methods used in software applications. For example, a web browser program uses the client-server application model and a specific protocol of interaction between servers and clients, while many file-sharing systems use a peer-to-peer paradigm. Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different hosts with a logical channel through the network with appropriate data exchange methods. Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders and exchange traffic across them. The Internet layer enables computers ("hosts") to identify each other via Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and route their traffic to each other via any intermediate (transit) networks. Last, at the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which provides logical connectivity between hosts on the same network link, such as a local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection. The model, also known as TCP/IP, is designed to be independent of the underlying hardware used for the physical connections, which the model does not concern itself with in any detail. Other models have been developed, such as the OSI model, that attempt to be comprehensive in every aspect of communications. While many similarities exist between the models, they are not compatible in the details of description or implementation. Yet, TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the discussion of OSI networking. As user data is processed through the protocol stack, each abstraction layer adds encapsulation information at the sending host. Data is transmitted over the wire at the link level between hosts and routers. Encapsulation is removed by the receiving host. Intermediate relays update link encapsulation at each hop, and inspect the IP layer for routing purposes. The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems, including IP addresses, for computers on the network. IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ~4.3 billion (109) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011,[66] when the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.[67] IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. Thus, translation facilities must exist for internetworking or nodes must have duplicate networking software for both networks. Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructure, however, has been lagging in this development. Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts, e.g., peering agreements, and by technical specifications or protocols that describe the exchange of data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies. Services Many people use, erroneously, the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous. The World Wide Web is a primary application program that billions of people use on the Internet, and it has changed their lives immeasurably.[68][69] However, the Internet provides many network services, most prominently include mobile apps such as social media apps, the World Wide Web, electronic mail, multiplayer online games, Internet telephony, and file sharing and streaming media services. World Wide Web Main article: World Wide Web This NeXT Computer was used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's first Web server. World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer/Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, lets users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. Client-side software can include animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo!, Bing and Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information on a large scale. The Web is therefore a global set of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs symbolically identify services, servers, and other databases, and the documents and resources that they can provide. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web. Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data. The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce, which is the sale of products and services directly via the Web, continues to grow. Online advertising is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. It includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising. In 2011, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and nearly exceeded those of broadcast television.[70]:19 Many common online advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to regulation. When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted in HTML, complete for transmission to a web browser in response to a request. Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating a flexible design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using content management software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors. Communication Email is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet.[71][72] Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as email attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses. Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL and mobile data.[73] VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal computer. Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Older traditional phones with no "extra features" may be line-powered only and operate during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a backup power source for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Modern video game consoles also offer VoIP chat features. Data transfer File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed - usually fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products. Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where - usually audio - material is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide. Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.[74] Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast number of users. It uses a HTML5 based web player by default to stream and show video files.[75] Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily. Social impact The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and social associations. This phenomenon has given rise to the scholarly study of the sociology of the Internet. Users See also: Global Internet usage and English in computing Internet users per 100 inhabitants Source: International Telecommunications Union.[76][77] Internet users by language[78] Website content languages[79] Internet usage has seen tremendous growth. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[80] By 2010, 22 percent of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube.[81] In 2014 the world's Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 43.6 percent of world population, but two-thirds of the users came from richest countries, with 78.0 percent of Europe countries population using the Internet, followed by 57.4 percent of the Americas.[82] The prevalent language for communication on the Internet has been English. This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language's role as a lingua franca. Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet. After English (27%), the most requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean (2%).[78] By region, 42% of the world's Internet users are based in Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean taken together, 6% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% in Australia/Oceania.[83] The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world's widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some languages' characters) still remain. In an American study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking.[84] More recent studies indicate that in 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age.[85] In addition, women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more.[86] In terms of blogs, men were more likely to blog in the first place; among those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog.[87] Forecasts predict that 44% of the world's population will be users of the Internet by 2020.[88] Splitting by country, in 2012 Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with 93% or more of the population with access.[89] Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: Netizen (as in "citizen of the net")[90] refers to those actively involved in improving online communities, the Internet in general or surrounding political affairs and rights such as free speech,[91][92] Internaut refers to operators or technically highly capable users of the Internet,[93][94] digital citizen refers to a person using the Internet in order to engage in society, politics, and government participation.[95] Usage Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's population Source: International Telecommunications Union.[89] Main articles: Global digital divide and Digital divide Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012 as a percentage of a country's population Source: International Telecommunications Union.[96] Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012 as a percentage of a country's population Source: International Telecommunications Union.[97] The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods. Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites. Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education. Further, the Internet allows universities, in particular, researchers from the social and behavioral sciences, to conduct research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalizability of findings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results.[98] The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills have made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more easily to form. An example of this is the free software movement, which has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org (later forked into LibreOffice). Internet chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking website, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members. Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other's work. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and computer literacy spread. The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily from any access point. Access may be with computer security, i.e. authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop session into their office PC using a secure virtual private network (VPN) connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office. It has been referred to among system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[99] because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations and its employees' homes. Social networking and entertainment See also: Social networking service § Social impact Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue their personal interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs. While social networking sites were initially for individuals only, today they are widely used by businesses and other organizations to promote their brands, to market to their customers and to encourage posts to "go viral". "Black hat" social media techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as spam accounts and astroturfing. A risk for both individuals and organizations writing posts (especially public posts) on social networking websites, is that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally lead to an unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash on social media from other Internet users. This is also a risk in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases, rape and death threats. The online disinhibition effect describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in person. A significant number of feminist women have been the target of various forms of harassment in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse.[100] For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall brand damage, especially if reported by the media. However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by strengthening the brand in the eyes of others. Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in to demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash. Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding the posting of personal information of individuals (also known as doxxing), due to concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby identified. In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to imply that all identifying photos and names must be censored in Facebook screenshots posted to Reddit. However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is less clear, and in any case, like-minded people online have many other ways they can use to direct each other's attention to public social media posts they disagree with. Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying and approaches by sexual predators, who sometimes pose as children themselves. Children may also encounter material which they may find upsetting, or material which their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to naivety, they may also post personal information about themselves online, which could put them or their families at risk unless warned not to do so. Many parents choose to enable Internet filtering, and/or supervise their children's online activities, in an attempt to protect their children from inappropriate material on the Internet. The most popular social networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the age of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of children aged under 13 join such sites anyway. Social networking sites for younger children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for children, also exist.[101] The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much traffic.[citation needed] Many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos.[citation needed] The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites.[102] Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet, in general, this has failed to stop their widespread popularity.[103] Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming.[104] This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer.[105] Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others. Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.[106] Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread. Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form which involves: "highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader. Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members and practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testimonies and engaging in the collective study via email, on-line chat rooms, and web-based message boards."[107] In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet, being persuaded to join terrorist groups such as the so-called "Islamic State", and then potentially committing acts of terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq. Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[108] Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. Nicholas G. Carr believes that Internet use has other effects on individuals, for instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity.[109] Electronic business Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business processes spanning the entire value chain: purchasing, supply chain management, marketing, sales, customer service, and business relationship. E-commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships with clients and partners. According to International Data Corporation, the size of worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are combined, equate to $16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those two together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales.[110] While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide.[111] Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[112][113][114] Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every $10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at $10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Hotels, which employs 152,000 people. And car-sharing Internet startup Uber employs 1,000 full-time employees and is valued at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis and Hertz combined, which together employ almost 60,000 people.[115] Telecommuting Telecommuting is the performance within a traditional worker and employer relationship when it is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videoconferencing, and voice over IP (VOIP) so that work may be performed from any location, most conveniently the worker's home. It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost. As broadband Internet connections become commonplace, more workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and internal communication networks. Collaborative publishing Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries.[116] In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.[117] The United States Patent and Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park.[118] The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[119] and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic.[120] Politics and political revolutions See also: Internet censorship, Culture of fear, and Mass surveillance Banner in Bangkok during the 2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activities on social media could result in imprisonment (observed June 30, 2014). The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism, most notably practiced by rebels in the Arab Spring.[121][122] The New York Times suggested that social media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in Egypt, by helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and disseminate information.[123] Many have understood the Internet as an extension of the Habermasian notion of the public sphere, observing how network communication technologies provide something like a global civic forum. However, incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship have now been recorded in many countries, including western democracies.[citation needed] Philanthropy The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals. Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their choice. A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding. Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance organizations which post stories and updates on behalf of the borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves.[124][125] However, the recent spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has made genuine international person-to-person philanthropy increasingly feasible. In 2009, the US-based nonprofit Zidisha tapped into this trend to offer the first person-to-person microfinance platform to link lenders and borrowers across international borders without intermediaries. Members can fund loans for as little as a dollar, which the borrowers then use to develop business activities that improve their families' incomes while repaying loans to the members with interest. Borrowers access the Internet via public cybercafes, donated laptops in village schools, and even smart phones, then create their own profile pages through which they share photos and information about themselves and their businesses. As they repay their loans, borrowers continue to share updates and dialogue with lenders via their profile pages. This direct web-based connection allows members themselves to take on many of the communication and recording tasks traditionally performed by local organizations, bypassing geographic barriers and dramatically reducing the cost of microfinance services to the entrepreneurs.[126] Security Main article: Internet security Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of criminal or malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, commit fraud, engage in blackmail or access private information. Malware Main article: Malware Malicious software used and spread on the Internet includes computer viruses which copy with the help of humans, computer worms which copy themselves automatically, software for denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and spyware that reports on the activity and typing of users. Usually, these activities constitute cybercrime. Defense theorists have also speculated about the possibilities of cyber warfare using similar methods on a large scale.[citation needed] Surveillance Main article: Computer and network surveillance See also: Signals intelligence and Mass surveillance The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the Internet.[127] In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies.[128][129][130] Packet capture is the monitoring of data traffic on a computer network. Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called "packets", which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete "message" again. Packet Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the network, in order to examine their contents using other programs. A packet capture is an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it gathers "messages" but it does not analyze them and figure out what they mean. Other programs are needed to perform traffic analysis and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information. Under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of their customers' broadband Internet and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) traffic.[131] The large amount of data gathered from packet capturing requires surveillance software that filters and reports relevant information, such as the use of certain words or phrases, the access of certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with certain parties.[132] Agencies, such as the Information Awareness Office, NSA, GCHQ and the FBI, spend billions of dollars per year to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems for interception and analysis of data.[133] Similar systems are operated by Iranian secret police to identify and suppress dissidents. The required hardware and software was allegedly installed by German Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia.[134] Censorship Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018)[135][136][137][138][139] Pervasive Substantial Selective Little or none

Page semi-protected Meme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Memes) Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the term "meme" in general. For the usage of the term on the internet (or a fad that spreads quickly), see Internet meme. For other uses, see Meme (disambiguation). Anthropology OutlineHistory Types[show] Archaeological[show] Biological[show] SocialCultural [show] Linguistic[show] Research framework[show] Key concepts[hide] Culture Development Ethnicity Evolution sociocultural Gender Kinship and descent Meme Prehistory Race Society Value Colonialism / Postcolonialism Key theories[show] Lists[show] Moai Easter Island InvMH-35-61-1.jpg Anthropology portal vte A meme (/miːm/ MEEM[1][2][3]) is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture—often with the aim of conveying a particular phenomenon, theme, or meaning represented by the meme.[4] A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate, and respond to selective pressures.[5] Proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, and inheritance, each of which influences a meme's reproductive success. Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, and (for better or for worse) mutate. Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts.[6] A field of study called memetics[7] arose in the 1990s to explore the concepts and transmission of memes in terms of an evolutionary model. Criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically. However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible.[8] Some commentators in the social sciences question the idea that one can meaningfully categorize culture in terms of discrete units, and are especially critical of the biological nature of the theory's underpinnings.[9] Others have argued that this use of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal.[10] The word meme is a neologism coined by Richard Dawkins.[11] It originated from Dawkins' 1976 book The Selfish Gene. Dawkins's own position is somewhat ambiguous: he welcomed N. K. Humphrey's suggestion that "memes should be considered as living structures, not just metaphorically"[12] and proposed to regard memes as "physically residing in the brain".[13] Later, he argued that his original intentions, presumably before his approval of Humphrey's opinion, had been simpler.[14] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 Memetic lifecycle: transmission, retention 4 Memes as discrete units 5 Evolutionary influences on memes 6 Memetics 7 Criticism of meme theory 8 Applications 9 Religion 10 Memetic explanations of racism 11 Architectural memes 12 Internet culture 13 Meme maps 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 External links Etymology The word meme is a shortening (modeled on gene) of mimeme (from Ancient Greek μίμημα pronounced [míːmɛːma] mīmēma, "imitated thing", from μιμεῖσθαι mimeisthai, "to imitate", from μῖμος mimos, "mime")[15] coined by British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (1976)[11][16] as a concept for discussion of evolutionary principles in explaining the spread of ideas and cultural phenomena. Examples of memes given in the book included melodies, catchphrases, fashion, and the technology of building arches.[17] Kenneth Pike coined the related terms emic and etic, generalizing the linguistic idea of phoneme, morpheme, grapheme, lexeme, and tagmeme (as set out by Leonard Bloomfield), characterizing them as insider view and outside view of behaviour and extending the concept into a tagmemic theory of human behaviour (culminating in Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour, 1954). Origins Richard Dawkins coined the word meme in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene. The word meme originated with Richard Dawkins' 1976 book The Selfish Gene. Dawkins cites as inspiration the work of geneticist L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, anthropologist F. T. Cloak[18] and ethologist J. M. Cullen.[19] Dawkins wrote that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self-replicating unit of transmission—in the case of biological evolution, the gene. For Dawkins, the meme exemplified another self-replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution. Although Dawkins invented the term 'meme' and developed meme theory, the possibility that ideas were subject to the same pressures of evolution as were biological attributes was discussed in Darwin's time. T. H. Huxley claimed that 'The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the physical world. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals.'[20] "Kilroy was here" was a graffito that became popular in the 1940s, and existed under various names in different countries, illustrating how a meme can be modified through replication. This is seen as one of the first widespread memes in the world[21] Dawkins used the term to refer to any cultural entity that an observer might consider a replicator. He hypothesized that one could view many cultural entities as replicators, and pointed to melodies, fashions and learned skills as examples. Memes generally replicate through exposure to humans, who have evolved as efficient copiers of information and behavior. Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time. Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the natural selection of genes in biological evolution.[17] Dawkins defined the meme as a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication, but later definitions would vary. The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what typically makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics.[22] In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the biological functions of DNA. Meme transmission requires a physical medium, such as photons, sound waves, touch, taste, or smell because memes can be transmitted only through the senses. Dawkins noted that in a society with culture a person need not have descendants to remain influential in the actions of individuals thousands of years after their death: But if you contribute to the world's culture, if you have a good idea...it may live on, intact, long after your genes have dissolved in the common pool. Socrates may or may not have a gene or two alive in the world today, as G.C. Williams has remarked, but who cares? The meme-complexes of Socrates, Leonardo, Copernicus and Marconi are still going strong.[23] Although Dawkins invented the term meme, he has not claimed that the idea was entirely novel,[24] and there have been other expressions for similar ideas in the past.[25] In 1904, Richard Semon published Die Mneme (which appeared in English in 1924 as The Mneme). The term mneme was also used in Maurice Maeterlinck's The Life of the White Ant (1926), with some parallels to Dawkins's concept.[25] Memetic lifecycle: transmission, retention See also: Diffusion of innovations Memes, analogously to genes, vary in their aptitude to replicate; successful memes remain and spread, whereas unfit ones stall and are forgotten. Thus memes that prove more effective at replicating and surviving are selected in the meme pool. Memes first need retention. The longer a meme stays in its hosts, the higher its chances of propagation are. When a host uses a meme, the meme's life is extended.[26] The reuse of the neural space hosting a certain meme's copy to host different memes is the greatest threat to that meme's copy.[27] A meme which increases the longevity of its hosts will generally survive longer. On the contrary, a meme which shortens the longevity of its hosts will tend to disappear faster. However, as hosts are mortal, retention is not sufficient to perpetuate a meme in the long term; memes also need transmission. Life-forms can transmit information both vertically (from parent to child, via replication of genes) and horizontally (through viruses and other means). Memes can replicate vertically or horizontally within a single biological generation. They may also lie dormant for long periods of time. Memes reproduce by copying from a nervous system to another one, either by communication or imitation. Imitation often involves the copying of an observed behavior of another individual. Communication may be direct or indirect, where memes transmit from one individual to another through a copy recorded in an inanimate source, such as a book or a musical score. Adam McNamara has suggested that memes can be thereby classified as either internal or external memes (i-memes or e-memes).[8] Some commentators have likened the transmission of memes to the spread of contagions.[28] Social contagions such as fads, hysteria, copycat crime, and copycat suicide exemplify memes seen as the contagious imitation of ideas. Observers distinguish the contagious imitation of memes from instinctively contagious phenomena such as yawning and laughing, which they consider innate (rather than socially learned) behaviors.[29] Aaron Lynch described seven general patterns of meme transmission, or "thought contagion":[30] Quantity of parenthood: an idea that influences the number of children one has. Children respond particularly receptively to the ideas of their parents, and thus ideas that directly or indirectly encourage a higher birthrate will replicate themselves at a higher rate than those that discourage higher birthrates. Efficiency of parenthood: an idea that increases the proportion of children who will adopt ideas of their parents. Cultural separatism exemplifies one practice in which one can expect a higher rate of meme-replication—because the meme for separation creates a barrier from exposure to competing ideas. Proselytic: ideas generally passed to others beyond one's own children. Ideas that encourage the proselytism of a meme, as seen in many religious or political movements, can replicate memes horizontally through a given generation, spreading more rapidly than parent-to-child meme-transmissions do. Preservational: ideas that influence those that hold them to continue to hold them for a long time. Ideas that encourage longevity in their hosts, or leave their hosts particularly resistant to abandoning or replacing these ideas, enhance the preservability of memes and afford protection from the competition or proselytism of other memes. Adversative: ideas that influence those that hold them to attack or sabotage competing ideas and/or those that hold them. Adversative replication can give an advantage in meme transmission when the meme itself encourages aggression against other memes. Cognitive: ideas perceived as cogent by most in the population who encounter them. Cognitively transmitted memes depend heavily on a cluster of other ideas and cognitive traits already widely held in the population, and thus usually spread more passively than other forms of meme transmission. Memes spread in cognitive transmission do not count as self-replicating. Motivational: ideas that people adopt because they perceive some self-interest in adopting them. Strictly speaking, motivationally transmitted memes do not self-propagate, but this mode of transmission often occurs in association with memes self-replicated in the efficiency parental, proselytic and preservational modes. Memes as discrete units Dawkins initially defined meme as a noun that "conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation".[17] John S. Wilkins retained the notion of meme as a kernel of cultural imitation while emphasizing the meme's evolutionary aspect, defining the meme as "the least unit of sociocultural information relative to a selection process that has favorable or unfavorable selection bias that exceeds its endogenous tendency to change".[31] The meme as a unit provides a convenient means of discussing "a piece of thought copied from person to person", regardless of whether that thought contains others inside it, or forms part of a larger meme. A meme could consist of a single word, or a meme could consist of the entire speech in which that word first occurred. This forms an analogy to the idea of a gene as a single unit of self-replicating information found on the self-replicating chromosome. While the identification of memes as "units" conveys their nature to replicate as discrete, indivisible entities, it does not imply that thoughts somehow become quantized or that "atomic" ideas exist that cannot be dissected into smaller pieces. A meme has no given size. Susan Blackmore writes that melodies from Beethoven's symphonies are commonly used to illustrate the difficulty involved in delimiting memes as discrete units. She notes that while the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony (About this soundlisten (help·info)) form a meme widely replicated as an independent unit, one can regard the entire symphony as a single meme as well.[22] The inability to pin an idea or cultural feature to quantifiable key units is widely acknowledged as a problem for memetics. It has been argued however that the traces of memetic processing can be quantified utilizing neuroimaging techniques which measure changes in the connectivity profiles between brain regions."[8] Blackmore meets such criticism by stating that memes compare with genes in this respect: that while a gene has no particular size, nor can we ascribe every phenotypic feature directly to a particular gene, it has value because it encapsulates that key unit of inherited expression subject to evolutionary pressures. To illustrate, she notes evolution selects for the gene for features such as eye color; it does not select for the individual nucleotide in a strand of DNA. Memes play a comparable role in understanding the evolution of imitated behaviors.[22] The 1981 book Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process by Charles J. Lumsden and E. O. Wilson proposed the theory that genes and culture co-evolve, and that the fundamental biological units of culture must correspond to neuronal networks that function as nodes of semantic memory. They coined their own word, "culturgen", which did not catch on. Coauthor Wilson later acknowledged the term meme as the best label for the fundamental unit of cultural inheritance in his 1998 book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, which elaborates upon the fundamental role of memes in unifying the natural and social sciences.[32] Evolutionary influences on memes Dawkins noted the three conditions that must exist for evolution to occur:[33] variation, or the introduction of new change to existing elements; heredity or replication, or the capacity to create copies of elements; differential "fitness", or the opportunity for one element to be more or less suited to the environment than another. Dawkins emphasizes that the process of evolution naturally occurs whenever these conditions co-exist, and that evolution does not apply only to organic elements such as genes. He regards memes as also having the properties necessary for evolution, and thus sees meme evolution as not simply analogous to genetic evolution, but as a real phenomenon subject to the laws of natural selection. Dawkins noted that as various ideas pass from one generation to the next, they may either enhance or detract from the survival of the people who obtain those ideas, or influence the survival of the ideas themselves. For example, a certain culture may develop unique designs and methods of tool-making that give it a competitive advantage over another culture. Each tool-design thus acts somewhat similarly to a biological gene in that some populations have it and others do not, and the meme's function directly affects the presence of the design in future generations. In keeping with the thesis that in evolution one can regard organisms simply as suitable "hosts" for reproducing genes, Dawkins argues that one can view people as "hosts" for replicating memes. Consequently, a successful meme may or may not need to provide any benefit to its host.[33] Unlike genetic evolution, memetic evolution can show both Darwinian and Lamarckian traits. Cultural memes will have the characteristic of Lamarckian inheritance when a host aspires to replicate the given meme through inference rather than by exactly copying it. Take for example the case of the transmission of a simple skill such as hammering a nail, a skill that a learner imitates from watching a demonstration without necessarily imitating every discrete movement modeled by the teacher in the demonstration, stroke for stroke.[34] Susan Blackmore distinguishes the difference between the two modes of inheritance in the evolution of memes, characterizing the Darwinian mode as "copying the instructions" and the Lamarckian as "copying the product."[22] Clusters of memes, or memeplexes (also known as meme complexes or as memecomplexes), such as cultural or political doctrines and systems, may also play a part in the acceptance of new memes. Memeplexes comprise groups of memes that replicate together and coadapt.[22] Memes that fit within a successful memeplex may gain acceptance by "piggybacking" on the success of the memeplex. As an example, John D. Gottsch discusses the transmission, mutation and selection of religious memeplexes and the theistic memes contained.[35] Theistic memes discussed include the "prohibition of aberrant sexual practices such as incest, adultery, homosexuality, bestiality, castration, and religious prostitution", which may have increased vertical transmission of the parent religious memeplex. Similar memes are thereby included in the majority of religious memeplexes, and harden over time; they become an "inviolable canon" or set of dogmas, eventually finding their way into secular law. This could also be referred to as the propagation of a taboo. Memetics Main article: Memetics The discipline of memetics, which dates from the mid-1980s, provides an approach to evolutionary models of cultural information transfer based on the concept of the meme. Memeticists have proposed that just as memes function analogously to genes, memetics functions analogously to genetics. Memetics attempts to apply conventional scientific methods (such as those used in population genetics and epidemiology) to explain existing patterns and transmission of cultural ideas. Principal criticisms of memetics include the claim that memetics ignores established advances in other fields of cultural study, such as sociology, cultural anthropology, cognitive psychology, and social psychology. Questions remain whether or not the meme concept counts as a validly disprovable scientific theory. This view regards memetics as a theory in its infancy: a protoscience to proponents, or a pseudoscience to some detractors. Criticism of meme theory An objection to the study of the evolution of memes in genetic terms (although not to the existence of memes) involves a perceived gap in the gene/meme analogy: the cumulative evolution of genes depends on biological selection-pressures neither too great nor too small in relation to mutation-rates. There seems no reason to think that the same balance will exist in the selection pressures on memes.[36] Luis Benitez-Bribiesca M.D., a critic of memetics, calls the theory a "pseudoscientific dogma" and "a dangerous idea that poses a threat to the serious study of consciousness and cultural evolution". As a factual criticism, Benitez-Bribiesca points to the lack of a "code script" for memes (analogous to the DNA of genes), and to the excessive instability of the meme mutation mechanism (that of an idea going from one brain to another), which would lead to a low replication accuracy and a high mutation rate, rendering the evolutionary process chaotic.[37] British political philosopher John Gray has characterized Dawkins' memetic theory of religion as "nonsense" and "not even a theory... the latest in a succession of ill-judged Darwinian metaphors", comparable to Intelligent Design in its value as a science.[38] Another critique comes from semiotic theorists such as Deacon[39] and Kull.[40] This view regards the concept of "meme" as a primitivized concept of "sign". The meme is thus described in memetics as a sign lacking a triadic nature. Semioticians can regard a meme as a "degenerate" sign, which includes only its ability of being copied. Accordingly, in the broadest sense, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation and interpretation are signs.[clarification needed] Fracchia and Lewontin regard memetics as reductionist and inadequate.[41] Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr disapproved of Dawkins' gene-based view and usage of the term "meme", asserting it to be an "unnecessary synonym" for "concept", reasoning that concepts are not restricted to an individual or a generation, may persist for long periods of time, and may evolve.[42] Applications Opinions differ as to how best to apply the concept of memes within a "proper" disciplinary framework. One view sees memes as providing a useful philosophical perspective with which to examine cultural evolution. Proponents of this view (such as Susan Blackmore and Daniel Dennett) argue that considering cultural developments from a meme's-eye view—as if memes themselves respond to pressure to maximise their own replication and survival—can lead to useful insights and yield valuable predictions into how culture develops over time. Others such as Bruce Edmonds and Robert Aunger have focused on the need to provide an empirical grounding for memetics to become a useful and respected scientific discipline.[43][44] A third approach, described by Joseph Poulshock, as "radical memetics" seeks to place memes at the centre of a materialistic theory of mind and of personal identity.[45] Prominent researchers in evolutionary psychology and anthropology, including Scott Atran, Dan Sperber, Pascal Boyer, John Tooby and others, argue the possibility of incompatibility between modularity of mind and memetics.[citation needed] In their view, minds structure certain communicable aspects of the ideas produced, and these communicable aspects generally trigger or elicit ideas in other minds through inference (to relatively rich structures generated from often low-fidelity input) and not high-fidelity replication or imitation. Atran discusses communication involving religious beliefs as a case in point. In one set of experiments he asked religious people to write down on a piece of paper the meanings of the Ten Commandments. Despite the subjects' own expectations of consensus, interpretations of the commandments showed wide ranges of variation, with little evidence of consensus. In another experiment, subjects with autism and subjects without autism interpreted ideological and religious sayings (for example, "Let a thousand flowers bloom" or "To everything there is a season"). People with autism showed a significant tendency to closely paraphrase and repeat content from the original statement (for example: "Don't cut flowers before they bloom"). Controls tended to infer a wider range of cultural meanings with little replicated content (for example: "Go with the flow" or "Everyone should have equal opportunity"). Only the subjects with autism—who lack the degree of inferential capacity normally associated with aspects of theory of mind—came close to functioning as "meme machines".[46] In his book The Robot's Rebellion, Stanovich uses the memes and memeplex concepts to describe a program of cognitive reform that he refers to as a "rebellion". Specifically, Stanovich argues that the use of memes as a descriptor for cultural units is beneficial because it serves to emphasize transmission and acquisition properties that parallel the study of epidemiology. These properties make salient the sometimes parasitic nature of acquired memes, and as a result individuals should be motivated to reflectively acquire memes using what he calls a "Neurathian bootstrap" process.[47] Religion See also: Evolutionary psychology of religion Although social scientists such as Max Weber sought to understand and explain religion in terms of a cultural attribute, Richard Dawkins called for a re-analysis of religion in terms of the evolution of self-replicating ideas apart from any resulting biological advantages they might bestow. As an enthusiastic Darwinian, I have been dissatisfied with explanations that my fellow-enthusiasts have offered for human behaviour. They have tried to look for 'biological advantages' in various attributes of human civilization. For instance, tribal religion has been seen as a mechanism for solidifying group identity, valuable for a pack-hunting species whose individuals rely on cooperation to catch large and fast prey. Frequently the evolutionary preconception in terms of which such theories are framed is implicitly group-selectionist, but it is possible to rephrase the theories in terms of orthodox gene selection. — Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene He argued that the role of key replicator in cultural evolution belongs not to genes, but to memes replicating thought from person to person by means of imitation. These replicators respond to selective pressures that may or may not affect biological reproduction or survival.[17] In her book The Meme Machine, Susan Blackmore regards religions as particularly tenacious memes. Many of the features common to the most widely practiced religions provide built-in advantages in an evolutionary context, she writes. For example, religions that preach of the value of faith over evidence from everyday experience or reason inoculate societies against many of the most basic tools people commonly use to evaluate their ideas. By linking altruism with religious affiliation, religious memes can proliferate more quickly because people perceive that they can reap societal as well as personal rewards. The longevity of religious memes improves with their documentation in revered religious texts.[22] Aaron Lynch attributed the robustness of religious memes in human culture to the fact that such memes incorporate multiple modes of meme transmission. Religious memes pass down the generations from parent to child and across a single generation through the meme-exchange of proselytism. Most people will hold the religion taught them by their parents throughout their life. Many religions feature adversarial elements, punishing apostasy, for instance, or demonizing infidels. In Thought Contagion Lynch identifies the memes of transmission in Christianity as especially powerful in scope. Believers view the conversion of non-believers both as a religious duty and as an act of altruism. The promise of heaven to believers and threat of hell to non-believers provide a strong incentive for members to retain their belief. Lynch asserts that belief in the Crucifixion of Jesus in Christianity amplifies each of its other replication advantages through the indebtedness believers have to their Savior for sacrifice on the cross. The image of the crucifixion recurs in religious sacraments, and the proliferation of symbols of the cross in homes and churches potently reinforces the wide array of Christian memes.[30] Although religious memes have proliferated in human cultures, the modern scientific community has been relatively resistant to religious belief. Robertson (2007) [48] reasoned that if evolution is accelerated in conditions of propagative difficulty,[49] then we would expect to encounter variations of religious memes, established in general populations, addressed to scientific communities. Using a memetic approach, Robertson deconstructed two attempts to privilege religiously held spirituality in scientific discourse. Advantages of a memetic approach as compared to more traditional "modernization" and "supply side" theses in understanding the evolution and propagation of religion were explored. Memetic explanations of racism In Cultural Software: A Theory of Ideology, Jack Balkin argued that memetic processes can explain many of the most familiar features of ideological thought. His theory of "cultural software" maintained that memes form narratives, social networks, metaphoric and metonymic models, and a variety of different mental structures. Balkin maintains that the same structures used to generate ideas about free speech or free markets also serve to generate racistic beliefs. To Balkin, whether memes become harmful or maladaptive depends on the environmental context in which they exist rather than in any special source or manner to their origination. Balkin describes racist beliefs as "fantasy" memes that become harmful or unjust "ideologies" when diverse peoples come together, as through trade or competition.[50] Architectural memes In A Theory of Architecture, Nikos Salingaros speaks of memes as "freely propagating clusters of information" which can be beneficial or harmful. He contrasts memes to patterns and true knowledge, characterizing memes as "greatly simplified versions of patterns" and as "unreasoned matching to some visual or mnemonic prototype".[51] Taking reference to Dawkins, Salingaros emphasizes that they can be transmitted due to their own communicative properties, that "the simpler they are, the faster they can proliferate", and that the most successful memes "come with a great psychological appeal".[52] Architectural memes, according to Salingaros, can have destructive power. "Images portrayed in architectural magazines representing buildings that could not possibly accommodate everyday uses become fixed in our memory, so we reproduce them unconsciously."[53] He lists various architectural memes that circulated since the 1920s and which, in his view, have led to contemporary architecture becoming quite decoupled from human needs. They lack connection and meaning, thereby preventing "the creation of true connections necessary to our understanding of the world". He sees them as no different from antipatterns in software design—as solutions that are false but are re-utilized nonetheless.[54] Internet culture Main article: Internet meme See also: List of Internet phenomena An "Internet meme" is a concept that spreads rapidly from person to person via the Internet, largely through Internet-based E-mailing, blogs, forums, imageboards like 4chan, social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter, instant messaging, social news sites or thread sites like Reddit, and video hosting services like YouTube and Twitch.[55] In 2013, Richard Dawkins characterized an Internet meme as one deliberately altered by human creativity, distinguished from Dawkins's original idea involving mutation by random change and a form of Darwinian selection.[56] Meme maps One technique of meme mapping represents the evolution and transmission of a meme across time and space.[57] Such a meme map uses a figure-8 diagram (an analemma) to map the gestation (in the lower loop), birth (at the choke point), and development (in the upper loop) of the selected meme. Such meme maps are nonscalar, with time mapped onto the y-axis and space onto the x-axis transect. One can read the temporal progression of the mapped meme from south to north on such a meme map. Paull has published a worked example using the "organics meme" (as in organic agriculture).[57] See also Baldwin effect The Beginning of Infinity Biosemiotics Chain letter Darwin machine Dual inheritance theory Evolutionary biology Folie à deux Leiden school Memetic algorithm Memetic engineering Phraseme Psycholinguistics Survivals Universal Darwinism Viral marketing Viral video Notes "meme". Oxford Dictionaries. "meme Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". Cambridge Dictionary. "meme noun". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Meme. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Graham 2002 Kelly, 1994 & p. 360 "But if we consider culture as its own self-organizing system—a system with its own agenda and pressure to survive—then the history of humanity gets even more interesting. As Richard Dawkins has shown, systems of self-replicating ideas or memes can quickly accumulate their own agenda and behaviours. I assign no higher motive to a cultural entity than the primitive drive to reproduce itself and modify its environment to aid its spread. One way the self organizing system can do this is by consuming human biological resources." Heylighen & Chielens 2009 McNamara 2011 Gill, Jameson (2011). Memes and narrative analysis: A potential direction for the development of neo-Darwinian orientated research in organisations. In: Euram 11 : proceedings of the European Academy of Management. European Academy of Management. Burman, J. T. (2012). "The misunderstanding of memes: Biography of an unscientific object, 1976-1999". Perspectives on Science. 20 (1): 75-104. doi:10.1162/POSC_a_00057. (This is an open access article, made freely available courtesy of MIT Press.) Dawkins, Richard (1989), The Selfish Gene (2 ed.), Oxford University Press, p. 192, ISBN 978-0-19-286092-7, We need a name for the new replicator, a noun that conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation. 'Mimeme' comes from a suitable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like 'gene'. I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme. If it is any consolation, it could alternatively be thought of as being related to 'memory', or to the French word même. It should be pronounced to rhyme with 'cream'. Dawkins 1989, p. 192 Dawkins, Richard (1982), The Extended Phenotype, Oxford University Press, p. 109, ISBN 978-0-19-286088-0 Dawkins' foreword to Blackmore 1999, p. xvi The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 Millikan 2004, p. 16; Varieties of meaning. "Richard Dawkins invented the term 'memes' to stand for items that are reproduced by imitation rather than reproduced genetically." Dawkins 1989, p. 352 Cultural microevolution, 1966. Research Previews 13: (2) pp. 7-10. Also presented at the November, 1966 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association. "Is a cultural ethology possible?" Hum. Ecol. 3, 161-182. Cullen, J. M. (1972). Huxley, T. H. "The coming of age of 'The origin of species'". (1880) Science. 1, 15-17. "Kilroy Was Here - Los Angeles Times". articles.latimes.com. 2000-03-05. Retrieved 2013-12-06. Blackmore 1999 Dawkins, Richard (2006). The Selfish Gene 30th Anniversary Edition (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 199. ISBN 9780191537554. Shalizi, Cosma Rohilla. "Memes". Center for the Study of Complex Systems. University of Michigan. Retrieved 14 August 2009. Laurent, John (1999). A Note on the Origin of 'Memes'/'Mnemes'. Journal of Memetics. 3. pp. 14-19. Heylighen, Francis. "Meme replication: the memetic life-cycle". Principia Cybernetica. Retrieved 26 July 2013. R. Evers, John. "A justification of societal altruism according to the memetic application of Hamilton's rule". Retrieved 26 July 2013. Blackmore 1998; "The term 'contagion' is often associated with memetics. We may say that certain memes are contagious, or more contagious than others." Blackmore 1998 Lynch 1996 Wilkins, John S. (1998), "What's in a Meme? Reflections from the perspective of the history and philosophy of evolutionary biology", Journal of Memetics, 2 Wilson 1998 Dennett 1991 Dawkins 2004 "Mutation, Selection, And Vertical Transmission Of Theistic Memes In Religious Canons" in Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, Volume 5, Issue 1, 2001. Online version retrieved 2008-01-27. Sterelny & Griffiths 1999; p. 333 Benitez Bribiesca, Luis (January 2001), "Memetics: A dangerous idea" (PDF), Interciencia: Revista de Ciencia y Technologia de América, 26 (1): 29-31, ISSN 0378-1844, retrieved 2010-02-11, If the mutation rate is high and takes place over short periods, as memetics predict, instead of selection, adaptation and survival a chaotic disintegration occurs due to the accumulation of errors. Gray, John (2008-03-15). "John Gray on secular fundamentalists". The Guardian. London. Deacon, Terrence. "The trouble with memes (and what to do about it)". The Semiotic Review of Books. 10: 3. Kull, Kalevi (2000). "Copy versus translate, meme versus sign: development of biological textuality". European Journal for Semiotic Studies. 12 (1): 101-120. Fracchia, Joseph; R C Lewontin (February 2005), "The price of metaphor", History and Theory, 44 (1): 14-29, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2303.2005.00305.x, ISSN 0018-2656, JSTOR 3590779, The selectionist paradigm requires the reduction of society and culture to inheritance systems that consist of randomly varying, individual units, some of which are selected, and some not; and with society and culture thus reduced to inheritance systems, history can be reduced to "evolution." [...] [W]e conclude that while historical phenomena can always be modeled selectionistically, selectionist explanations do no work, nor do they contribute anything new except a misleading vocabulary that anesthetizes history. Mayr, Ernst (1997). "The objects of selection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (6): 2091-2094. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.2091M. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.6.2091. PMC 33654. PMID 9122151. Archived from the original on November 15, 2013. See Edmonds, Bruce (September 2002), "Three Challenges for the Survival of Memetics", Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 6 (2), retrieved 2009-02-03 Aunger 2000 Poulshock 2002 Atran 2002 Stanovich, Keith E. (2004). The Robot's Rebellion: Finding Meaning in the Age of Darwin (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77089-5. Robertson, Lloyd Hawkeye (2007), "Reflections on the use of spirituality to privilege religion in scientific discourse: Incorporating considerations of self", Journal of Religion and Health, 46 (3): 449-461, doi:10.1007/s10943-006-9105-y Dennett, Daniel C. (1995), Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the meanings of life, New York: Simon and Schuster Balkin 1998 Nikos Salingaros: Theory of Architecture, chapter 12: Architectural memes in a universe of information, ISBN 3-937954-07-4, Umbau-Verlag, 2006, 2008, pp. 243, 260 Salingaros, 2008. pp. 243-245. Salingaros, 2008. p. 249. Salingaros, 2008. p. 259. Schubert, Karen (2003-07-31). "Bazaar goes bizarre". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-07-05. Solon, Olivia (June 20, 2013). "Richard Dawkins on the internet's hijacking of the word 'meme'". Wired UK. Archived from the original on July 9, 2013. Paull, John (2009), "Meme Maps: A Tool for Configuring Memes in Time and Space" (PDF), European Journal of Scientific Research, 31 (1): 11-18. References Atran, Scott (2002), In gods we trust: the evolutionary landscape of religion, Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514930-2 Atran, Scott (2001), "The Trouble with Memes" (PDF), Human Nature, 12 (4), pp. 351-381, doi:10.1007/s12110-001-1003-0, PMID 26192412 Aunger, Robert (2000), Darwinizing culture: the status of memetics as a science, Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-263244-9 Aunger, Robert (2002), The electric meme: a new theory of how we think, New York: Free Press, ISBN 978-0-7432-0150-6 Balkin, J. M. (1998), Cultural software: a theory of ideology, New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-07288-4 Bloom, Howard S. (1997), The Lucifer Principle: A Scientific Expedition into the Forces of History, Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press (published February 1997), p. 480, ISBN 978-0-87113-664-0 Blackmore, Susan (1998), "Imitation and the definition of a meme" (PDF), Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission Blackmore, Susan J. (1999), The meme machine, Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press (published 1999-04-08), p. 288, ISBN 978-0-19-850365-1 [trade paperback ISBN 0-9658817-8-4 (1999), ISBN 0-19-286212-X (2000)] Brodie, Richard (1996), Virus of the mind: the new science of the meme, Seattle, Wash: Integral Press, p. 251, ISBN 978-0-9636001-1-0 Dawkins, Richard (1989), "11. Memes: the new replicators", The Selfish Gene (2nd ed., new ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 368, ISBN 978-0-19-217773-5 Dawkins, Richard (2004), A Devil's Chaplain: Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science, and Love, Boston: Mariner Books, p. 263, ISBN 978-0-618-48539-0 Dawkins, Richard (2015), "Memes", Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science (first ed.), London: Bantam Press (Transworld Publishers), pp. 404-408, ISBN 978-0-59307-256-1 Dennett, Daniel C. (2006), Breaking the Spell (Religion as a Natural Phenomenon), Viking (Penguin), ISBN 978-0-670-03472-7 Dennett, Daniel (1991), Consciousness Explained, Boston: Little, Brown and Co., ISBN 978-0-316-18065-8 Distin, Kate (2005), The selfish meme: a critical reassessment, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 238, ISBN 978-0-521-60627-1 Farnish, Keith (2009), Time's Up! An Uncivilized Solution To A Global Crisis, Totnes: Green Books, p. 256, ISBN 978-1-900322-48-5 Graham, Gordon (2002), Genes: a philosophical inquiry, New York: Routledge, p. 196, ISBN 978-0-415-25257-7 Henson, H. Keith: "Evolutionary Psychology, Memes and the Origin of War." Henson, H. Keith (2002). "Sex, Drugs, and Cults. An evolutionary psychology perspective on why and how cult memes get a drug-like hold on people, and what might be done to mitigate the effects". The Human Nature Review. 2: 343-355. Heylighen, Francis; Chielens, K. (2009), Meyers, B., ed., "Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science: Evolution of Culture, Memetics" (PDF), Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science by Robert a Meyers, Bibcode:2009ecss.book.....M, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30440-3, ISBN 978-0-387-75888-6 Ingold, T (2000), "The poverty of selectionism", Anthropology Today, 16 (3): 1, doi:10.1111/1467-8322.00022. Heylighen, Francis, (1992) : "Selfish Memes and the Evolution of Cooperation", Journal of Ideas vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 77-84. Jan, Steven: The Memetics of Music: A Neo-Darwinian View of Musical Structure and Culture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007) Kelly, Kevin (1994), Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world, Boston: Addison-Wesley, p. 360, ISBN 978-0-201-48340-6 Lynch, Aaron (1996), Thought contagion: how belief spreads through society, New York: BasicBooks, p. 208, ISBN 978-0-465-08467-8 McNamara, Adam (2011), "Can we measure memes?", Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience, 3: 1, doi:10.3389/fnevo.2011.00001, PMC 3118481, PMID 21720531 Millikan, Ruth G. (2004), Varieties of meaning: the 2002 Jean Nicod lectures, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, p. 242, ISBN 978-0-262-13444-6 Post, Stephen Garrard; Underwood, Lynn G; Schloss, Jeffrey P Garrard (2002), Altruism & Altruistic Love: Science, Philosophy, & Religion in Dialogue, Oxford University Press US, p. 500, ISBN 978-0-19-514358-4 Moritz, Elan. (1995): "Metasystems, Memes and Cybernetic Immortality," in: Heylighen F., Joslyn C. & Turchin V. (eds.), The Quantum of Evolution. Toward a theory of metasystem transitions, (Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York) (special issue of World Futures: the journal of general evolution, vol. 45, pp. 155-171). Poulshock, Joseph (2002), "The Problem and Potential of Memetics", Journal of Psychology and Theology, Rosemead School of Psychology, Gale Group (2004), pp. 68+ Russell, Bertrand (1921), The Analysis of Mind, London: George Allen & Unwin. Sterelny, Kim; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999), Sex and death: an introduction to philosophy of biology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 456, ISBN 978-0-226-77304-9 Veszelszki, Ágnes (2013), "Promiscuity of Images. Memes from an English-Hungarian Contrastive Perspective", in: Benedek, András − Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): How To Do Things With Pictures: Skill, Practice, Performance (series Visual Learning, vol. 3), Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 115-127, ISBN 978-3-631-62972-7 Wilson, Edward O. (1998), Consilience: the unity of knowledge, New York: Knopf, p. 352, ISBN 978-0-679-45077-1 External links Look up meme in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Dawkins' speech on the 30th anniversary of the publication of The Selfish Gene, Dawkins 2006 "Evolution and Memes: The human brain as a selective imitation device": article by Susan Blackmore. Godwin, Mike. "Meme, Counter-meme". Wired. Retrieved 2009-11-05. Journal of Memetics, a peer-refereed journal of memetics published from 1997 until 2005 Susan Blackmore: Memes and "temes", TED Talks February 2008 Christopher von Bülow: Article Meme, translated from: Jürgen Mittelstraß (ed.), Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie, 2nd edn, vol. 5, Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler 2013 Richard Dawkins explains the real meaning of the word 'meme' Richard Dawkins | Memes | Oxford Union vte Richard Dawkins vte World view P culture.svgCulture portal Categories: MemesCollective intelligenceCultural anthropologyEvolutionary psychologyPhilosophy of mindWords coined in the 1970sWords and phrases introduced in 1976 Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Русский Tagalog Tiếng Việt 中文 48 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 November 2018, at 14:59 (UTC). 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Country From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other uses, see Country (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Constituent country. 2011 map showing countries with full recognition and one UN non-member state; some disputed territories are not shown A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. A country may be an independent sovereign state or part of a larger state,[1] as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region associated with sets of previously independent or differently associated people with distinct political characteristics. Regardless of the physical geography, in the modern internationally accepted legal definition as defined by the League of Nations in 1937 and reaffirmed by the United Nations in 1945, a resident of a country is subject to the independent exercise[clarification needed] of legal jurisdiction.[citation needed] Countries can refer both to sovereign states and to other political entities,[2] while other times it can refer only to states.[3] For example, the CIA World Factbook uses the word in its "Country name" field to refer to "a wide variety of dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, uninhabited islands, and other entities in addition to the traditional countries or independent states".[4][Note 1] Contents 1 Etymology and usage 2 Sovereignty status 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Etymology and usage The word country comes from Old French contrée, which derives from Vulgar Latin (terra) contrata ("(land) lying opposite"; "(land) spread before"), derived from contra ("against, opposite"). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. In English the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article - "a country" - through misuse and subsequent conflation is now a synonym for state, or a former sovereign state, in the sense of sovereign territory or "district, native land".[5] Areas much smaller than a political state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country (a heavily industrialized part of England), "Constable Country" (a part of East Anglia painted by John Constable), the "big country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used of parts of the US and elsewhere) and many other terms.[6] The equivalent terms in French and other Romance languages (pays and variants) have not carried the process of being identified with political sovereign states as far as the English "country", instead derived from, pagus, which designated the territory controlled by a medieval count, a title originally granted by the Roman Church. In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state. France has very many "pays" that are officially recognised at some level, and are either natural regions, like the Pays de Bray, or reflect old political or economic entities, like the Pays de la Loire. A version of "country" can be found in the modern French language as contrée, based on the word cuntrée in Old French,[6] that is used similarly to the word "pays" to define non-state regions, but can also be used to describe a political state in some particular cases. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, but usually meaning a ward or similar small division of a town, or a village or hamlet in the countryside. Sovereignty status See also: List of sovereign states The term "country" can refer to a sovereign state. There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since a number of states have disputed sovereignty status. There are 206 sovereign states, of which 193 states are members of the United Nations, two states have observer status at the U.N. (the Holy See and Palestine), and 11 other states are neither a member or observer at the U.N. All are defined as states by declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood. The latest proclaimed state is South Sudan in 2011. Although not sovereign states, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are countries (depending on context), which collectively form the United Kingdom—a sovereign state that is commonly, but erroneously referred to as a country. The United Kingdom is a Union of four separate countries brought about by a series of International treaties and legislated for by several Acts of Union, the first of which being the Acts of Union 1707 in both the English and Scottish parliaments. While a political Union was created, Scotland and England retained a distinct church, legal system and education system, as a result, the issue of Sovereignty is different in the two countries, in Scotland Sovereignty lies with the people, whereas in England Sovereignty lies with Parliament and the Monarch. Lord President (Lord Cooper stated that "the principle of the unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle which has no counterpart in Scottish Constitutional Law", and that legislation contrary to the Act of Union would not necessarily be regarded as constitutionally valid. [7][8][9][10][11][12][13] The Kingdom of Denmark, a sovereign state, comprises Mainland Denmark and two nominally separate countries—the Faroe Islands, and Greenland—which are almost fully internally self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, a sovereign state, comprises four separate countries: Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely. Some are possessions of sovereign states, as several states have overseas territories (such as French Polynesia or the British Virgin Islands), with citizenry at times identical and at times distinct from their own. Such territories, with the exception of distinct dependent territories, are usually listed together with sovereign states on lists of countries, but may nonetheless be treated as a separate "country of origin" in international trade, as Hong Kong is.[14][15][16] See also Countries portal icon Geography portal City network Constituent state List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent Lists of countries and territories Micronation Notes ^ General information or statistical publications that adopt the wider definition for purposes such as illustration and comparison include:.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] References Jones, J. (1964). What Makes a Country? Human Events, 24(31), 14. Tjhe Kwet Koe v Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs [1997] FCA 912 (8 September 1997), Federal Court (Australia). Rosenberg, Matt. "Geography: Country, State, and Nation". Retrieved 2008-11-12. "The World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 2012-02-16. OED, Country John Simpson, Edmund Weiner (ed.). Oxford English Dictionary (1971 compact ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198611868. Loveland, Ian (2015). Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, and Human Rights: A Critical Introduction. 2015: Oxford University Press. pp. 43-47. ISBN 978-0198709039. Doherty, Michael (2016). Public Law. Rutledge. pp. 198-201. ISBN 978-1317206651. Barnett, Hilaire (2014). Constitutional & Administrative Law. Rutledge. pp. 119-123. ISBN 978-1317446224. "Legal Research Guide: United Kingdom". Law Library of Congress. 2009-07-23. Retrieved 2013-03-29. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the collective name of four countries, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The four separate countries were united under a single Parliament through a series of Acts of Union. "Countries Within a Country". 10 Downing Street. 2003-01-10. Archived from the original on 2008-09-09. Retrieved 2009-09-22. The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. "United Kingdom — Geography". Commonwealth Secretariat. 2009-09-22. Archived from the original on 2009-03-24. Retrieved 2009-09-22. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) is a union of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. "Travelling Europe — United Kingdom". European Youth Portal. European Commission. 2009-06-29. Archived from the original on 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2009-09-22. The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. "Made In The British Crown Colony". Thuy-Tien Crampton. Archived from the original on 2014-04-07. "Matchbox label, made in Hong Kong". delcampe.net. Archived from the original on 1 April 2014. "Carrhart Made In Hong Kong?". ContractorTalk. "Greenland Country Information". Countryreports.org. Retrieved 2008-05-28. "The World Factbook - Rank Order - Exports". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2008-11-12. "Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 2008-11-12. "Index of Economic Freedom - Top 10 Countries". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-01-24. Retrieved 2008-11-12. "Asia-Pacific (Region A) Economic Information" (PDF). The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-11-14. Retrieved 2008-11-12. "Subjective well-being in 97 countries" (PDF). University of Michigan. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-19. Retrieved 2008-11-12. Mercer's 2012 Cost of Living Survey city rankings Archived July 25, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.. Mercer.com (2008-12-18). Retrieved on 2013-07-12. EIU Digital Solutions. "Country, industry and risk analysis from The Economist Intelligence Unit - List of countries - The Economist Intelligence Unit". eiu.com. Hanke, Steve H. (May 2014). "Measuring Misery around the World". Cato Institute. Further reading Defining what makes a country The Economist External links Country at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata The CIA World Factbook Country Studies from the United States Library of Congress Foreign Information by Country and Country & Territory Guides from GovPubs at UCB Libraries United Nations statistics division vte Lists of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent Continents Africa Antarctica Asia Europe North America Oceania South America Supercontinents Americas Eurasia Islands List of island countries Authority control Edit this at Wikidata GND: 4056618-3 Categories: CountriesHuman geography Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Español Français 한국어 Italiano Русский Tagalog Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 122 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2018, at 18:58 (UTC). 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Page semi-protected Space From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the general framework of distance and direction. For the space beyond Earth's atmosphere, see Outer space. For the keyboard key, see Space bar. For other uses, see Space (disambiguation). A right-handed three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system used to indicate positions in space. Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction.[1] Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework. Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity; namely, to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks called khôra (i.e. "space"), or in the Physics of Aristotle (Book IV, Delta) in the definition of topos (i.e. place), or in the later "geometrical conception of place" as "space qua extension" in the Discourse on Place (Qawl fi al-Makan) of the 11th-century Arab polymath Alhazen.[2] Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, particularly during the early development of classical mechanics. In Isaac Newton's view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space.[3] Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the "visibility of spatial depth" in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Later, the metaphysician Immanuel Kant said that the concepts of space and time are not empirical ones derived from experiences of the outside world—they are elements of an already given systematic framework that humans possess and use to structure all experiences. Kant referred to the experience of "space" in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a subjective "pure a priori form of intuition". In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in which space is conceived as curved, rather than flat. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space.[4] Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a better model for the shape of space. Contents 1 Philosophy of space 1.1 Galilei 1.2 René Descartes 1.3 Leibniz and Newton 1.4 Kant 1.5 Non-Euclidean geometry 1.6 Gauss and Poincaré 1.7 Einstein 2 Mathematics 3 Physics 3.1 Relativity 3.2 Cosmology 4 Spatial measurement 5 Geographical space 6 In psychology 7 In the Social Sciences 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Philosophy of space Galilei Galilean and Cartesian theories about space, matter and motion are at the foundation of the Scientific Revolution, which is understood to have culminated with the publication of Newton's Principia in 1687.[5] Newton's theories about space and time helped him explain the movement of objects. While his theory of space is considered the most influential in Physics, it emerged from his predecessors' ideas about the same.[6] As one of the pioneers of modern science, Galilei revised the established Aristotelian and Ptolemaic ideas about a geocentric cosmos. He backed the Copernican theory that the universe was heliocentric, with a stationary sun at the center and the planets—including the Earth—revolving around the sun. If the Earth moved, the Aristotelian belief that its natural tendency was to remain at rest was in question. Galilei wanted to prove instead that the sun moved around its axis, that motion was as natural to an object as the state of rest. In other words, for Galilei, celestial bodies, including the Earth, were naturally inclined to move in circles. This view displaced another Aristotelian idea—that all objects gravitated towards their designated natural place-of-belonging.[7] René Descartes Descartes set out to replace the Aristotelian worldview with a theory about space and motion as determined by natural laws. In other words, he sought a metaphysical foundation or a mechanical explanation for his theories about matter and motion. Cartesian space was Euclidean in structure—infinite, uniform and flat.[8] It was defined as that which contained matter; conversely, matter by definition had a spatial extension so that there was no such thing as empty space.[5] The Cartesian notion of space is closely linked to his theories about the nature of the body, mind and matter. He is famously known for his "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am), or the idea that we can only be certain of the fact that we can doubt, and therefore think and therefore exist. His theories belong to the rationalist tradition, which attributes knowledge about the world to our ability to think rather than to our experiences, as the empiricists believe.[9] He posited a clear distinction between the body and mind, which is referred to as the Cartesian dualism. Leibniz and Newton Gottfried Leibniz Following Galilei and Descartes, during the seventeenth century the philosophy of space and time revolved around the ideas of Gottfried Leibniz, a German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, who set out two opposing theories of what space is. Rather than being an entity that independently exists over and above other matter, Leibniz held that space is no more than the collection of spatial relations between objects in the world: "space is that which results from places taken together".[10] Unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an idealised abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete.[11] Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people.[12] Leibniz argued that space could not exist independently of objects in the world because that implies a difference between two universes exactly alike except for the location of the material world in each universe. But since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be these two possible universes must therefore be wrong.[13] Isaac Newton Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and based his position on observation and experimentation. For a relationist there can be no real difference between inertial motion, in which the object travels with constant velocity, and non-inertial motion, in which the velocity changes with time, since all spatial measurements are relative to other objects and their motions. But Newton argued that since non-inertial motion generates forces, it must be absolute.[14] He used the example of water in a spinning bucket to demonstrate his argument. Water in a bucket is hung from a rope and set to spin, starts with a flat surface. After a while, as the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped then the surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water.[15] Instead, Newton argued, it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the bucket argument was considered decisive in showing that space must exist independently of matter. Kant Immanuel Kant In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed a theory of knowledge in which knowledge about space can be both a priori and synthetic.[16] According to Kant, knowledge about space is synthetic, in that statements about space are not simply true by virtue of the meaning of the words in the statement. In his work, Kant rejected the view that space must be either a substance or relation. Instead he came to the conclusion that space and time are not discovered by humans to be objective features of the world, but imposed by us as part of a framework for organizing experience.[17] Non-Euclidean geometry Main article: Non-Euclidean geometry Spherical geometry is similar to elliptical geometry. On a sphere (the surface of a ball) there are no parallel lines. Euclid's Elements contained five postulates that form the basis for Euclidean geometry. One of these, the parallel postulate, has been the subject of debate among mathematicians for many centuries. It states that on any plane on which there is a straight line L1 and a point P not on L1, there is exactly one straight line L2 on the plane that passes through the point P and is parallel to the straight line L1. Until the 19th century, few doubted the truth of the postulate; instead debate centered over whether it was necessary as an axiom, or whether it was a theory that could be derived from the other axioms.[18] Around 1830 though, the Hungarian János Bolyai and the Russian Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published treatises on a type of geometry that does not include the parallel postulate, called hyperbolic geometry. In this geometry, an infinite number of parallel lines pass through the point P. Consequently, the sum of angles in a triangle is less than 180° and the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is greater than pi. In the 1850s, Bernhard Riemann developed an equivalent theory of elliptical geometry, in which no parallel lines pass through P. In this geometry, triangles have more than 180° and circles have a ratio of circumference-to-diameter that is less than pi. Type of geometry Number of parallels Sum of angles in a triangle Ratio of circumference to diameter of circle Measure of curvature Hyperbolic Infinite < 180° > π < 0 Euclidean 1 180° π 0 Elliptical 0 > 180° < π > 0 Gauss and Poincaré Carl Friedrich Gauss Henri Poincaré Although there was a prevailing Kantian consensus at the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had been formalised, some began to wonder whether or not physical space is curved. Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician, was the first to consider an empirical investigation of the geometrical structure of space. He thought of making a test of the sum of the angles of an enormous stellar triangle, and there are reports that he actually carried out a test, on a small scale, by triangulating mountain tops in Germany.[19] Henri Poincaré, a French mathematician and physicist of the late 19th century, introduced an important insight in which he attempted to demonstrate the futility of any attempt to discover which geometry applies to space by experiment.[20] He considered the predicament that would face scientists if they were confined to the surface of an imaginary large sphere with particular properties, known as a sphere-world. In this world, the temperature is taken to vary in such a way that all objects expand and contract in similar proportions in different places on the sphere. With a suitable falloff in temperature, if the scientists try to use measuring rods to determine the sum of the angles in a triangle, they can be deceived into thinking that they inhabit a plane, rather than a spherical surface.[21] In fact, the scientists cannot in principle determine whether they inhabit a plane or sphere and, Poincaré argued, the same is true for the debate over whether real space is Euclidean or not. For him, which geometry was used to describe space was a matter of convention.[22] Since Euclidean geometry is simpler than non-Euclidean geometry, he assumed the former would always be used to describe the 'true' geometry of the world.[23] Einstein Albert Einstein In 1905, Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity, which led to the concept that space and time can be viewed as a single construct known as spacetime. In this theory, the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers—which has the result that two events that appear simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving clock to tick more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to them; and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer. Subsequently, Einstein worked on a general theory of relativity, which is a theory of how gravity interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a force field acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself.[24] According to the general theory, time goes more slowly at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars, confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories, and non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to describe spacetime. Mathematics Main article: Three-dimensional space Not to be confused with Space (mathematics). In modern mathematics spaces are defined as sets with some added structure. They are frequently described as different types of manifolds, which are spaces that locally approximate to Euclidean space, and where the properties are defined largely on local connectedness of points that lie on the manifold. There are however, many diverse mathematical objects that are called spaces. For example, vector spaces such as function spaces may have infinite numbers of independent dimensions and a notion of distance very different from Euclidean space, and topological spaces replace the concept of distance with a more abstract idea of nearness. Physics Part of a series of articles about Classical mechanics {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}}} {\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}} Second law of motion History Timeline Branches[show] Fundamentals[hide] Acceleration Angular momentum Couple D'Alembert's principle Energy kinetic potential Force Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Impulse Inertia / Moment of inertia Mass Mechanical power Mechanical work Moment Momentum Space Speed Time Torque Velocity Virtual work Formulations[show] Core topics[show] Rotation[show] Scientists[show] vte Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning that it cannot be defined via other quantities because nothing more fundamental is known at the present. On the other hand, it can be related to other fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space can be explored via measurement and experiment. Today, our three-dimensional space is viewed as embedded in a four-dimensional spacetime, called Minkowski space (see special relativity). The idea behind space-time is that time is hyperbolic-orthogonal to each of the three spatial dimensions. Relativity Main article: Theory of relativity Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries showed that due to relativity of motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one object-spacetime. It turns out that distances in space or in time separately are not invariant with respect to Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space-time along space-time intervals are—which justifies the name. In addition, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski space-time. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated differently both in special relativity (where time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate) and in general relativity (where different signs are assigned to time and space components of spacetime metric). Furthermore, in Einstein's general theory of relativity, it is postulated that space-time is geometrically distorted- curved -near to gravitationally significant masses.[25] One consequence of this postulate, which follows from the equations of general relativity, is the prediction of moving ripples of space-time, called gravitational waves. While indirect evidence for these waves has been found (in the motions of the Hulse-Taylor binary system, for example) experiments attempting to directly measure these waves are ongoing at the LIGO and Virgo collaborations. LIGO scientists reported the first such direct observation of gravitational waves on 14 September 2015.[26][27] Cosmology Main article: Shape of the universe Relativity theory leads to the cosmological question of what shape the universe is, and where space came from. It appears that space was created in the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago[28] and has been expanding ever since. The overall shape of space is not known, but space is known to be expanding very rapidly due to the cosmic inflation. Spatial measurement Main article: Measurement The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier societies had developed measuring systems, the International System of Units, (SI), is now the most common system of units used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used. Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. This definition coupled with present definition of the second is based on the special theory of relativity in which the speed of light plays the role of a fundamental constant of nature. Geographical space See also: Spatial analysis Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing places on Earth, utilizing spatial awareness to try to understand why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data of Earth to create an estimate for unobserved phenomena. Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a relation to ownership usage (in which space is seen as property or territory). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being an important factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming. Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to other spaces—for example to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace. Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all, while private property is the land culturally owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure. Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit extraneous variables such as terrain. In psychology Psychologists first began to study the way space is perceived in the middle of the 19th century. Those now concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch of psychology. Psychologists analyzing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are perceived, see, for example, visual space. Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The perception of surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with regards to hunting and self preservation as well as simply one's idea of personal space. Several space-related phobias have been identified, including agoraphobia (the fear of open spaces), astrophobia (the fear of celestial space) and claustrophobia (the fear of enclosed spaces). The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans is thought to be learned during infancy using unconscious inference, and is closely related to hand-eye coordination. The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions is called depth perception. In the Social Sciences Space has been studied in the social sciences from the perspectives of Marxism, feminism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, urban theory and critical geography. These theories account for the effect of the history of colonialism, transatlantic slavery and globalization on our understanding and experience of space and place. The topic has garnered attention since the 1980s, after the publication of Henri Lefebvre's The Production of Space . In this book, Lefebvre applies Marxist ideas about the production of commodities and accumulation of capital to discuss space as a social product. His focus is on the multiple and overlapping social processes that produce space.[29] In his book The Condition of Postmodernity, David Harvey describes what he terms the "time-space compression." This is the effect of technological advances and capitalism on our perception of time, space and distance.[30] Changes in the modes of production and consumption of capital affect and are affected by developments in transportation and technology. These advances create relationships across time and space, new markets and groups of wealthy elites in urban centers, all of which annihilate distances and affect our perception of linearity and distance.[31] In his book Thirdspace, Edward Soja describes space and spatiality as an integral and neglected aspect of what he calls the "trialectics of being," the three modes that determine how we inhabit, experience and understand the world. He argues that critical theories in the Humanities and Social Sciences study the historical and social dimensions of our lived experience, neglecting the spatial dimension.[32] He builds on Henri Lefebvre's work to address the dualistic way in which humans understand space—as either material/physical or as represented/imagined. Lefebvre's "lived space"[33] and Soja's "thridspace" are terms that account for the complex ways in which humans understand and navigate place, which "firstspace" and "Secondspace" (Soja's terms for material and imagined spaces respectively) do not fully encompass. Postcolonial theorist Homi Bhabha's concept of Third Space is different from Soja's Thirdspace, even though both terms offer a way to think outside the terms of a binary logic. Bhabha's Third Space is the space in which hybrid cultural forms and identities exist. In his theories, the term hybrid describes new cultural forms that emerge through the interaction between colonizer and colonized.[34] See also icon Physics portal Book: Space Absolute space and time Aether theories Cosmology General relativity Personal space Philosophy of Space and Time Shape of the universe Social space Space exploration Spatial analysis Spatial-temporal reasoning References "Space - Physics and Metaphysics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Refer to Plato's Timaeus in the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University, and to his reflections on khora. See also Aristotle's Physics, Book IV, Chapter 5, on the definition of topos. Concerning Ibn al-Haytham's 11th century conception of "geometrical place" as "spatial extension", which is akin to Descartes' and Leibniz's 17th century notions of extensio and analysis situs, and his own mathematical refutation of Aristotle's definition of topos in natural philosophy, refer to: Nader El-Bizri, "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Vol. 17 (2007), pp. 57-80. French, A. J.; Ebison, M. G. (1986). Introduction to Classical Mechanics. Dordrecht: Springer, p. 1. Carnap, R. (1995). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. New York: Dove. (Original edition: Philosophical Foundations of Physics. New York: Basic books, 1966). Space from Zeno to Einstein : classic readings with a contemporary commentary. Huggett, Nick. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 1999. ISBN 058505570X. OCLC 42855123. Janiak, Andrew (2015). "Space and Motion in Nature and Scripture: Galileo, Descartes, Newton". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 51: 89. 1958-, Dainton, Barry, (2001). Time and space. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0773523022. OCLC 47691120. Dainton, Barry (2014). Time and Space. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 164. Tom., Sorell, (2000). Descartes : a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191540363. OCLC 428970574. Leibniz, Fifth letter to Samuel Clarke. By H. G. Alexander (1956). The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 55-96. Vailati, E. (1997). Leibniz & Clarke: A Study of Their Correspondence. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 115. Sklar, L. (1992). Philosophy of Physics. Boulder: Westview Press, p. 20. Sklar, L. Philosophy of Physics. p. 21. Sklar, L. Philosophy of Physics. p. 22. "Newton's bucket". st-and.ac.uk. Carnap, R. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. pp. 177-178. Lucas, John Randolph. Space, Time and Causality. p. 149. ISBN 0-19-875057-9. Carnap, R. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. p. 126. Carnap, R. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. pp. 134-136. Jammer, Max (1954). Concepts of Space. The History of Theories of Space in Physics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 165. A medium with a variable index of refraction could also be used to bend the path of light and again deceive the scientists if they attempt to use light to map out their geometry. Carnap, R. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. p. 148. Sklar, L. Philosophy of Physics. p. 57. Sklar, L. Philosophy of Physics. p. 43. Wheeler, John A. A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime. Chapters 8 and 9, Scientific American, ISBN 0-7167-6034-7 Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Alexandra (11 February 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. Retrieved 12 January 2018. Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. Lay summary (PDF). "Cosmic Detectives". The European Space Agency (ESA). 2 April 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2013. Stanek, Lukasz (2011). Henri Lefebvre on Space : Architecture, Urban Research, and the Production of Theory. Univ of Minnesota Press. pp. ix. "Time-Space Compression - Geography - Oxford Bibliographies - obo". Retrieved 28 August 2018. Harvey, David (2001). Spaces of Capital : Towards a Critical Geography. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 244-246. W., Soja, Edward (1996). Thirdspace : journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined places. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell. ISBN 1557866740. OCLC 33863376. 1901-1991., Lefebvre, Henri, (1991). The production of space. Oxford, OX, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0631140484. OCLC 22624721. 1946-, Ashcroft, Bill,. Postcolonial studies : the key concepts. Griffiths, Gareth, 1943-, Tiffin, Helen., Ashcroft, Bill, 1946- (Third ed.). London. ISBN 9780415661904. OCLC 824119565. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Space Look up space in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 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