ECOL

self-incompatible

Describes species in which pollination by the same or a closely related individual does not lead to fertilization

What value in terms of ecosystem services do coral reefs and coastal wetlands provide?

Food source, provide habitat, protect coastline, carbon sequestration, nutrient absorption, floodwater absorption

in what other ways must scale be defined in ecology

Food, water, and territory

4. Distinguish genotype and phenotype?

Genotype - genetic characteristics Phenotype - physical characteristics (how the genes are expressed)

Grassland Biomes

Grassland biomes occur primarily in the interiors of continents (Figure 4) and are characterized by large seasonal temperature variations, with hot summers and cold winters (Figure 8). Precipitation varies, with a strong summer peak. The type of grassland community that develops, and the productivity of grasslands, depends strongly upon precipitation. Higher precipitation leads to tall grass prairie with a high biodiversity of grasses and forbs. Lower precipitation leads to short grass prairies and arid grasslands.

What is gross vs. net primary productivity?

Gross is total amount of biomass produced Net is total/gross minus respiration

seasonal turnover

In temperate regions where the water mixes. It happens in spring and fall because of the water's unique property; water is densest at 4 deg. C water is warmer or colder than 4 deg. C it's less dense.

What are the major determinants of productivity globally?

In terrestrial environments: water and temperature In marine environments: nutrient availability and sunlight

Thermocline

a layer in a large body of water, such as a lake, that sharply separates regions differing in temperature, so that the temperature gradient across the layer is abrupt.

What is thermohaline circulation?

a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. Currents caused by winds cooling the surface and dense water warms and comes up

What is a rain shadow?

a region having little rainfall because it is sheltered from prevailing rain-bearing winds by a range of hills.

we see more social behavior in bird and mammal species in tropical than temperate forests bc abundance of many foods resources that these species rely on is highly localized in space and time the climate is warmer and wetter predators are less of a threat terrotories are harder to offecd in tropical all of the above

abundance of many food resources in higly localized

the key demographic processes are birth and death immigration and emmigration neither birth and death nor immigration and emmigrartion both birth and death and immigration adn emmigration

all of the above

which of these can lead to evolutionary change epic=genetic inheritance drift gene flow hybridization mutation horizontal gene transfer recombination all of these?

all of the above

presence of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells is an example in mutualisms endosymbiosis symbiosis all of these none of these

all of these

What is a guild?

Organisms that go after the same resources in the same ways

it has been estimated that over half the species on earth are predators, parasites, beetles, plants or decomposers?

Parasites

thermoregulation

Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range. Enzymes in the body can only work at certain temperatures

Is all visible light useful in photosynthesis?

Red light is the most important for photosynthesis

What are some structural adaptations of terrestrial plants to deal with capturing light while reducing heat loads?

Reducing surface area, reflecting light, allowing leaves to move more in the wind

density dependent

Referring to any characteristic that varies according to an increase in population density.

How is photorespiration related to the history of life on earth?

Rubisco and photosynthesis evolved in a reducing environment, and photosynthesis altered the atmosphere to where we now live in an oxidizing environment where rubisco does not work as well

Why are polar oceans generally more productive than tropical oceans?

Seasonal turnover

What do stomata do? What is a tradeoff in stomatal functioning?

Stomata allow plants to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to perform photosynthesis. However, water is also able to escape through stomata by transpiration and can dehydrate the plant if left open for long spans of time

What is direct sunlight?

Sunlight that is perpendicular to where it is hitting, most concentrated, traveling the least possible distance

Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome

Temperature deciduous forests occur in mid-latitudes (Figure 4) where cool winters, warm summers, and high year round precipitation occurs (Figure 9). Net primary productivity ranges from 600-1500 g m-2 yr-1 with high litter production. Litter serves as a major pathway for nutrient recycling. This biome is named for the dominant trees that drop their leaves during the winter months. These forests may have an overstory of 20-30 m tall trees, an understory of 5-10 m trees and shrubs, a shrub layer around 1-2 m in height, and a ground layer of herbaceous plants. Biodiversity is relatively high in this biome due to the niche partitioning allowed by the multiple forest layers. More complex forests are associated with a greater number of animal species; for example, bird species diversity shows a positive correlation with forest height and number of layers.

What are the components that determine climate?

Temperature, rainfall, seasonality, latitude

What major factors determine terrestrial and aquatic biome regions?

Terrestrial - dominant plants and climate Aquatic - water movement, salinity, and upwelling

What is upwelling?

The rising of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water Deeper, nutrient-filled water is brought up to the surface; it is caused by wind pushing surface water away

in the tropics, coral reefs, and many rainforest are similar in that ...

- both occur in nutrient poor environments - occur in environments of high solar radiation - have mechanisms to acquire and conserve limited resources - have high net primary productivity -are very diverse -high degree of structural complexity

Tundra Biome

At latitudes beyond the boreal forest tree line lies a marshy area (Figure 4) where growing seasons are very short and temperatures are below zero degrees Celsius for much of the year (Figure 12). Because of these low temperatures and short growing seasons, net primary productivity is very low in the tundra, between 100-200 g m-2 yr-1. Productivity varies with snowfall depth and local drainage. Rocky fields and dry meadows will have lower productivity than moist, low-lying areas and wet meadows.

What are some behavioral adaptations of plants and animals to thermoregulate and maintain water balance?

Avoid activity when hot, be active at night, burrowing, panting, swating, vibrating

What are some adaptations of plants or animals to variable environmental conditions?

Blubber, hibernation, torpor, migration

because organisms have limited reosurces, the optimal allocation of those resources necessarily involves tradeoffs... principally bw growth/ survivorship/ reproduction or defense/growth/ reproduction

Both ( survivorship and defense are the same thing... organisms are allocating to defend themselves)

many mainly insectivorous bird species spend most of the year in neo tropics ( tropical america) but breed in temperate or boreal north america this is bc____

There is a pulse of resources in the spring and summer at higher latitudes, large brude? sizes and nesting success offset losses from migration, predation risk is much higher in the tropics than temperate and boreal zones

What are the 3 kinds of photosynthesis and how do they differ?

C3 - produces a 3-carbon organic molecule and is the least efficient and conserves the smallest amount of water out of the 3 kinds C4 - carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle occur in different cells and a 4-carbon molecule is produced and it conserves more resources than C3 CAM - similar to C4, but photosynthetic processes occur in the same cells and it utilizes sunlight during the day and fixes carbon at night and is the most efficient and conservative of the 3 kinds

What workarounds have plants evolved to deal with photorespiration?

C4 and CAM, mechanisms to keep leaves as cool as possible

Many succulent plants are facultatively CAM we might expect such species to rely on ___

CAM photosynthesis in dry conditions and C3 photosynthesis during and after heavy rains

What are the 2 kinds of weathering?

Chemical and physical

Why is aquatic productivity so high in estuaries?

Complex currents allow for vigorous mixture which removes nutrients and oxygen

What causes overturn?

Cooling winter winds cool surface water and causes it to sink

which of the following is an example of natural example.... bald eagles are hunted until near extinction and population recovers..... farmers chooses seeds from largest apples to plant next year and this results in larger apples from year to year.. red fox pups are more likely to survive in the snowy environment if they are born white... small group of iguanas float to an island and starts a new population

all of these are things that could cause evolutionary change, but the farmer chooses the apple is artificial selection, the eagles are a bottle neck, iguanas floating to an island is a kind of genetic drift, out answer is the RED FOX PUPS

what are clays primarily composed of

aluminum silicates NOT magnesium sulfates iron oxides calcium carbonates aluminum oxides

bill is colorblind so any son bill has will be colorblind any daughter will carry the allele both neither

any daughter will carry the allele for colorblindness

which terms never describe the same organisms parasite/heterotroph heterotroph/decomposer chemotroph/autotroph heterotroph/plant mixatroph/plant autotroph/animal

autotroph/animal

without the greenhouse effect the earth would

be much colder than it currently is, about 60 degrees colder

which is not an example allochthonous in an aquatic system? leaves and twigs used by beavers to make a dam tree branch falling and river and flowing downstream cow manure in stream benthic algae in a lake

benthic algae or algae growing on the bottom. ( they would be producing carbon polymers within the lake )

how does eutrification effect the environemtn

causes an excessive of algae that results in oxygen depletion

at the global scale, terrestrial productivity is limited primarily by...

climate

bc wolves are social at small scales the distribution of individuals is _______ whereas the scale of the yellow stone region their ditribution is ______ bc of competition bw packs clumped, regular clumped, random random, regular regular , random random, clumped

clumped, regular ( regular bc packs have territoreis that need to be similar size)

a patient suffering from collitus caused by was cured by fecal transplant which cured the patients intesstiness, miconril rransplant form the donot. this siggest that c deficil is a poor mutalis pathogen competitor disporser

competitor

the graph above plots a function that we derive from whcih we wha

death rate increases in negativity density dependence death rate should increase as populations grow

tornado destroys population,, this is an eample of a densitiy independent density dependent

density independent

change in phenotype of peppered moth to melanistic with industrialization in 19th century england is an example of which kind of selection directional disruptive stabiling

directional

new research find that mothers who had long term exposure to pollen in their lives are likely to have children with increased risk of asthma, if correct this is most likely an example fo

epigenetics effects ( it has to do with the mothers exposure, or phenotype.. but not the mothers genotype )

Nt=N0e^rt

exponential growth

disruptive selection

favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range

N(t) =N(0)e^rt... the equation above is a model of population growth, with density dependence.. closed population that includes time lags, aid structure, all of the above

for a closed population

in the absence of human activities the wettest climate zones are covered by savannas grasslands mediterranean tundra forests

forests

stabilizing selection

form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end

clays differ in sands in all the following ...

greater cation exchange capacity , greater moisture capacity, smaller particle size

Diecious

having the male and female organs in separate and distinct individuals; having separate sexes

risk spreading

he idea that unpredictably variable environments favor genotypes with lower variance in fitness at the cost of lower arithmetic mean fitness.

examples of countercurrent exchange is a design used in many biological industrial processes including all the following

kidneys to concentrate urine refrigeration heat conservation in dolphin fins o2 absorption in fish gills cooling via sweating is not an example ( that is evaporative cooling

why is there boreal forests in the southern hemisphere?

land masses don't extend as far as they do north .. the southern hemisphere is dominated by water rather than land

which of the following is not a feature of terrestrial plant tissues that herbivores must overcome to meet their nutritional needs for growth and metabolism? low sodium content low C:N ration tough cellulose and lignin polymers toxic alkaloids hairs

low C:N ratio..... terrestrial plants have a C:N ratio

Compared to plants growing in high lights, plants growing in shaded environments tend to have___

lower max rate photosynthesis but higher rate at low light levels

being heterozygous for the sickle cell trait is advantageous in...

malarial environments but not advantageous in some non malarial environments.... being homozygous of the sickle cell trait is never advantageous

relative to an otherwise asexual species, asexually reproducing species in which individuals are either female or male occurs at two folds cost given that___

males cannot bare offspring

all are ecosystem services by coastal wetlands except storm surges? carbon sequestrations? nurseries for fishes? n fixation?

n fixation

density dependent feedbacks that slow population growth has population increases are ___________

negative

what are some fo the most important mutualisms with respect to the productivity of terrestrial ecosystems

nitrogen fixing bacteria and mycorrhizae

marine productivit is limited by

nutrient availability

directional selection

occurs when natural selection favors one of the extreme variations of a trait

if the y axis is population size and x axis is time, which graph shows population over time

one that shows regular oscilation

two soils have been weathered for a similar amount of time, in a similarly humid tropic environment but one is much more fertile than the other this is because of... parent material, origin, mineral composition, none of these, or all of these

parent material, origin, and mineral composition are all the same thing... so ALL OF THESE

evolution acts on the individual the allele the phenotype the genotype sexually rather than asexually producing organisms

phenotype

which of the following is not an essential nutrient for terrestrial plants?

potassium, iron, calcium, molybdenum, but aluminum is not essential... in tropical soils, aluminum can be toxic

which is a major problem for animals in salty environments?

preventing water loss

some desert plants have white hairs to reduce this type of heat gain

radiative ( white hairs radiate/ reflect)

genetic drift is change in the allele frequency in a population due to__

random chance.. not due to any kind of selection or nonrandom mating

what factors affect the maintenance of genetic variation

recombination

Tubers we rely on for food (sweet potatoes, yam, casava etc) come from environments that are ____

seasonal

to succesfully produce blueberries you must plant bushes of more than one variey this is bc blueberry flowers are hard to grow risk spreading diecious slef incompatable

self incompatable

the basal metabolic rate per unit body mass is highest in a

small endotherm ( high surface area to volume ratio)

a plant is transported from one environment to another through thermal imaging a temperature increase in its leaves is observed which of the following is most likely a factor in this temp difference the new environment is more humid? soil is less fertile? it's windier? soil is drier?

soil is drier

solar energy heats the earth more at the equator than at the poles bc

the incoming angle NOT tilt of the earth cloud cover the relative proportions of land vs ocean

natrual selection

the theory that organisms better suited to their environment are more likely to survive

seasonal variation. in temperature and day length is due to....

the tilt of the earth on its axis

countercurrent exchange

the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions

humans beat many other mammals for certian kinds of endurance, this is bc

they are relatively hairless they have abundant sweat glands they can thermoregulate and keep cool at warm temperatures

human populations from regions with lots of direct sunlight tend to have highly pigmented skin whereas the human populations with the least pigment tend to come from regions with. long winters and little direct sunlight. these are likely adaptations to cope with

uv rays, and vitamin d production respectively

evolution of a trait by natural selection of a population requires all the following

variability of the trait differential survival or reproductive success expression of the trait variation of the trait among members of the population genetic drift is not part of this

if organisms can do both sexual and asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction typically occurs

when resources become scarce.

an ecologist plants two of the same type of plant.. one with mycorrhizae, and the other without, in which of the following environment should he see the biggest in difference in the health of the 2 plants?

where the soil is low in available mineral nutrients

why are north atlantic and southern oceans sites where oceans surface water sink?

winter winds evaporate in cool surface water resulting in colder saltier waters that sink

Where is evapotranspiration highest?

Where there is more sun, closer to the equator, and where it is windy

genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

What is photorespiration and when does it occur?

A respiratory process in many higher plants in which they take up oxygen in the air and release some carbon dioxide. It occurs when the concentration of carbon dioxide is low and the concentration of oxygen is high

What is secondary productivity?

Accumulation of biomass in consumers

Give an example of how scale matters when considering climate and soils

Age of soil, you can see lots of changes in small scales, granite outcrops, what side of the mountain

What is allochthonous vs autochthonous?

Allochthonous - materials that did not originate in an ecosystem Autochthonous - materials that are generated or originate from the ecosystem it was found it

Endotherm

An organism that is internally warmed by a heat-generating metabolic process

What is fitness from an evolutionary perspective?

An organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment

Desert Biomes

Deserts generally occur in a band around the world between 15-30° N and S latitude (Figure 4). They cover between 26-35% of the land surface of the Earth. The climate of deserts is dominated by low precipitation, generally below 250 mm yr-1 (Figure 7). However, there is a lot of variability in desert types, with hot deserts, cold deserts, high elevation deserts, and rain shadow deserts. Consequently, there is a great deal of variation in the biodiversity, productivity and organisms found in different types of desert.The dominant plant biomass in most deserts is composed of perennial shrubs with extensive roots and small, gray or white leaves. However, in warm deserts, therophytes (annual plants) can make up most of the species diversity (Figure 2). Desert annuals can survive unpredictable dry periods as seeds. Seeds may remain viable in the soil for several years, until the appropriate rainfall and temperature conditions occur, after which they will germinate. These annuals grow rapidly, completing their life cycle in a few weeks, then flowering and setting seed before soil water reserves are depleted. Winter desert annuals in North American deserts can generate over 1 kg m-2 of biomass in a wet year.With the exception of large blooms of annuals, net primary productivity in most deserts is low and extremely variable. There is a positive relationship between productivity and precipitation, and values can range from near 0 to 120 g m-2 yr-1. Just as with savannas, productivity will vary with soil depth and local drainage patterns (e.g., washes).

Distinguish between sand, silt, and clay

Differences in particle size, pore size, and chemical properties Sand is the biggest and has big pores. Clay and silt has more water holding capacity and can better exchange ions

What is ENSO? Why is it important?

El Nino Southern Oscillation. It is the heating of the southern pacific that can affect other parts of the world and cause drought and greater rainfall

What are some additional determinants that occur at smaller spatial or temporal scales?

Elevation, latitude, hydrology, rain shadows, soil

Explain the relationships between endotherm, ectotherm, poikilotherm, and homeotherm

Endotherm - internal thermoregulation, "warm-blooded" Ectotherm - dependent on external temperatures, "cold-blooded" Poikilotherm - regulates body temperature through behavior (ex. Basking and burrowing) Homeotherm - heat generated by metabolic activity

What is evapotranspiration?

Evaporation from plants

How does the availability of cations change as soils develop over time?

Initially it might go up, but over time they leach cations

What is a continental climate?

Large amount of variation throughout the year; hot summers and cold winters

what are the hierarchies of scale within ecology

Levels of organization in ecology include the population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere

Northern Coniferous Forest Biome

Located at higher latitudes is a biome dominated by needle-leaved, drought tolerant, evergreen trees (Figure 4), and a climate consisting of long, cold winters and short, cool summers (Figure 11). Biodiversity is low in this two-layered forest made up of an overstory of trees and a ground layer of herbs or mosses. The overstory in much of the boreal forest is made up of only one or two species. The low biodiversity is mirrored by low net primary productivity of 200-600 g m-2 yr-1. Productivity varies with precipitation, the length of the frost-free period, and local soil drainage. In flooded areas, sphagnum bogs may develop. The acidic tissue of sphagnum, and the anoxic, flooded conditions, slows decomposition, resulting in the production of peat bogs.

Savanna Biomes

Located north and south of tropical forest biomes are savannas (Figure 4), with lower yearly rainfall and longer dry seasons (Figure 6). These biomes are dominated by a mix of grasses and small trees. Savannas cover 60% of Africa and represent a transition from tropical forests to deserts. Trees in savannas are usually drought deciduous. Several savanna types associated with differing rainfall patterns, height of the water table and soil depth can be distinguished by their relative abundance of trees and grass.Net primary productivity ranges from 400-600 g m-2 yr-1, but varies depending upon local conditions such as soil depth. Decomposition is rapid and year-round, and the annual turnover rate of leaf material is high; up to 60-80%. This turnover is aided by the rich diversity of large herbivores found in savannas, where up to 60% of the biomass can be consumed in a given year. Dung beetles are important components of the nutrient cycle due to their role in breaking down animal droppings. The high herbivore diversity and production is mirrored by the great variety of predators and scavengers found in savannas.

What are some advantages of endothermy in large-bodied animals?

Lower heat loss, high thermal inertia, wider habitat range (can remain active at temperatures that would immobilize others), generally protects from fungal pathogens

Why is there less variation in the southern than northern hemispheres?

More bodies of water

Why are coastal zones, upwelling zones, and high latitude regions of the ocean higher in productivity than the rest of the open ocean?

More nutrients at the surface

What is the origin of most genetic variation?

Mutation

Why is there less variation in temperature at the equator than higher latitudes?

The amount of sunlight varies less at the equator

Mediterranean Climate Biomes

This small biome (about 1.8 million square km) is separated into five separate regions between 30-40 degrees N and S latitude (Figure 4) with hot, dry summers, and cool, moist winters (Figure 10). Unrelated evergreen, sclerophyllous shrubs and trees have evolved independently in each of these areas, representing a striking example of convergent evolution. Net primary productivity varies from 300-600 g m-2 yr-1, dependent upon water availability, soil depth, and age of the stand. Stand productivity decreases after 10-20 years as litter and woody biomass accumulates. Recurring fires aid in nutrient cycling and many plants show fire-induced or fire-promoted flowering. Some species are able to resprout from buds protected by the soil, while others germinate from decay-resistant seeds that lie dormant in the soil until a fire promotes their germination. Therophytes make up a large component of the flora, and their appearance is associated with openings created by fires.

What are factors that generate seasonality?

Tilt of the Earth and currents

Explain how plants move water from soil to tissues

Transpiration, hydrogen bonds, concentration gradient in roots, cohesion, and adhesion

Tropical Forest Biomes

Tropical forests are found in areas centered on the equator. Central and South America possess half of the world's tropical forests. Climate in these biomes shows little seasonal variation, with high yearly rainfall and relatively constant, warm temperatures.Tropical forests have the highest biodiversity and primary productivity of any of the terrestrial biomes. Net primary productivity ranges from 2-3 kg m-2 y-1 or higher. This high productivity is sustained despite heavily leached, nutrient poor soils, because of the high decomposition rates possible in moist, warm conditions. Litter decomposes rapidly, and rapid nutrient uptake is facilitated by mycorrhizae, which are fungal mutualists associated with plant roots.The tropical forest biome is estimated to contain over half of the terrestrial species on Earth. Approximately 170,000 of the 250,000 described species of vascular plants occur in tropical biomes. As many as 1,209 butterfly species have been documented in 55 square kilometers of the Tambopata Reserve in southeastern Peru, compared to 380 butterfly species in Europe and North Africa combined.The tropical forest biome is composed of several different sub-biomes, including evergreen rainforest, seasonal deciduous forest, tropical cloud forest, and mangrove forest. These sub-biomes develop due to changes in seasonal patterns of rainfall, elevation and/or substrate.

density-independent regulation

When birth or death rates do not change with population density.