Don't you even dare steal my flashcards for your evil Machiavellian ways..
Define and give examples: pleiotophy
1 gene that has multiple affects on a phenotype. EX: Abnormal amounts of marfin cause people to be tall, and sickly thin. PKU.
What is bond energy? How is it related to glucose and ATP?
Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break apart a mole of molecules into its component atoms. I believe this relates to glucose and ATP under the circumstance that since glucose is needed to become unstable in order for glycolysis to begin, then during the process, the dephosphorylation of ATP energizes the reaction
Define: Carbon Fixation. What part of photosynthesis involves carbon fixation?
Carbon fixation: the incorporation of carbon from CO₂ into organic compounds (the PGAL). The dark reaction involves the carbon fixation.
Describe binary fission. Include diagrams.
Cell division of prokaryotes. The prokaryotic chromosome is a single DNA molecule that first replicates, then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicate and original chromosomes are separated. Following cell splitting (cytokinesis), there are then two cells of identical genetic composition (except for the rare chance of a spontaneous mutation).
Diagram and define meiosis: Prophase i
Centrosomes move toward ends. Spindle fibers grow out and attach to tetrads (the pairing of the homologous chromosomes). Synapsing occurs during this stage.
What is the role of chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy that is used to drive the transfer of electrons and H⁺ from water to NADP⁺, reducing it to NADPH.
Diagram and define mitosis: Metaphase
Chromatids line up in a single file line at the equator, or metaphase plate as each of the centromeres are lined up on the metaphase plate. .
Diagram and define mitosis: Anaphase
Chromatids separate and motor kinetochores move the daughter chromosomes to the poles.
What is homologous chromosomes?
Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother. All in which are needed to create a Karyotype - the matching of chromosomes to its identical pair.
Distinguish: codominance, incomplete/partial dominance. Give examples.
Codominance: When two dominant genes are expressed equally in the phenotype. No blending. No medallion law. AB blood type: A + B share the spotlight Red + White flower = Red flower with white spots or vise versa Gambit and Gidget Partial Dominance: Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a combined phenotype. Or Blended phenotype; the crossing of two different phenotypes to form a new one. RED SNAPDRAGON + white snapdragon = PiNk SnApDrAgOn
Distinguish: codon vs. anticodon
Codon: three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid Anticodon: group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon
Define and give examples: multiple alleles
Now, if there are 4 or more possible phenotypes for a particular trait, then more than 2 alleles for that trait must exist in the population. There may be multiple alleles within the population, but individuals have only two of those alleles; unless you are mutated. EX: ABO Blood System, 4 leaf clovers, eye color
Describe how ATP is made by the ATP synthase and the H+ gradient.
Okay so basically this process first starts with NADH and FADH. NADH and FADH pass through different globular proteins thus giving up their high-energy electrons making the protein reduced (because it is gaining the electrons). Now as the electrons move through the ETC, they give off their energy to have H+ pumped into the criste to create a hydrogen gradient (This is because the matrix outside has a low concentration, and criste has a high concentration). Once the electrons reach the last electron acceptor which is oxygen, and are added to it alongside two hydrogen ions to create a water molecule. Now the buildup of these hydrogen ions creates potential energy in which is captured as they channel through the ATP synthase, and that captured energy is used to phosphorylze ADP.
what is chemiosmosis and the role of the H+ gradient?
Okay so basically this process first starts with NADH and FADH. NADH and FADH pass through different globular proteins thus giving up their high-energy electrons making the protein reduced (because it is gaining the electrons). Now as the electrons move through the ETC, they give off their energy to have H+ pumped into the criste to create a hydrogen gradient (This is because the matrix outside has a low concentration, and criste has a high concentration). Once the electrons reach the last electron acceptor which is oxygen, and are added to it alongside two hydrogen ions to create a water molecule. Now the buildup of these hydrogen ions creates potential energy in which is captured as they channel through the ATP synthase, and that captured energy is used to phosphorylze ADP.
What are intermediates? How are enzymes involved with metabolism?
One of the compounds that form between the initial reactant and the final product in a metabolic pathway, such as between glucose and pyruvate in glycolysis. Enzymes are involved because for each step in the metabolic pathway and different, specific enzyme is needed for each and every reaction.
Describe and diagram: pinocytosis and phagocytosis. Are they endo or exo?
Phagocytosis~ "cellular eating." A cell engulfs a particle by wrapping extensions called pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membrane-enclosed sac large enough to be called a vacuole. Pinocytosis~ "cellular drinking." The cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles. It is not specific; it takes in any and all solutes dissolved in the droplets.
Define: Adaption
Physical or behavioral characteristic that has developed to allow an organism to better survive in its environment. Adaptations are the result of evolution, and may occur when a gene mutates, or changes by accident. It could take many generations to develop an adaption. *Crabs Hard Shell*
What do plants also require as well as photosynthesize? Do plants have mitochondria?
Plants also require cellular respiration. They do have mitochondria.
Describe the structure and function of a ribosome. Diagram and label it.
Ribosomes are made up of two subunits, the small subunit and the large subunit. Ribosomes are used to synthesize polypeptide chains by reading mRNA strands and attaching the appropriate tRNA to it. It has two sites - the P site and the A site (we don't need to know about the E site). The P site contains the growing polypeptide chain and the A site contains the next amino acid in the sequence.
Define: Heritable variation
Slight different genetics that are passed down to the next generation. Some can be harmful that could result in death, while others could be beneficial that causes the individual to compete and survive better than others of the population.
What is a solute, solvent, solution? What is aqueous solution?
Solute: the substance that is dissolved in a solution Solvent: the dissolving agent in a solution Solution: a liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of 2 or more substances. Aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent.
Define: spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process of producing sperm with half the number of chromosomes (haploid) as somatic cells.
Define: synapse
Synapse is the pairing of homologous chromosomes in which crossing over and genetic recombination occur.
How is ATP used to supply energy to energy-requiring processes like muscle contraction?
When ATP breaks up into adp + p it releases energy that is used by things active transport (pumps), muscle contraction, and kinase.
What is sympatric speciation?
When a new species arises within the same geographic region as a parent species. It may occur when mating and the resulting gene flow between populations are greatly reduced by factors such as polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection
What happens to plant cells and animal cells placed into hypertonic solution?
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it becomes plasmolyzed (shriveled and dehydrated). The plasma membrane will pull away from the cell wall. When an animal cell is put in a hypertonic solution, it shrivels.
What happens to plant and animal cells that are placed into a hypotonic solution?
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it becomes turgid. The cell will be very full, but will not burst because of its cell wall. When an animal cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it becomes lysed, meaning it bursts.
What is allopatric speciation?
When a species is severed by its geography and ends up forming two or more different species because of the different pressures of natural selection and variation. *Also important note: although these species were once similar, they are of reproductive isolation, meaning that they cant/wont breed with other population*
What is polyploidy?
When an entire set of chromosomes fails to segregate during meiosis resulting in a *diploid* gamete diploid + diploid = tetraploid *80% of plants are made this way*
What happens when an enzyme denatures? Why can't it work once it is denatured?
When an enzyme denatures, its polypeptide chains unravel, losing their shape & function. It no longer works because its shape determines its function, so when it loses its shape, it loses its function. When it denatures, the weak polar interactions of the R groups that keep it stable are broken.
Define and give examples: polygenetic inheritance
When multiple genes make up one specific trait. This causes lots of variation, continuous variation, and a bell-curve distribution EX: eye color - depends on the general color of the iris, rim of iris, and flecks of other colors. Height, weight, skin color (10 gene pairs), hair color, IQ.
What is Stabilizing natural selection?
a type of natural selection that favors the average individuals in a population. This process selects against the extreme phenotypes and instead favors the majority of the population that is well adapted to the environment.
what is disruptive natural selection?
a type of natural selection that selects against the average individual in a population. The make up of this type of population would show phenotypes of both extremes, but have very few individuals in the middle.
What is phylogeny? Phylogenetic tree What do trees represent?
the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms all relating back to one specific ancestor..Tress represent the different branches of species that can be so distinctly different yet all relate back to one common ancestor.
Name and briefly describe the evidence of evolution.
#1: Fossil Record ~ Just plain and simple comparison of bone structure based on the fossils of the ancestors. #2: Transitional Forms ~ in between forms between one form and another. The change of one form to another *Wolf → Whale. Horse Evolution. #3: Vestigial Forms ~ Structures greatly reduced from the original ancestral form and is no longer functional or is of reduced or altered function. * Appendix, 3rd molar, canine teeth, nipples on males, Darwin's point* #4: "Living Fossil" ~ In 1940 in a fish market the Celocant, a fish that lived millions of years ago that lives now was discovered. once they dissected it, you could see the similar anatomy #5: Evolution Observed ~ Micro-evolution ~ changes in a population out of a short period of time * peppered moths*. Macro-evolution ~ large amount of time for a big change "Deep time" * #6: Comparative Embryology ~ The comparison of different embryos - they all look similar *tail, etc.* - proof of evolution in the sense that they all came from a similar ancestor. #7: Comparative Analogy and Homology ~ So basically if it is homology - similarity in basic structure but not function - it will be a result of divergent evolution where different species developed from a similar ancestor. *Dogs* If it is analogy - similarity of function but not structure, it will result in convergent evolution where species evolved in similar habitat; thus developing similar functions, but they are still different species. *Whales, Dolphins, Sharks* #8: Artificial Selection ~ When humans do the selection of animals and plants. *400 breeds of dogs that are all descendants of wolves* #9: Natural Selection ~ Survival of the fittest for the environment. Survive and reproduce *sand guppies in thicker gravel and spotted guppies in sand* #10: Sexual Selection ~ When the mates are choosing their mates. Females tend to choose the survivors that stand out in the environment. *Sand guppies in thicker gravel and spotted guppies in sand*
Name the kinds of processes that increase genetic variability
#1: Mutation ~ fuels the process of evolution because it creates new genes. #2: Independent assortment + crossing over *Not nondisjunction* ~creates a new combination of genes. #3: Gene flow ~the migration of organisms from one environment to another. #4: Gene drift ~caused by a change in environment. The founder effect (2+ organisms separate from the rest of the population and overtime develop differently and become a new species) and the bottle neck effect (when a small # of organisms are randomly selected by chance to pass on their genes to the next generations while the others in the same species are killed off. This is a result of natural disasters or hunting to near extinction i.e. panda, bald eagles, red wolf, buffalo, california condor, elephant seals). #5: Natural selection ~"descent with modification" -change over generations ~overpopulation - In a natural population, more individuals are produced than can possibly survive. ~Heritable variation -slight differences that are passed down from generation to generation. Some can be beneficial and some can be harmful. ~Intense competition - organisms compete for food, water, sun, mates, nutrients, and space ~Survival of the fittest -Individuals with the most beneficials variations will compete & survive better than others ~Reproductive success - Passing the beneficial variations to the next generation will lead to evolution. This can only happen if an organism is successful in reproduction.
What is: #1 competitive inhibition #2 non competive inhibition #3 feedback inhibition #4 cofactors
#1: When an inhibitor competes with the substrate for the enzyme's active site. If the inhibitor attaches to the active site, the substrate cannot attach and be changed. #2: When an inhibitor attaches to the enzyme's allosteric site, it causes the enzyme's active site to change shape and no longer fit the substrate. This can be temporary or permanent (i.e. of permanent = toxins & poisons) #3: In a metabolic pathway, substances are changed after it attaches to each enzyme. When the product of the enzyme accumulates, it can attach to the allosteric site of an enzyme in a previous step in the pathway & prevent the attachment of a previous substrate. #4: Nonprotein helpers of enzymes. These can be either organic or inorganic compounds. Cofactors that are organic compounds are called coenzymes. Examples of inorganic cofactors: zinc, iron, copper. Example of organic cofactors: vitamins.
Define and give examples: carrier
(Carriers) individuals who have a disease-causing gene but do not have the condition themselves, because they have one normal gene.
What factors cause an enzyme to denature?
1) temperature 2) pH
List three stages of aerobic respiration. Where does each occur?
1)Glycolysis- cytoplasmic fluid of the cell 2)Citric Acid Cycle- inside the mitochondria 3)Oxidative Phosphorylation- mitochondria
What are three fates of pyruvic acid?
1)NADH (in anaerobic respiration) 2)CO₂ (aerobic) 3)H₂O (also aerobic)
List three types of cellular work that requires ATP.
1. Begin Glycolysis by making glucose unstable 2. Photosynthesis 3. Active Transport of Materials
How many ATP ∗PER GLUCOSE∗ are the result of the ETC in the mitochondria?
34 Total. 30 from the NADH, 4 From the FADH
What is a haploid?
A cell containing a single set of chromosomes and n cell. (Sex cells)
What is a Diploid?
A cell containing two homologous sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. A 2n cell.
Is a cell diploid or haploid at the beginning and end of mitosis? What about meiosis?
A cell is diploid at the beginning and end of mitosis. In meiosis, a cell begins with being diploid, but ends with being haploid.
What is a centromere?
A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a chromosome where two identical sister chromatids come in contact. It is involved in cell division as the point of mitotic spindle attachment.
Define: Sex linkage
A condition in which a characteristic that apparently manifests more frequently in one sex than in the other is associated with the gene(s) located in the sex chromosome. Most traits are located on the X chromosome. *EX: red-green colorblind, muscular dystrophy, cat coat*
Define: population
A group of individuals belonging to one species and living in the same geographic area.
Describe a phospholipid. How do phospholipids arrange themselves to make phospholipids bilayer membranes in and around cells.
A phospholipid is made up of a polar head and a nonpolar tail. They arrange with 2 (bi) layers of phospholipids with the nonpolar tails on the inside and the polar heads on the outside.
What is the structure of the F1 particle?
A protein molecule with a head that sticks out of the inter-membrane but through into the criste.
What's the difference between channels and pumps?
A pump uses ATP to move a substance through a semi-permeable membrane up a concentration gradient (from low to high). A channel allows a substance to move through a semi-permeable membrane down a concentration gradient (from high to low) without using any energy.
What is a metabolic pathway? Describe a metabolic pathway. Give some examples of metabolic pathways.
A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down a complex molecules into simpler compounds. Usually has around 10 enzymes for 10 reactions. It is almost like a path or a trail that leads/ feeds to another reaction. They can be linear or they can branch (cyclical). A linear pathway is when it goes A→B→C→D→E. A cyclical pathway is when it goes A→B→C→D→E→A or something similar like A→B→C→ either A or D. EX: Glycolysis, your liver, cellular respiration.
Define: tetrad
A structure made up of two homologous chromosomes that are connected.
What is a catalyst?
A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
what is directional natural selection?
A type of natural selection that favors one extreme phenotype over the mean or other extreme. This phenomena is usually seen in environments that have changed over time. Changes in weather, climate, or food availability lead to directional selection. The bell curve height does not change, there are just far fewer "average" individuals.
Using puzzle piece figures, diagram an enzyme catalyzed reaction: A → B + C
A=orange B=yellow C=purple
Using puzzle piece figures, diagram an enzyme catalyzed reaction: A + B → C
A=red B=green C=purple
How is ATP made from ADP?
ATP is made up of adenosine (ribose & adenine) and 3 phosphates. ADP is made up of adenosine and 2 phosphates. When a phosphate is bonded with an ADP molecule, it creates ATP.
What substance begins the Krebs Cycle? Where does that substance come from/how is it made? What are the products of the Krebs Cycle?
Acetyl CoA begins the Krebs Cycle (aka Citric Acid Cycle). *Production of Acetyl CoA: 1) A carboxyl group (−COO⁻) is removed from pyruvate and given off as a molecule of CO₂ (this is the first step in which CO₂ is released during respiration) 2) the two-carbon compound remaining is oxidized while a molecule of NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH 3) a compound called coenzyme A, derived from a B vitamin, joins with the two-carbon group to form Acetyl CoA.* Each turn of the Krebs Cycle results in 1 ATP, 2 CO₂ molecules, 3 NADH, & 1 FADH₂. There are two turns for every glucose molecule. The total amount of everything up to this point is 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 4 CO₂, and 2 FADH₂.
Define and give examples: allele
An alternative version of a Gene. A, a
What is a nucleotide? How do DNA and RNA nucleotides differ? Describe their components.
An organic monomer consisting of a five- carbon sugar covalently boned to a nitrogenous base and phosphate group. DNA and RNA nucleotides differ for 2 reasons. 1) The 5-carbon sugar is different (DNA is Deoxyribose Sugar, RNA is Ribose Sugar) 2) the nitrogenous base is different in the sense that DNA has T and RNA has U *the bases only attach at the sugar, never touch the phosphate*
What does anaerobic mean? What is another word for anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic means without oxygen. Another word for anaerobic respiration is fermentation.
Define: bivalent
Another word for tetrad.
How many ATP are the indirect result of NADH? FADH?
As a result of NADH, 30 ATP's are created; since each pair of H+ in NADH supplies enough energy to make 3 ATPs 10(NADH) x 3(ATPs) = 30 ATP total. FADH is 4. This being because for each FADH, 2 ATPs are synthesized so 2 (FADH) x 2 (ATP) = 4
What is the difference between heterotroph vs. autotroph? Give several examples of each.
Autotrophs are organisms that obtain their carbon atoms from carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain their carbon atoms from organic compounds. (wtf we never learned this...) Examples of autotrophs: plants and some prokaryotes and protists. Examples of hetertrophs: most prokaryotes as well as animals, fungi, and some protists.
What is the difference between producers vs. consumers? Give several examples of each.
Consumers: organisms that eat plants and other animals. Producers: Plants and other photosynthetic organisms that provide the food for a typical ecosystem. Consumer examples: giraffes, leopards. Producer examples: trees. (we didn't learn this either.... wtf?)
Distinguish: divergence vs. convergence. Give Examples
Divergencedifferent species developed from a similar ancestor thus resulting in homology (similarity of basic structure but not function) *Human arms compared to bats, whales, and cats* Convergence is when a species evolved in a similar habitat thus resulting in analogy (similarity of function but not structure) *Whales compared to fish, dolphins, sharks,walruses*
List and describe his three laws: dominance, segregation, independent assortment.
Dominance: If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then one determines the organism's appearance and is called the dominant allele; the other has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the recessive allele. Segregation: A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes. Independent Assortment: Each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation.
Define and give examples: pure/true breeding.
It is the type of breeding in which both the mating breeds are of pure lines i.e. generations of homozygous individuals which produce offsprings of only one type i.e. they breed true for their genotype & phenotype.
How are the processes of cell respiration and photosynthesis interdependent upon each other?
Each provide chemicals for each others function. Cellular respiration releases CO₂ and H₂O, which are then, through photosynthesis, converted to glucose and O₂, which are used in cellular respiration.
What does substrate specific mean?
Each substance (the substrate) fits in the active site of only one type of enzyme. This enzyme's active site is a specific shape that will only match the specific substrate that fits into it. For example: the substance lactose will only fit in the active site of the enzyme lactase.
Define: Evolution
Evolution refers to descent with modification. Small modifications occur at the genetic level (in DNA) with each generation, and these genetic changes can affect how the creature interacts with its environment. Over time, accumulation of these genetic changes can alter the characteristics of the whole population, and a new species appears.
Exocytosis vs. endocytosis
Exocytosis: The process in which a cell exports bulky materials such as proteins or polysaccharides. A transport vesicle filled with macromolecules buds from the Golgi apparatus and moves to the plasma membrane. Once there, the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, and the vesicle' s contents spill out of the cell while the vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane. Endocytosis: Basically the opposite of exocytosis. A depression in the plasma membrane pinches in and forms a vesicle enclosing material that had been outside the cell. There are 3 types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor-mediated endocytosis~ highly specific. Receptor proteins for specific molecules are embedded in regions of the membrane that are lined by a layer of coat proteins.
Facilitated diffusion/transport vs. active transport
Facilitated diffusion/transport: when a transport protein makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient. These substances usually cannot cross on their own due to their polarity/charge. This process requires no energy. Active transport: The process in which a cell must expend energy to move a solute against its concentration gradient through a membrane. The cell uses ATP to do this.
How do you use Alcohol Fermentation in daily life? Explain.
For commercial purposes like in the production of beer, wine and baking such as bread. In bread making, the CO2 is the ones stuck between the wheat protein (gluten) enabling the bread to grow or 'rise.' The ethanol is responsible for giving bread its mysterious smell. In alcoholic drinks, the CO2 is responsible for the bubbly appearance of the liquid.
What is Gene Drift? Examples.
Gene drift is and agent of change due to chance. Founder Effect ~ When an individual leaves an established population (without any occurring natural disaster) and goes to a new area to establish a new population where they are considered "founders" *Amish, blue-black grass wit, green iguana* Bottleneck Effect ~ When a tragedy occurs (a natural disaster such as an ice age or forest fire) some of the species that survives escapes and then becomes the new ancestor of the new generation. * hunting to near extinction, bald eagle, panda, elephant seal, red wolf, buffalo*
What is gene flow? Examples.
Gene flow occurs when a member of one population is able to move to another population and reproduce, introducing its genes into the second population and increasing its genetic diversity. *Fish traveling to different similar species and mating*
Diagram and define mitosis: Interphase: G1, S, and G2
Has three stages: G1, S, G2. G1: Period of growth, organelles duplicate (chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc) S: Synthesis: Chromosomes and DNA duplicate while Nucleoli are rapidly making proteins for condension of chromosomes. G2: Cell continues to grow and prepare of the process of Mitosis.
Define and give examples: heterozygous
Having two different alleles for a given genetic character. Rr
Define and give examples: homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a given trait. RR, rr
How do PH and temperature effect an enzymes activity? What is their reason for their effect?
Heat will cause the enzyme to speed up, but too much heat will cause the enzyme to denature. The optimal pH for MOST enzymes is near neutrality (6-8). Outside this range, enzyme action may be impaired.
Distinguish: homologous strctures vs. analogous structures. Give Examples
Homologous structures are those that have a similarity of basic structure but not function *Human arms compared to bats, whales, and cats* Analogous structures are those that have similarity of function but not structure *Whales compared to fish, dolphins, sharks,walruses*
Define: hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic. Make some diagrams to illustrate each type of solution.
Hypertonic: A solution that contains more solute than solvent. Hypotonic: A solution that contains more solvent than solute. Isotonic: When the solution has reached an equilibrium on both sides. This does not happen in animal cells.
Define and give examples: recessive
In a heterozygote, the allele that is completely masked in the phenotype.
Define and give examples: dominance
In a heterozygote, the allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype.
What is an ES complex? Make a diagram to illustrate.
In an enzyme-catalysed reaction, the substrate first binds to the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate (ES) complex, then the substrate is converted into product whilst attached to the enzyme, and finally the product is released, thus allowing the enzyme to start all over again
Linkage vs. independent assortment
Independent assortment: when the alleles segregate separately. i.e. in dihybrid problems if you have an organism with RrYy, then the possibilities of gametes are RY, rY, Ry, and ry, whereas if the organism was RRYY, then the only possibility for gametes is RY. Linkage when the alleles are nearby on the same chromosome so they will separate together. i.e. sex-linkage - if an organism has XⁿYⁿ then the gamete possibilities are Xⁿ and Yⁿ whereas in an organism that is XⁿXⁿ, the only possibility is Xⁿ.
Define: species
Individuals of the same type that interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Diagram and define meiosis: interkinesis
Interkinesis is the rest period between telophase I and prophase II in which the cells have been separated.
What is postzygotic?
It affects the growth of the organism. often times if the egg does become fertile by different species cross-breeding the hybrid never reaches an age of sexual maturity to be able to reproduce, their offspring are too weak or sterile, or the hybrid dies.
Briefly describe glycolysis. How many ATP's are produced? How many are used? What other product is the result of glycolysis? Is it a metabolic pathway? Explain why.
It begins with glucose, and ends with 2 pyruvates, 4 ATP molecules, and 2 NADH (However the NADH can only be used in the mitochondria ETC). Hexokinase is the first enzyme acting as a catalyst in the metabolic pathway. The first and 3rd reactions use the 2 ATP molecules; however, by the end of glycolysis, it results in a net gain of 2 ATP. It is a metabolic pathway because it begins with glucose and, after a series of enzymes changing each product, ends with the pyruvates, NADH, and ATP.
What is a nucleosome? Describe the components of a nucleosome.
It is a bead-like unit of DNA packaging in a eukaryotic cell; it consists of DNA wound twice around a protein core made up of 8 histone molecules.
Is cellular secretion exo or endo? Describe the process.
It is a type of exocytosis. Cellular secretion is the export of proteins out of the cell. A secretory vesicle carries proteins from the golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane. The secretory vesicle uses kinesin (with the help of ATP) to "walk" across microtubules to get to the plasma membrane.
What is crossing over and recombination and when does it occur?
It occurs during prophase I of meiosis. Crossing over is when homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material at the chiasmata - region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis. This results in genetic recombination, which is when each of the chromosomes end up with DNA from each other.
How is prophase of mitosis different from prophase I and prophase II?
Meiosis - In the beginning of prophase, the chromosomes are effectively single. Mitosis - The chromosomes are splitted longitudinally into two sister chromatids and hence are double structures. Meiosis-The homologous chromosomes pair and form tetrads. Mitosis- No pairing occurs in the chromosomes. Meiosis- Crossing over and chiasmata formation occur during this stage which results in the exchange of genetic material that take place in the chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Mitosis- No crossing over and chiasmata formation occurs.
Why is a cell membrane described as selectively permeable?
Membranes exhibit selective permeability; that is, they allow some substances to cross more easily than others. They "select" which substances enter & exit the cell.
Describe the dark reaction/Calvin cycle, including diagrams.
The Calvin cycle's main purpose is to fix carbon and an create a strong energy carbon sugar called G3P (Pgal). The Calvin cycle is a complex series of chemical reactions carried out in the stroma. The Calvin cycle begins with the input of CO2. Three molecules of carbon dioxide are added to three molecules of a five-carbon sugar abbreviated RuBP. These molecules are then rearranged to form six molecules called 3-PGA, which have three carbons each. In the next two reactions, products from the light reactions are used to boost the energy of these three-carbon molecules. First, high-energy phosphate groups are added. To summarize, so far the Calvin cycle has used the energy of the light reactions to reduce three molecules of carbon dioxide and produce one molecule of G3P. To make each G3P, the Calvin Cycle consumes 9 ATP molecules and 6 NADPH molecules. These are regenerated in the light reactions. G3P is the actual final product of the Calvin cycle. The cell can combine two G3Ps to make glucose, which stores the energy that chlorophyll originally captured from the sun.
Diagram and define mitosis: Prophase
The Centrosomes are moving apart to the poles of the cell. Chromosomes condense with the proteins that the nuclei processed (hestones are becoming uncetilated, meaning a ceataled group is removed causing it to condense).Nucleoli disperse and disappear. Spindle Fibers are growing out of centrosome.
Define and give examples: full dominance
The Medallion Law. If you are given a dominant and recessive allele, the dominant will always prevail over the the recessive. EX: Yellow (YY) + Green Peas (yy) = Yellow Peas (Yy) because yellow is the dominant one.
Structure of the cell membrane including diagrams.
The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer with globular proteins, glycolipid, and glycoproteins embedded within the membrane. In animal cells, cholesterol is embedded between some of the phospholipids to make the cell more rigid.
What is a centrosome?
The centrosome, also called the "microtubule organizing center", is an area in the cell where microtubles are produced. and from each centrosome, microtubules grow into a "spindle" which is responsible for separating replicated chromosomes into the two daughter cells.
Diagram and define meiosis: telophase ii/cytokinesis ii
The chromosomes uncondense. The nuclear membrane reappears. The cells split, forming 4 haploid daughter cells.
What is the dark reaction? Calvin Cycle?
The dark reaction and the calvin cycle are the same thing (aka carbon fixation). The dark reaction is a cyclic series of reactions that assembles sugar molecules using CO₂ and the energy-containing products of the light reactions.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane
What is the electron transport chain/system (ETC/ETS)? Where is it located?
The electron transport chain is an array of molecules-- mostly proteins-- where most ATP in cellular respiration is synthesized. It is located in the inner membrane (criste) of the mitochondrion.
Define: nondisjunction: trisomy, monosomy, XXX, XXY, XYY, XO, trisomy 21
The failure of homologous chromosomes to segregate or to separate. This could result to a condition wherein the daughter cells have an abnormal number of chromosomes; one cell having too many chromosomes while other cell having none. Trisomy: A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be trisomic for that chromosome. 2n +1. Monosomy: A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be monosomic for that chromosome. 2n - 1. XXX: Could be a normal female,only different bc or Karyotype. XXY: Kleifeilder Syndrome (in this example, Male) Individuals who have more than 3 sex chromosomes. XYY: Normal - looking male, usually taller than normal. XO: Turner Syndrome (in this case, Female) lack of X chromosome, and have webbed feet Trisomy 21: When you have a third chromosome 21 in karyotype, this leads to down syndrome.
Define: oogenesis
The formation and maturation of ova from undifferentiated cells in the ovary.
What is glycocalyx? Diagram if possible.
The glycocalyx is the fuzzy coat on the plasma membrane. It is made up of glycolipids & glycoproteins. Glycoproteins are globular proteins with a sugar chain attached. Glycolipids is the phospholipid with a sugar chain attached.
Define and give examples: gene pair
The identical or nonidentical alleles of a specific gene at a given locus on homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.
What is a gene pair?
The identical or nonidentical alleles of a specific gene at a given locus on homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.
Define and give examples: hybrid
The mating, or crossing, of two varieties.
Diagram and define mitosis: Telophase
The nuclear membrane appears with the nucleolus. The spindle fibers disappear.
Diagram and define meiosis: prophase ii
The nuclear membrane breaks up again. The centrosomes move towards the poles again and the spindle fibers grow and attach to the sister chromatids.
Diagram and define mitosis: Prometaphase
The nuclear membrane now disperses and the spindle fibers grab the chromatids at their kinetochore (protein structure located at the centromere region of each sister chromatid). Some spindle fibers attach to the other spindle fibers from the opposite pole. Protein "motors" move the chromosomes toward the center of the cell.
Diagram and define meiosis: telophase i/cytokenesis i
The nuclear membrane reappears. Cytokinesis occurs.
What is the active site?
The part of an enzyme molecule where a substrate molecule attaches (by the means of weak chemical bonds); typically, to a pocket or grove on the enzymes surface.
What is plasmolysis and what causes it?
The process in which the plasma membrane of a plant cell pulls away from the cell wall as it loses water. This can cause the plant to wilt & result in the death of the cell & the plant. Plasmolysis occurs when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic environment.
Describe the prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosome. How are they similar how are they different?
The prokaryotic chromosome is one long strand of DNA that is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane. They also do not have nucleoli. Eukaryotic chromosome is made up of multiple strands of DNA enclosed in a nuclear membrane with nucleoli. Similarities: Both have chromosomes. Both use the universal code for DNA. Both have a location for the chromosome (E=nucleus P=nucleoid region).
Describe code transcription, What it its purpose? What is RNA polymerase and its function. Be able to diagram this process.
The purpose it to create mRNA for translation. The transcription of RNA from DNA begins with initiation. An enzyme called RNA polymerase attaches to a region of the DNA called the promoter, which lies next to the beginning of a gene. RNA polymerase pries the DNA strands apart, and RNA nucleotides line up along only one of the DNA strands-- the template strand. RNA polymerase links the nucleotides together. Then Elongation occurs. RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, adding nucleotides to the end of the growing RNA molecule. The RNA strand peels away, allowing the two separated DNA strands to come back together. Once RNA polymerase has gone past a sequence called the terminator, the enzyme releases the completed RNA and detaches from the DNA. * FUN FACT!! In a eukaryotic cell, once DNA has been transcribed into RNA, the RNA transcript must undergo processing. Additional nucleotides, called a cap and a tail, are added to each end of the RNA transcript. The cap and tail protect the RNA from attack by cellular enzymes and help ribosomes recognize the RNA as mRNA.*
What is the major role of all types of cellular respiration?
The purpose of all types of cellular respiration is to make ATP.
What is the purpose of photosynthesis?
The purpose of photosynthesis is to allow plants to sustain themselves and create their own food. IN THE PICTURE: Pi in a circle = phosphate; CH20= sugar; that is all within a chloroplast except the sunlight, H₂O, O₂, sugar, & CO₂.
What is the main purpose of the Krebs Cycle? Where does the Krebs cycle occur?
The purpose of the Krebs Cycle is to create NADH & FADH₂. The Krebs Cycle occurs within the mitochondria.
What is the purpose of the dark reaction? Why is it called the dark reaction?
The purpose of the dark reaction is to produce G3P (aka PGAL). It is called the dark reaction because none of the steps require light directly.
What is the purpose of the light reaction? Why is it called the light reaction?
The purpose of the light reaction is to create NADPH and ATP. It is called the light reaction because light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules is necessary to begin the process. RANDOM FACT: The most important light wavelengths for photosynthesis are red & blue.
Why is the shape of an enzyme important?
The shape of an enzyme is important because enzymes are shape specific. Each enzyme can only react with one kind of substrate, and the enzyme's shape determines which substrate that is. They fit together like a "lock and key".
Diagram and define meiosis: metaphase ii
The sister chromatids are lined up at the equator.
Diagram and define meiosis: anaphase ii
The sister chromatids are pulled apart toward the poles.
Diagram and define mitosis: Cytokinesis
The splitting of the cell occurs as a ring of actin in the equator pulls the plasma membrane until it pinches it apart.
What is diffusion? Describe the process.
The tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space, moving from where they are more concentrated to regions where they are less concentrated.
Diagram and define meiosis: Metaphase i
The tetrads align at the equator.
Diagram and define meiosis: Anaphase i
The tetrads are pulled apart, but the sister chromatids remain attached.
What is a sister chromatid?
The two copies of a chromosome after it has been replicated held together by a centromere
What are the two stages of photosynthesis and where do they occur in the chloroplast?
The two stages of photosynthesis are the light reaction and the dark reaction (aka carbon fixation/calvin cycle). The light reaction occurs within the thylakoid disk and the dark reaction occurs in the stroma.
Name and describe the two types of anaerobic respiration. How are they different and under what conditions do they occur?
The two types of anaerobic respiration are lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation has lactic acid as the end product while in alcohol fermentation the end result is ethanol and CO2. Lactic acid fermentation involves the human muscles as well as bacteria found in yogurt. Alcohol fermentation involves yeasts and other bacterial forms.
In the Krebs Cycle, how many turns occur per glucose? How many of each type of product results per turn? How about per glucose?
There are 2 turns per glucose. One turn results in 1 ATP, 3 NADH, & 1 FADH₂. 2 ATP, 6 NADH, & 2 FADH₂ result per glucose.
Mutations- what are they. Describe the types of mutations with examples. What is a mutagen and carcinogen. Give some examples.
They are changes in the base pair sequence. *Mutagens* are a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material, usually DNA, of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations *EXs High Energy radiation - x-rays and UV light -, Chemicals (40 in cigarettes), Viruses (HPV Virus) *Carcinogen* is a mutagen that causes cancer *perchloroethylene - a dry cleaning solvent* #1 Inversion - piece of DNA will breakout of chromosome, flip over, and refit itself back in. #2 Translocation - When a piece of DNA breaks off and drifts and reinserts itself into a totally different spot. it can also be reciprocal; The transfer of one part of a chromosome to another chromosome # 3 Point Mutation - involves a single base pair - addition/ insertion of a base pair *will cause frame shift* - Deletion of a base pair *will cause frame shift* -substitution of one base pair for another.
Why are NADH and FADH important? Where are they produced and how many?
They provide the electrons for the electron transport in oxidative phosphorylation. They are produced in the Krebs Cycle. Each glucose molecule will produce 6 NADH and 2 FADH. 2 NADH are also produced during glycolysis.
Define: independent assortment
This is Johann Gregor Mendel's 2nd principle. It states that alleles of one gene separate independently from alleles of another gene because of random distribution of chromosomes during meiosis. In other words, eye color does not affect a person's ability to roll his or her tongue.
What is Prezygotic?
This the the species specific reproductive mechanism..this prohibits cross-breeding of different species. because: * The gamete is incapable of fertilizing (sperm cant fertilize egg) *The mating ritual or mating calls are different btw species *the mating season is different * the Pheromones released are different (chemicals released to attract the males of the population) * the two different genitalia cant fit together
What is the role of ATP synthase?
To convert ADP to ATP with the help of H⁺
Describe code translation and its purpose.Be able to diagram this process. Distinguish: A site vs. P site
Translation is initiated when a small ribosomal subunit binds to an mRNA molecule. The anticodon of the initiator tRNA binds to the start codon, AUG. The initiator tRNA always bears the amino acid methionine (abbreviated Met). A large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one, creating a functional ribosome. The initiator tRNA sits in the P site on the ribosome.The codon in the A site of the ribosome pairs with the anticodon of the appropriate tRNA molecule. Part of the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the amino acid extending from the P site and the amino acid extending from the A site. The tRNA in the P site exits from the ribosome. The ribosome then translocates (moves) the tRNA in the A site, carrying the growing polypeptide to the P site. Meanwhile, a new tRNA brings its amino acid to the A site and the process is repeated.Three special base triplets-- UAA, UAG, and UGA-- do not code for amino acids, but instead act as stop codons, which terminate the process of translation. The completed polypeptide detaches from the tRNA that is in the P site, and the components come apart. The polypeptide folds and may be modified or combined with other polypeptides to form a functional protein.
What is turgor pressure and what causes it?
Turgor pressure is when a plant cell is very firm, which is the healthy state for the cell. This is a result of the cell being in a hypotonic environment. The pressure that water molecules exert against the cell wall
Describe the light reaction, including diagrams.
Two photosystems, two electron transport chains, and ATP synthase are the key components of the light reactions of photosynthesis. These parts are embedded in the thylakoidmembranes of a chloroplast. Chlorophyll-- the green pigment of leaves-- absorbs light energy. The absorbed energy excites electrons to a higher energy level. Energized electrons from photosystem I are passed down an electron transport chainand added to NADP+ to form NADPH. Meanwhile, energized electrons from photosystem II are passed through another electron transport chain. Their energy is used to pumphydrogen ions (H+) from the stroma into the thylakoidcompartment, creating a concentration gradient. Electrons leaving this electron transport chain enter photosystem I, replenishing its lost electrons. Photosystem II replenishes its electrons by splitting water. Hydrogen ions and oxygen are released into the thylakoid compartment. This is where the oxygen gas generated by photosynthesis comes from. The buildup of hydrogen ions inside the thylakoidcompartment stores potential energy. This energy is harvested by an enzyme called ATP synthase. As hydrogen ions diffuse through ATP synthase, down their concentration gradient, the enzyme uses the energy of the moving ions to make ATP. Next, ATP and NADPH are used in the sugar-making process of the Calvin cycle.
Name two types of respiration and describe how they are different in terms of products, ATP yield.
Two types of cellular respiration are aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic uses oxygen and results in CO₂, H₂O, and 38 ATP. 60% of the energy from glucose is released as heat, the other 40% results in the ATP, CO₂ & H₂O. Anaerobic (fermentation) respiration ends in two ways. If it is lactic acid fermentation, then it results in lactic acid & 2 ATP. If it is alcoholic fermentation, then it results in Ethyl alcohol and CO₂. Anaerobic respiration only banks 2% of the energy in glucose.
Describe DNA replication. Why is it semiconservative? What is DNA polymerase and what does it do. What is helicase? Be able to diagrams this.
Using a supply of free nucleotides, DNA polymerase assembles a new DNA strand along the template strand, following the base-pairing rules: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. It is semi-conservative in the sense that it has one strand of new DNA synthesized and one old DNA strand. This process occurs in the nucleus during S of Prophase. DNA replication begins at specific sites called origins of replication. Proteins, called helicases, attach here and separate the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds, forming replication bubbles which grow in both directions. Enzymes called DNA polymerases move along the template DNA strands and catalyze the elongation of new strands (Usually four per bubble and they only move towards the 5' end on the parent strand). The leading polymerase follows the helicase down until it reaches another replication bubble and they merge. The lagging polymerase goes until it reaches the start of the leading strand, where in which it drops off and pushes back further to continue to create the daughter strand. The strands created by this polymerase are called lagging strands or okasaki fragments. They are attached to one another through DNA ligase.
What is an enzyme? Enzymes are globular proteins. Explain. What is a globular protein?
any of several complex proteins that are produced by cells and act as catalysts in specific biochemical reactions. A globular protein is one that resulted from the tertiary structure. In this structure a protein can either be fibrous or globular. If it were to be globular its particular arrangement of coils and folds that cause it to look spherical give it a specific shape for it to fit and preform in a specific function.
What is microevolution? Describe some examples
changes in a population out of a short period of time * peppered moths* During the industrial revolution, trees began to darken. as a result of trees darkening from the pollution, the dark moths were favored as a defense mechanism. Therefore, the light colored moths slowly began to die out. *antibiotic and pesticide resistance too*
What are transitional forms? Describe some examples
in between forms between one form and another. The change of one form to another *Wolf → Whale, Horse Evolution*
Describe the structure and function of the 3 types of RNA
mRNA is a duplicate of an anti-sense DNA strand. Meaning, its structure is just like one side of a DNA, and has the bases which are opposite that of the template DNA strand. Its function is to transport the 'message' carried by the DNA out of the nucleus to the ribosomes to produce protein, hence the name messenger. tRNA are floating molecules that are attached to a amino acid on one side and anti-codons on the other. It is used to pair up with the mRNA aided by a ribosome. rRNA would be the ribosome that aids in building the protein from the amino acids that the tRNA attaches on to the mRNA. It has two subunits, and 3 binding sites called A, P, and E.
