Ecology and Evolution FINAL
True or False: A trait cannot be subject to natural selection unless it is heritable
True
True or False: Abundance alone is not always a sufficient measure of dominance
True
True or False: During succession, colonizing species can change the environment, making it more hospitable for other species
True
True or False: Ernst Mayr contributed to the evolutionary synthesis theory with his ideas about how isolation can generate new species.
True
True or False: Evolution is a scientifically valid theory
True
True or False: Gene flow can introduce new alleles into a population's gene pool
True
True or False: Most species of vertebrates are iteroparous
True
True or False: Population density CAN affect the age at which an animal matures
True
True or False: Terrestrial communities are often named and classified based on the dominant plant growth form and physical structure: forests, shrublands, or grassland communities
True
True or False: The equation (dn/dt =rN) provides information about how many organisms will be added to a population.
True
True or False: The expression of most phenotypic traits is affected to varying degrees by the environment.
True
True or False: The form and structure of terrestrial communities are defined more by the plants than the animals present
True
True or False: The most accurate but difficult method is to mark YOUNG individuals in a population and follow their survival through time
True
True or False: The removal of a single species from a community can have unpredictable consequences.
True
True or false: A field study in Kenya found that grass productivity and large herbivore density increase with decreasing tree cover
True
True or false: In coevolution, adaptations are in response to another species rather than the environment
True
True or false: Interspecific competition is between members of different species
True
True or false: Most predator populations grow slowly, lagging in comparison to those of their prey
True
True or false: Predation always has a negative effect on the individual prey
True
A. Batesian mimicry B. Mullerian mimicry C. Applies to both types of mimicry A palatable species resembles an unpalatable one
A- Batesian mimicry
b(cNprey)Npred
Birthrate of predator population x the total number of prey captured per unit time x the total number of predators
True or False: A human's arm and a dolphin's fin are examples of analogous structures
False
True or False: All animals disperse actively, whereas all plants disperse passively
False
True or False: An individual evolves during its lifetime
False
True or False: Exponential population growth never occurs in natural populations
False
True or False: If a forest canopy is dense and closed, the understory and shrub layers tend to be well developed
False
True or False: Invasive species are unintentionally introduced and usually do not cause harm
False
True or False: Mutation results in adaptive changes in allele frequencies
False
True or False: Populations can never exceed their carrying capacity
False
True or False: The density of a population is measured by just counting every individual.
False
True or False: The removal of a keystone species from a community typically results in an increase of diversity.
False
True or false: An organism's realized niche is always smaller than its fundamental niche
False
True or false: Parasites are ALWAYS transmitted between hosts via an intermediate vector organism
False
True or False: Changes due to developmental plasticity are reversible
False **Definition of developmental plasticity: The shaping of later life traits by early life environments
a type of mutualism in which the species involved are in close proximity and interdependent with one another in a way that one cannot survive without the other ex: coral and algae
Obligate mutualism:
Parasitism (+/-)
One organism benefits and the other is harmed but not killed
Predation (+/-)
One species (predator) kills and eats the other (prey)
Parasatoidism
One species uses another for reproduction, and its larvae feed on it, eventually killing it
Did Gregor Mendel support or oppose the theory of natural selection?
Oppose
According to the figure above, when these two species are combined in a culture, what will the outcome be? A) P. aurelia wins B) P. caudatum wins C) Both species coexist D) P. aurelia wins only if it starts at a higher abundance
P. aurelia wins
the ability of one genotype to give rise to different phenotypes under different environmental conditions
Phenotypic plasticity
Typological view
Plato
True or False: . The age of the earth is approximately 4-5 billion years old
True
True or False: A food web is more complicated than a food chain
True
True or False: A quadrat is usually used to measure density in non-mobile populations of animals
True
An age pyramid is a graphical representation of the
age structure of a population at one point in time, but it can provide information on future growth
The measures of population structure include
age, developmental stage and size
The geographic range of a species encompasses
all of the individuals of a species ----the range is limited by tolerance to different environmental conditions including temperature, soil moisture, and elevation
The hardy-weinberg principle predicts
allele and expected genotype frequencies for a population that is NOT evolving
Chemicals released by plants to inhibit germination and establishment of other species is known as
allelopathy
Which of the following hunting methods has the lowest frequency of success but requires the least amount of energy?
ambush
A population WITH overlapping generations have
an age structure
A population with non-overlapping generations does NOT have
an age structure; the individuals reproduce and die within a single season
Batesian Mimicry
an edible species resembles/mimics an inedible species *once predator learns to avoid the "model", it will naturally avoid the "mimic" Ex: snakes, rattle tails
This maximum value, Hmax = S can be used to calculate
an index of species evenness EH = H/Hmax The values range from 0 to 1 (complete evenness with all species equally abundant)
Succession is seen in both
aquatic and terrestrial environments
Coevolution in predator/prey can be a "________"
arms race
Late successional species
arrive later and often have: longer lifespan, large size, low dispersal
In a forest community, the layer in which most photosynthesis occurs is the:
canopy layer
Describe the parental care invested: invertebrates
cares for eggs by brooding and defending
The loss of a keystone species can lead to
changes in community structure and loss of biodiversity
The length of a butterfly tongue perfectly matches the nectar tube of a flower it pollinates. This is an example of
coevolution
Hypolimnion
cold, high density, deep water
A remora feeds on the scraps that escape from a shark's mouth while feeding. It has no clear positive or negative impact on the shark. This is an example of
commensalism
is a group of species inhabiting a given area and interacting, directly or indirectly
community
In birds, the number of males tends to be __________ than females
higher, because nesting females are more susceptible to attack/predation
Anatomical features that show an underlying structural similarity even though their superficial structure and function is different are termed, ________ structures.
homologous
Species evenness
how equal the distribution of species is
Evolutionary fitness
how well one is to survive in a current environment
DNA sequences in many human genes are very similar to the sequences of corresponding genes in chimpanzees. The most likely explanation for this result is that
humans and chimpanzees share a relatively recent common ancestor
Unintentional specialization can be caused from
importation of agricultural and forest products
Birth rate and immigration _________ population size
increase
If the reproductive fitness of a predator is directly related to the consumption of prey, then the birthrate of the predator (bpredator) should
increase as Nprey increases
Increased survivorship that but less time to reproduce means _______ fecundity
increased fecundity
Net primary productivity in an ecosystem increases as mean annual temperature and mean annual rainfall _________.
increases
What is the term when one species benefits from an indirect interaction and the other has a neutral effect? a) indirect competition b) indirect mutualism c) indirect commensalism
indirect commensalism
As the density of a population increases, the A) survival rate increases. B) reproductive rate increases. C) intensity of intraspecific competition decreases. D) individual growth rate decreases.
individual growth rate decreases.
In Clumped distribution
individuals are found in groups ex: school of marine fish **Most common spatial distribution
immigration
individuals entering a subpopulation
emigration
individuals exiting a subpopulation
Overgrowth competition
individuals of one species grow over individuals of other species by inhibiting access to a resource
Consumption competition
individuals of one species inhibit individuals of another species by consuming a shared resource
Preemption competition
individuals of one species prevent occupation of an area by individuals of another species
Chemical interaction competition
individuals of one species release growth inhibitors or toxins that inhibit or kill other species
Competition happens when
individuals use a common resource that is limited
You see a killifish jumping around on the surface before it is consumed by a bird. You conclude the fish was A) trying to scare its predator B) infected with a trematode C) hunting for flying insects
infected with a trematode
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that organisms
inherited acquired traits to adapt to their environment
Aphotic layer
insufficient light for photosynthesis
the ___________ are the hosts during a stage in the parasites life cycle
intermediate host
The garter snake in this diagram (it's in the middle of the top predator and the bottom) shown below is an example of a(n)
intermediate species
Within a food web, herbivores are considered to be
intermediate species
True marine life begins in the
intertidal zone
__________are responsible for 68 percent of recent fish extinctions in North America
introduction of exotic fish
Intersexual selection
involves an individual of one sex selecting another based on attractiveness ---assortative mating ---leads to exaggerated characteristics for sexual displays
Intrasexual selection
involves competition between members of the same sex for access to mates ----usually male to male competition, as female to female competition is uncommon ex: giraffes, deer, walrus
A control group (is/is not) manipluated
is NOT
Food chain
is a representation of feeding relationships within a community --represents the flow of energy from prey to consumer ---arrows go from prey to predator
benthic layer
is the bottom layer of sediments with higher levels of decomposition
Evolution
is the change in a species over a periof of time
Secondary production
is the net energy allocated to production and it depends primarily on primary production
Primary production
is the rate at which autotrophs convert CO2 into organic compounds
A sere
is the sequence of communities seen in succession, from grass to shrub to forest Each of the changes is called a seral stage
Food webs are typically arranged into trophic levels with
primary producers at the bottom, herbivores in the middle, and carnivores at the top
Secondary production is limited primarily by
primary production
Independently developed by Grinnel and Elton, an Ecological niche is:
the range of physical and chemical conditions under which that species is able to survive and reproduce
Explain Allelopathy in plants
the secretion of chemicals that inhibit germination of other species
K-selection is
the selection for life history traits that are advantageous at high population densities (stable environments, density dependent)
r-selection is
the selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success at low density (unstable environments, density-INdependent)
What is a zero-growth isocline?
the set of values of two population sizes where the growth rate is 0
Abundance defines
the size of a population ----the number of individuals ---the function of population density and the area over which it is distributed
Rank abundance is _________
the species ranking based on relative abundance; ranked from the MOST to the LEAST abundant
Geographic barriers: What are some examples of geographic barriers?
they reduce or prevent individuals from moving and colonizing new areas ex: bodies of water, mountains, unsuitable habitats such as deserts, competition, predation
Simpson's diversity index refers to D = Spi2
three closely related indices that consider both species number and relative abundance (D) - probability that two randomly selected individuals from the community will belong to the same species 1 - D - probability that two randomly selected individuals from the community will belong to the different species
GPP (Gross Primary Production) is the
total rate of photosynthesis by autotrophs
Removal of sea otters from a system results in a massive increase in sea urchins and subsequent loss of kelp beds. This is an example of a a) apparent competition b) trophic cascade c) bottom-up control
trophic cascade
Interspecific competition involves
two or more species
Mullerian mimicry
two or more unpalatable species resemble each other
Mullerian mimicry
two or more unpalatable species resemble each other unpalatable, venomous, or toxic species share a similar color pattern ex: wasps
Apparent competition
two species that do not compete directly for resources, affect each other indirectly because they share the same predator
Coevolution is the process in which
two species undergo evolutionary change through natural selection --can be counter adaptive like predator-prey relationships --can be mutually beneficial
If survival rates do not vary with age (as in many species of perennial plants, reptiles, adult birds, and rodents) survivorship curves are typically
type II
Productivity (rate of production) expressed in units
unit of energy per unit area per unit time kcal/m2/yr g/m2/yr
Canopy:
upper layer- primary sites of energy through photosynthesis
Parasites move around using
vectors
A useless or rudimentary body part that is thought to have been important in ancestral populations but no longer has a known function:
vestigial structure
Epilimnion
warm, low-density, surface waters
Which of the following is a density-independent factor? A) weather event B) shelter availability C) increase in predators
weather event
NPP=GPP-R
what is the formula for net primary productivity?
Contest competition
when some individuals claim enough resources for themselves while denying others a share
When would you use the equation of Competition coefficient, alpha and beta? Species 1 dN1/dt = r1N1(1 - (N1 + alphaN2)/K1) Species 2 dN2/dt = r2N2(1 - (N2 + betaN1)/K2)
when two species are living in the same habitat but are unlikely to use same resources
The demographic age pyramid of a rapidly growing population is
wide at the base, narrow at the top.
Ubiquitous species have a geographically ____________ distribution
widespread
Savanna communities have two distinct layers of vegetation; the composition depends on rainfall
woody plants - trees and shrubs herbaceous layer - grasses
Natural selection ________.
works on individuals, but its long-term effect is rendered on populations
Thermocline
zone of rapid temperature change
The food ingested by a consumer (I) can be: The energy that is assimilated (A) can be:
§assimilated in the gut (A) §expelled from the body as waste (W) §used in respiration (R) §used for production (P)
_______ alleles present at each gene within an organism's genome
genotype
If, via global warming, the temperatures increased in Canada, the red maple might be able to extend its ________ to the North.
geographic range
The biomass of producers must be ____________ than that of the herbivores The biomass of herbivores must be __________than that of the carnivores
greater, greater
When environmental conditions exceed the zone of tolerance for an organism, this will affect
growth, age of maturity, reproduction, survival, movement, and even extinction if extreme conditions
The color of a flower is controlled by two alternative alleles at a single locus, R (red) and r (white). If an individual has the Rr alleles, it is considered to be
heterozygous with a red color
The mutualistic relationship with bacteria that provides the bioluminescent glow of the light organ helps the bobtail squid to...
hide from predators and prey
Early sexual maturity is predicted to result in
higher reproduction earlier in life
Actual feeding relationships in a community are
not simple food chains
What does "B" stand for
number of births each day
__________________are being reported continually from the fossil record.
"Intermediate types"
Ecologists referred to resource partitioning as a product of coevolution between competitors as
"the ghosts of competition past"
Species richness
(S)- the number of species in the community
The Hardy-Weinberg principle assumes 5 things:
- random mating -large population -no mutation -no migration -no natural selection
Examples of evolved defenses against predators
-Chemical defenses -Cryptic colorations (camouflage) -object resemblance -flashing coloration (deers raising tail exposing white undertone to alarm others) -warning coloration (aka: aposematism) (bright colors indicating that they are toxic organisms) -mimicry -protective armor (beetles, turtles and armadillos) -behavioral (displays distractions)
Relationship between the elaboration of the father's train (measured by the area of eyespots)
-Higher weight and higher probability of survival -Their offspring have a higher growth rate and probability of survival than those fathered by males with less elaborate trains. -Males with large trains are more likely to be visible to predators may reduce the probability of his survival -If a male with a large train can survive, it indicates that he is healthy and strong -He has "good" genes
What does the Mark-recapture method entail
-capture and mark a number of individuals in population (N) -release known number (M) -after time, recapture a number of individuals (n) ------> some are marked/recaptured (R) and some unmarked
Zonation differences are the result of
-environmental changes including microtopography, water depth and salinity
The body color of many insects is affected by the temperature during development: -insects from cooler climates are __________ -_________ color absorbs more solar radiation -warmer body compensates for _________ temperatures
-insects from cooler climates are darker -darker color absorbs more solar radiation -warmer body compensates for cooler temperatures
Sexual dimorphism causes
-males to look more elaborate, which are costly in terms of survival
Examples of trade-offs
-mode of reproduction -age or timing of first reproduction -number and size of eggs, young or seeds
What is important about exponential growth?
-occurs in unlimited resource environments -closed population -"r" is constant (birth/death rate) -no genetic variability -continuous reproduction
Results of brood enlargement (number of chicks in nest):
-parents hunted more -parent survival declined with increasing brood size -food intake per chick reduced -nestling growth rate reduced -nestling mortality increased
Extrinsic factors directly influencing survivorship and mortality include
-physical environment -presence of predators -presence of competitors
Factors that can lead to Density-DEpendent regulation:
-reduced resource availability -changes in patterns of predation -spread of disease and parasites
Intrinsic factors imposing constraints include
-the evolutionary h/o species -developmental patterns -genetics -physiology
many organisms depends on PASSIVE dispersal. What are some examples of passive dispersal?
-wind (carrying spiders/seeds) -gravity -water (carries larvae of invertebrates downstream) -animals
Batesian mimicry
A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators.
Populations od sexually reproducing organisms usually have a sex ratio close to
1:1
Because S is the maximum value of this index, evenness can be calculated using this equation ED = (1/D)/S The value of evenness (ED) ranges from __________
0 to 1; at 1 all species are equally abundant
You set raccoon traps around an area and find that the population of raccoons is approximately 1,000. Over the course of the next year, you determine that 300 raccoons are born and 250 die. Calculate the growth rate, "r".
0.05 Take the difference between birth and death and divide that by the total population. 300-250 = 50 50/1000= 0.05
In a population with a q allele frequency of 0.6, what would the frequency of allele p
0.4
What is the frequency of the A1A2 genotype in a population composed of 20 A1A1 individuals, 80 A1A2 individuals, and 100 A2A2 individuals?
0.4 80 of Species A1A2/(100+80+20) total population= 0.4
In the example, I = 100 J, A = 50 J, W = 25 J, R = 25 J, and P = 25 J. What is the assimilation efficiency of this consumer?
0.5 Assimilation Efficiency is: A/I, 50/100= 0.5
In the example, I = 100 J, A = 50 J, W = 25 J, R = 25 J, and P = 25 J. What is the production efficiency of this consumer?
0.5 Production efficiency is: P/A, 25/50= 0.5
In peas, a gene controls flower color such that R = purple and r = white. In an isolated pea patch, there are 36 purple-flowering plants and 64 white-flowering plants. Assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what is the value of q2 for this population?
0.64 64/ total population (100)
Hunting tactics evolved in predators include
1) Ambush hunting (lie and wait for prey to come), requires minimal energy but low rate of success ----ex: crocodilians, frog, lizard, insects 2) Stalking (quick attack), search time is long, pursuit time is minimal, most energy spent finding the prey ----ex: cheetah 3) Pursuit hunting (chasing down prey), search time is short, pursuit time is long, most energy is spent capturing and handling prey ----ex: Wolf/coyote
dN/dt = rN(1-N/K) Referring to this equation: 1) When N is much less than K, the term is ___________ 2) As N approaches K, the term approaches _____, ultimately ______ population growth. 3) If N exceeds K, the population growth will be __________.
1) When N is much less than K, the term is close to 1 2) As N approaches K, the term approaches 0, ultimately slowing population growth. 3) If N exceeds K, the population growth will be negative
Females choose mates based on two factors
1) available resources related to fitness 2) characteristics of quality and health
Biogeography has 2 distinct patterns:
1) closely related; different species live in slightly different habitats 2) distantly related; similar species live in similar habitats around the world
What are the assumptions of the Lincoln-Peterson index of relative population size
1. Sampling is random 2. marked individuals are randomly distributed through the population 3. the ratio of marked and unmarked does not change between sampling periods
The population growth equation for the prey population consists of:
1. The exponential model of population growth dN/dt = rN 2. A term that represents prey mortality as a result of predation cNprey
The general ecological rule of thumb is that _______________ stored as biomass in a trophic level is converted to biomass in the next-higher trophic level
10 percent of energy
What is the average trophic efficiency in food pyramids?
10%
If herbivores eat 1000 kcal of plant energy, approximately how much energy will be converted into the tissues of herbivores?
100 kcal 1000x 10%= 100
Calculate the estimated population size, N, given a study that initially marked 100 animals and subsequently captured 50, of which 25 were marked. N = nM/R
200 N=nM/R N=? M=initially marked (100) n= # captured (50) R= recaptured (25) N= (100x50) / 25 = 200
An ecologist studying productivity in a sample of grasses measures gross primary productivity as 1000 kcal/m2/yr and autotrophic respiration as 100 kcal/m2/yr. Based on these calculations, the net primary productivity would be:
900 kcal/m2/yr GPP-R=NPP---> 1000-100=900
A population that is increasing in size has an intrinsic rate of population growth (r) that is A) < 0. B) = 0. C) > 0. D > 1.
>0 **Definition of Intrinsic rate: The rate at which a population increases in size if there are no density-dependent forces regulating the population is known as the intrinsic rate of increase.
A. Intrasexual selection B. Intersexual selection Involves defending resources needed by females.
A
A. Intrasexual selection B. Intersexual selection Two male deer fighting with their antlers to acquire mating rights.
A **intrasexual selection refers to competition with members of the same sex.
What is the difference between a parasite and a parasitoid?
A parasitoid typically always kills its host
In the Lotka-Volterra predator and prey equations, the rate of change for both populations is affected by the A.per capita rate of consumption by the predator. B.mortality rate of the predator. C.intrinsic rate of increase for the prey. D.Both equations use all of these factors to determine the rate of change for both populations.
A.per capita rate of consumption by the predator.
phenotypic plasticity in response to current environmental conditions ----> is reversible Example: seasonal changes in temperature tolerance in fish fish have upper and lower limits to temperatures they can tolerate these limits change as water temperature changes with the seasons
Acclimation
Which of the following contributed to the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria? A) Mutations in the population B) Asexual, rapid reproduction C) Selection for antibiotic resistant bacteria D) All the above
All of the above
A pyramid with an equal distribution across age classes (except old people) represents
Approximately ZERO population growth
Who? "scale of nature" "great chain of being"
Aristotle
A. Intrasexual selection B. Intersexual selection Males are usually brightly colored and females of same species often camouflaged.
B
A. Intrasexual selection B. Intersexual selection Males impressing females with elaborate courtships, such as songs and dances.
B **intersexual selection, is characterized by the choice of mates by the opposite sex
A. Batesian mimicry B. Mullerian mimicry C. Applies to both types of mimicry Several unpalatable species resemble each other.
B-Mullerian
Living plants of temperate South America closely resembled the plants of tropical South America. The biological explanation for this observation is most properly associated with the field of
Biogeography
This equation includes Species 1 only, Species 2 only, or both species (only is they have the same body size and exactly the same rate of food consumption)? dN1/dt = r1N1(1 - (N1 + N2)/K1)
Both species living in the same area, same food consumption and same body size
A. Batesian mimicry B. Mullerian mimicry C. Applies to both types of mimicry Aposematic coloration involved
C- Applies to both types of mimicry
A. Batesian mimicry B. Mullerian mimicry C. Applies to both types of mimicry Are adaptations as a result of predation
C- Applies to both types of mimicry
The actual number of links is L Food web connectance (C) = L/S2 Linkage Density is LD= L/S EX: §Number of species: S = 7 §Number of links: L = 8 §Maximum number of links: S2 = §Connectance: = ???
C= 8/49 = 0.16
Which scientist developed a classification system for organisms and believed that organisms were fixed entities?
Carolus Linnaeus
What is an example of competitive release?
Changes in the feeding niche of stickleback fish after manipulating the presence and absence of two competitors
Who published the Origin of Species in 1859?
Charles Darwin
Who wrote "On the Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex"
Charles Darwin
Wrote Principles of Geology; The earth must be old
Charles Lyell
Outcomes of Lotka-Volterra Model: a) species 1 wins b) species 2 wins c) competition can go either way d) coexistence
Coexistence
Using the Simpson Index of Diversity (1-D), which community has the highest diversity: Community A = .652 and Community B= .243
Community A, because the Simpson Index is lower, which indicates greater difference in species diversity. A: 1 - 0.652 = 0.348 B: 1 - 0.243 = 0.757
Outcomes of Lotka-Volterra Model: a) species 1 wins b) species 2 wins c) competition can go either way d) coexistence
Competition can go either way
Which of the following is an example of dendrochronology? A) measuring seedling recruitment B) counting juveniles in a population C) measuring finger bone size over time D) counting tree rings
Counting tree rings
-He was Interested in diversity of beetles. -Henslow persuaded him to become geologist. -Spent 5 years circumnavigating the globe -Read Lyell's Principles of Geology, which persuaded him that the earth was very ancient.
Darwin
As population density increases, the rate of fecundity decreases. This is called
Density-dependent fecundity
As population density increases, the rate of mortality increases. This is called
Density-dependent mortality
-phenotypic changes cannot be reversed. Low light vs. high light conditions
Developmental plasticity
According to the optimal foraging theory, a predator will select prey 1 (P1) over prey 2 (P2) when
E1/Th1 > E2/Th2
Which statement about the beak size of finches on the island of Daphne Major during prolonged drought is true? A) Each bird evolved a larger stronger beak as the drought persisted B) Each bird developed a smaller, stronger beak as the drought persisted C) Each bird's survival was strongly influenced by the depth and strength of its beak as the drought persisted D) The frequency of the strong-beak alleles decreased in each bird as the drought persisted
Each bird's survival was strongly influenced by the depth and strength of its beak as the drought persisted
What was the prevailing belief prior to the time of Lyell and Darwin?
Earth is a few thousand years old, and populations are unchanging.
The question of how species originate was investigated by __________.
Ernst Mayr
Macroevolution
Evolution on a large scale over a large period of time; refers to evolution above the species level
a type of mutualism in which the interacting species derive benefit from each other but not being fully dependent that each cannot survive without the symbiotic partner
Facultative mutualism:
This figure shows the norm of reaction between G1 and G2. The figure shows G1 at a less consistent rise than G2. Which of the following statements is true? a) G2 has a greater norm of reaction than G1. b) The greater the slope of the line, the lower the phenotypic plasticity. c) G1 has a greater norm of reaction than G2.
G2 has a greater norm of reaction than G1.
Which of the following formulas are correct regarding productivity? a) GPP +R=NPP b) GPP-R=NPP c) NPP-R=GPP
GPP - R = NPP
Who proposed that fossils resemble, but are not exactly the same as modern species? -Many past species are exinct. Founded 23 species in 1801 Discovered Irish Elk
Georges Cuvier
Why did Darwin need a theory of sexual selection?
He needed to explain the many traits that seem to reduce survival
If you were trying to determine the life history of an organism, which of the following is NOT a question you might ask? A) At what age or size do individuals mature and begin to reproduce? B) How many offspring are produced during its lifetime? C)How does the organism acclimate during the change in seasons D) How long do individuals live?
How does the organism acclimate during the change in seasons
Who were the three geologists that helped in evolution, recognizing that change was gradual?
Hutton, Lyell, and Smith
Is exploitation competition an example of indirect or direct interaction?
Indirect
Indirect interactions can be positive
Indirect commensalism and indirect mutualism
Mutualism (+/+)
Interaction that benefits both species
Commensalism (+/0)
Interaction that benefits one species, no effect on the other
The carrying capacity is the population size when dN/dt
Is equal to 0 (dN/dt = 0) (carrying capacity = population size)
What was one of the better arguments against Darwin's theory?
It lacked a satisfactory theory of heredity
Observable processes produce small changes that accumulate over time
James Hutton
Who? -Put forward the idea that species changed over time; evolution. -Did not suggest that lineages branched and went extinct. -Theory of transformism and inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lamarick
Complete the following for K-selection: Organism Size: Energy used to make Individual: # Offspring produced: Timing of maturation: Life expectancy: Lifetime reproduction events: Survivorship curve:
Large size high energy few offspring late maturation long life expectancy several reproductive event Type I or Type II curves
The "single mark/single recapture" gives the:
Lincoln-Peterson Index of relative population size
Who is this describing? modern system of taxonomy He thought that evolution did not change over time
Linneaus
You are estimating the population density of the Samuels song sparrow in the marshes around San Pablo Bay in California. Your research team initially captures and bands 285 birds. Three months later, you return and capture 335 birds. Of those, 4 were banded on your previous trip. What is M? What is n? What is R? What is the estimate of the total population size, N?
M = 285 n = 335 R = 4 N= nM/R N= 23,868
Your are part of a team studying an endangered species of land snail in upstate New York. You and your colleagues capture and mark 80 snails by putting a small spot of white paint on their shells. When you return five months later, you capture 45 snails and 5 of them have the mark. Based on these data, you conclude that the population of land snails has about ________________ individuals.
M=80 n=45 R=5 N=nM/R N=720
What is the most commonly used technique to measure animal population size
Mark-recapture
Hummingbirds have long bills and tongues to extract nectar. These characteristics are heritable. The longer the bill, the ________?
More food they can eat and the greater their relative fitness
Under the logistic growth model, the rate of population growth is highest when A) N = K B) N = K/2 C) N = r D) N = (1 - N/K)
N = K/2
If the initial population is 100 at day 0, what is N(t)?
N(0)=100
If the initial population is 100 and B=40 and D=10, what is the size of the population at the end of day 1?
N(1)= 100+40-10= 130
To estimate population density: Assume that the ratio of _____ represents the ratio for the entire population (N/M)
N/M= n/R N is the only unknown in the Mark-Recapture equation so the equation will look like, N= nM/R
The patterns of species replacement through time are
NOT random
What can influence a species niche?
Negative Effect: The presence of predators or pathogens Positive Effect: mutualism and commensalism
Encounter competition
Nonterritorial encounters between individuals of different species affect one or more of the species involved
the set of phenotypes expressed by a single genotype across a range of environmental conditions
Norm of reaction
Nprey = c = cNprey = dNpred =
Nprey = the size of the prey population c = the capture efficiency of the predator (the greater this value, the more efficient the predators and the greater the number of prey captured and consumed) cNprey = consumption of total prey dNpred = predator mortality rate
What does each term stand for? Nt=N0e^rt
Nt= population size at time "t" in the future N0= population size now (time zero) e= constant; 2.718 r= per capita population growth rate t-time
What does "D" stand for
Number of Deaths each day
You research the populations of beetles: You estimate that the population A size is 1,000. The growth rate is 0.02. The estimate for population B size is 500 with a growth rate of 0.15 Which population will be bigger in 5 months? Nt=Noert
Population A A: Nt= 1000x e^(0.02x5) = 1105 B: Nt= 500x e^(0.15x5) = 1058
Which of the following represents an idea that Darwin learned from the writings of Thomas Malthus? A) Technological innovation in agricultural practices will permit exponential growth of the human population into the foreseeable future B) Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their food supply normally allows. C) Earth changed over the years through a series of catastrophic upheavals. D) The environment is responsible for natural selection
Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their food supply normally allows
_____________ is the consumption of one living organism by another
Predation
______________ is a direct and often complex interaction between the eater and the eaten
Predation
Predator satiation
Prey are so abundant that the predator can only take a fraction of them, so most escape predation
Describe how the line would look in a logistic curve
S-shaped
_______________ of domesticated plants and animals have results that are similar to lab experiments and sometimes go beyond what is seen in nature.
Selective breeding
Describe the parental care invested: Birds and mammals:
Some
Outcomes of Lotka-Volterra Model: a) species 1 wins b) species 2 wins c) competition can go either way d) coexistence
Species 1 wins
Outcomes of Lotka-Volterra Model: a) species 1 wins b) species 2 wins c) competition can go either way d) coexistence
Species 2 wins
The amount of accumulated organic matter found in an area at a given time is the ________
Standing Crop Biomass
In a sandy beach community, ghost crabs and beach flies occur within the: (What zone)
Supratidal zone
What is the framework of time allocation
T = Ts + Th For a single prey item ts = per capita search time th = per capita handling time
Standing Crop Biomass (SCB)
The amount of accumulated organic matter found in an area at a given time
To determine the possible outcomes of competition using the Lotka-Volterra model, define the zero-growth isocline for each species
The combined values of the population size for species 1 (N1) and species 2 (N2) at which dN1/dt = 0 and dN2/dt = 0
Individuals that postpone reproduction for growth will have MORE offspring per reproductive period. What is this a direct relationship between?
The direct relationship between body size and fecundity
__________________comes from geology, anatomy, developmental biology, molecular biology, laboratory experiments with selection, and studies of natural selection in natural populations.; specifically fossil record, common descendants, selective breeding, and biogeography
The evidence for evolution
According to the Lotka-Volterra equations, which of the following is NOT an expected outcome of competitive interactions between two species? A) Species 1 drives species 2 to extinction. B) Species 2 drives species 1 to extinction. C) Both species coexist. D) The populations of both species increase to infinity.
The populations of both species increase to infinity.
Bateman's Principle
The sex which invests the most in offspring will become a limiting resource over which the other sex competes
______________________ immigrated from Russia and studied fruit flies.
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Evolution is a well-supported: a. Theory b. Fact c. Theory and Fact
Theory and Fact
Example of coevolution is in plants/flowers: What is a way to attract the pollinator to the flower and what are the rewards
They produce a signal such as bright colored flowers or scents and the rewards include nectar and pollen
Which of the following statements about r-strategists is FALSE? A) They are typically short lived B) They produce large sized offspring C) They are fast growing D) They produced a large number of offspring
They produce large sized offspring
The growth rate of the predator population is zero when Nprey = d/bc
This defines the zero-growth isocline for the predator population To the right of this line the predator population is growing; to the left the population is declining
Exponential growth related to resources available
Thomas Malthus
Which of the following statements best summarizes natural selection? A) Organisms evolve in order to become better adapted to the environment B) Individuals who are most fit will always survive C) Traits that promote survival and reproduction become more frequent in species from one generation to the next D) Organisms change to their environment and pass on those traits
Traits that promote survival and reproduction become more frequent in species from one generation to the next
True or False: The destruction of trees by elephants created habitats for smaller vertebrates.
True: Lizard density increased with density of damaged trees and another study showed an increase in grasses and bird species when elephants were present
True or False: Keystone herbivores like the African elephant can modify the community through their feeding activities.
True; they are destructive feeders and often uproot shrubs they eat
What type of functional response is seen in passive predators?
Type I
a survivorship curve that is strongly convex is
Type I
What type of functional response includes constraint and handling time?
Type II
a survivorship curve that is straight is
Type II
What type of functional response involves the initially low consumption of prey?
Type III
a survivorship curve that is concave is
Type III
Which of the following best describes the distribution of corn in an agricultural field? A) uniform B) random C) clumped D) ideal
Uniform
When the Darwin/Wallace theory of natural selection is summarized, four central postulates emerge. Which of the following is NOT a condition of natural selection? A) Variations exist in any given generation of a species B) Variations in traits are ALL produced by mutations C) Variations are, at least in part, heritable D) Variations can change generation to generation
Variations in traits are ALL produced by mutations
_______________ A structure found in an organism that is no longer in use but may have been useful at some point in the organism's life.
Vestigial Structures
Had some ideas about natural selection in addition to Darwins
Wallace
What defines the zero-growth isocline for the prey population
When the growth rate of the prey population is zero when Npred = r/c
Who proposed the idea that different rock layers contain distinct fossils
Will Smith
The equation that represents the rate of change in the prey population is dNprey/dt = rNprey - (cNprey)Npred In this equation, is the mortality caused by the predator, the only source of mortality?
Yes
is the change in physical and biological structures of communities as seen when moving across the landscape
Zonation
Supratidal
above high-tide line
If the two organisms have body structures that are similar, they must have had
a common ancestor; (they have homologous structures) Ex: human arm, bat wing, mouse forelimb, butterfly wing, and bird wing
The meningeal worm matures into an adult white-tailed deer. The deer are referred to as
a definitive host
Organisms that produce a lot of offspring often live in environments where parental care is difficult/smaller investment, due to unpredictability. Larger numbers of offspring increase the chance that:
a few will survive and reproduce
_______________has a disproportionate impact on the community relative to its abundance. Their effect is much greater than abundance.
a keystone species
An animal with high fecundity is predicted to usually have
a lower survival rates **Fecundity is an organism's reproductive capacity (the number of offspring it's capable of producing). The higher the fecundity of an organism, the less energy it's likely to invest in each offspring, both in terms of direct resources - such as fuel reserves placed in an egg or seed - and in terms of parental care
A pyramid with a narrow base represents
a population with fewer children than reproductive adults (NEGATIVE GROWTH RATE)
A pyramid with a wide base represents
a population with many children who have not yet reproduced (POSITIVE GROWTH RATE)
Which statement best describes a keystone species? A) a rare or uncommon species that has a strong effect on its community B) an abundant species that may or may not affect other species C) a species that takes up a great deal of space in a community D) a common species that has a strong effect on its community
a rare or uncommon species that has a strong effect on its community
is rarely composed of a single, continuous interbreeding population they are, however, grouped in subpopulations --have local populations of interbreeding individuals --linked by movement of individuals
a species
Under which of the following conditions would genetic drift exert the greatest influence? Small or large population?
a very small population of individuals
The Shannon Index (or shannon wiener index) is H = -S(pi)(lnpi)
a widely used index of diversity that also considers species richness and evenness
Bottom-up control
abundance of population is controlled by the productivity and abundance of population in the trophic level below them
A trait that warrants a greater level of fitness, relative to those who lack it, is called an________.
adaptation
A female exhibits two major approaches in choosing a mate, selecting either due to the phenotypic characteristics of the mate or the
ability of the male to provide resources
Change in population size (N) through time as predicted by the logistic model of population growth [dN/dt = rN(1 - N/K)]. Initially (low values of N), the population grows exponentially; as N increases, the rate of population growth ____________, eventually reaching zero as the population size approaches the carrying capacity (K). The relationship between the rate of population growth, dN/dt, and population size, N, takes the form of a parabola, reaching a maximum value at a population size of _________.
as N increases, the rate of population growth decreases, eventually reaching zero as the population size approaches the carrying capacity (K). Reaching a maximum value at a population size of N = K/2.
Scramble competition
as competition becomes more intense, growth and reproduction are depressed equally
What does it mean is an organism is sessile?
attached
There is a population of beetles that has 3000 individuals. In one month, there are 400 births and 150 deaths. Calculate the individual growth rate.
b= B/N---> 400/3000= 0.13 d= D/N---> 150/3000= 0.05 individual growth rate r=b-d ----> 0.08
If B=40, what is the per capita birthrate?
b=B/N(0) b=40/100 b=0.4
subtidal
below low-tide line, always submerged
intertidal
between high and low tide lines
Semelparity is known as
big-bang reproduction; they reproduce once and die
Open system means that
birth, immigration, death, and emigration all affect the population
When seagrass when removed from a coastal environment, there was a loss in the herbivores that feed on it. This is an example of
bottom-up control
The fitness of an individual is measured by
the proportionate contribution to produce offspring for the next generation
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) declines exponentially with water depth Photosynthetic rate and therefore GPP are highest at intermediate levels of PAR When GPP = R, NPP = 0 This is the
compensation depth Highest productivity is along coastal regions Lowest productivity is in open oceans
Seed selection is related to body and bill size of the bird. Smaller birds with smaller bills eat smaller, softer seeds. Adversely, larger birds with larger bills eat larger, harder seeds because it is less efficient for them to feed on small seeds If their bill size overlaps, the birds _____.
compete for intermediate size seeds
Intraspecific competition is
competition among individuals of the same species
The alpha and beta terms represent the _______ in the Lotka-Volterra models of population growth.
competition coefficients
When a species expands its niche in response to the removal of a competitor, as when Balanus was removed and Chthamalus expanded, it experienced what?
competitive release
The competitive exclusion principle states that
complete competitors cannot coexist. In other words, complete competitors are two distinct species that live in the same place and use a limiting resources in the same way and cannot coexist indefinitely.
What does this equation represent? N(t+1)= N(t) + bN(t) - dN(t)
compound growth; this will be the equation used when determining the population growth after x amount of days
The greater number of links in a food chain, the higher the:
connectance
You see two squirrels fighting over a food resource. This most likely represents
contest competition. **Definition: In ecology, contest competition refers to a situation where available resources, such as food and mates, are utilized only by one or a few individuals, thus preventing development or reproduction of other individuals
Which of the following are symbiotic with corals? A) polyps B) zooxanthellae C) silica D) clownfish
corals contain zooxanthellae, which is photosynthetic algae
What is a role of the keystone species
create or modify habitats, influence interactions among species
What factors affect dispersal?
crowding, food availability, temperature change
Optimal reproductive effort is the balance between
current and future reproduction that maximizes parental fitness
The concept of uniformitarianism, articulated by James Hutton in the late 1700s, states that ________.
current geological processes on Earth operate in the same manner as those that operated in the past
Describe how the line would look in an exponential growth graph
curved
If D=10, what is the per capita deathrate?
d=D/N(0) d=10/100 d=0.1
What is the exponential population growth model?
dN/dt = rN dN/dt represents small changes in population size over short time intervals "r" represents per capita population growth rate The value of "r" determines whether a population increases exponentially.
What is the logistic model of population growth equation?
dN/dt = rN(1-N/K)
d0prey is the
death rate of the prey population when the size of the predator population is zero
As the number of predators (Npredator) increases, the number of prey captured and killed increases, increasing the
death rate of the prey population (dprey) This is similar to the relationship seen in density-dependent population regulation
Death rate and emigration ______ population size
decrease
In terms of intra-specific competition and mortality.....as density in monarch butterfly eggs increase on a leaf, survival ___________ and there is a ___________ in fecundity
decreases and there is a reduction in fecundity
Describe the parental care invested: Crocodilians
defend nest and young after hatching
_____________ is the host in which a parasite becomes an adult (sexual maturity)
definitive host
Herb layer
depends on soil moisture, nutrients, slope (exposure and position), canopy and understory
Competition (-/-)
detrimental to both species; both compete for a resource
Gene flow is a concept best used to describe an exchange of alleles between
different populations
Is Interference competition as example of indirect or direct interaction?
direct
Fossil evidence indicates that horses have gradually increased in size over geologic time. Which of the following terms best describes this? A) artificial selection B) directional selection C) stabilizing selection D) disruptive selection
directional selection
A tick with Lyme disease infects a white tailed deer and is turn affects human health through__________. What role does the white tailed deer play?
disease transmission definitive host
Measurements of bill length in a population of seed-eating birds reveals two distinct groups: small-billed individuals feeding on soft-shelled seeds and large-billed individuals feeding on hard-shelled seeds. This bimodal distribution most likely resulted from A) stabilizing selection B) acclimation C) directional selection D) disruptive selection
disruptive selection: **Definition of Disruptive Selection: (which is an evolutionary force that drives a population apart. It will cause organisms with intermediate traits to reproduce less, and will allow these organisms with extreme traits to reproduce more.
What is sexual selection?
distinguished from natural selection which arises through variance in mating success
In density-INdependent populations, the birth rate and death rate:
do not change with population density
The basic Simpsons index, D, is used to measure___________
dominance; When D = 1, there is only one species present, so that one species is completely dominant
An allele that completely masks the effect of another allele is considered
dominant
The timing of reproduction includes tradeoffs Early reproduction means-
earlier maturity, less growth, reduced fecundity, reduced survivorship
The range of physical and chemical conditions under which a species can persist (survive and reproduce) and the array of essential resources it utilizes constitute the species' __________
ecological niche
Genetic variation can be found within and among subpopulations...this is otherwise known as
genetic differentiation
If more individuals move OUT of a forest than into it every year, the ________ rate is high.
emigration
Which organism is most likely to have the highest assimilation efficiency? a) ectothermic carnivore b) endothermic carnivore
endothermic carnivore, such as a lion
Density-INdependent factors include
environmental events such as fires, floods, and storms
Where are the areas of highest NPP found?
equator
Microevolution
evolution on a small scale over a short period of time; a change in gene frequency within a population
When the conditions are favorable for a population at low density, such as when a species colonizes a new environment, population growth is typically
exponential
Describe the parental care invested: insects like bees and ants
extensive parental care for eggs and young
In density-DEpendent populations, the birth rates
fall and death rate increases with increasing population density, this is due to a decrease in resource availability per capita
The layer of a forest in which decomposition takes place and mineral nutrients are released for reuse by plants is called the
forest floor
What are the basic components of the Hardy-Weinberg model?
frequencies of two alleles in a gene pool before and after many random matings
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation P + H + Q = 1, what does "Q" (or q2) represent?
frequency of recessive homozygotes genotype
On a dare, a student challenges another student to lick a California newt (Taricha torosa). From which population of newts should the student grab an individual to reduce his or her risk of a toxic dose?
from a population with no garter snakes
A species of cattail inhabits both deep and shallow water in the absence of a competitor but only shallow water in the presence of it. This is an example of
fundamental niche
A ______ encodes the information
gene
the sum of all genetic information (all alleles) across all individuals in a population Usually measured in two ways -allele frequency -genotype frequency
gene pool
A DNA molecule contains______
genes
_______all of the DNA in a cell
genome
Succession
is the temporal change in community structure at a given location Example: Abandoned cropland can go through succession First, grasses and weedy herbaceous plants colonize Then shrubs invade Over time, these shrubs are replaced by pine trees, eventually forming a closed-canopy forest Hardwood trees begin to occupy the understory Eventually, deciduous hardwoods dominate the landscape
Movement of individuals between subpopulations is an important part of metapopulation dynamics because
it maintains gene flow between the subpopulations
A true predator (predator):
kills its prey immediately upon capture, more or less
The timing of reproduction includes tradeoffs Late reproduction means -
late maturity, more growth, increased fecundity, increased survivorship
Which factor is the primary control of productivity in aquatic systems?
light
Photic layer
light available to support photosynthesis
The total number of observed links in the food web divided by the total number of species is the
linkage density; LD= L/S
Animals that are K-strategists tend to be ________.
long-lived, highly competitive, and characterized by stable population sizes
What might be a result of hunting sea otters to extinction for their fur?
loss of kelp beds
Large evolutionary changes that result in the placement of related organisms into different genera or higher-level taxa occur via the process of ________.
macroevolution
In most mammalian populations, the sex ratio at birth is slightly weighted towards ______
males at approx (1.07 :1)
Production efficiency (P/A)
measures how efficiently assimilated energy is incorporated into secondary production
Assimilation efficiency (A/I)
measures the efficiency of extracting energy from food
Trophic efficiency (TE)
measures the transfer to energy between trophic levels It is the ratio of the productivity in a given trophic level (Pn) to the trophic level its organisms feed on (Pn - 1) TE = Pn/Pn-1
In response to environmental conditions, the average beak size in a population of birds may change between successive generations. This process of change is referred to as ________.
microevolution
Character displacement is the shift in a
morphological, behavioral, or physiological character as a result of niche partitioning due to competition
What is the primary original source of genetic variation in a population?
mutation
The exponential population growth model is based on the assumption of unlimited essential resources and a constant environment, however these are NOT possible in _______
natural populations
Optimal foraging theory
natural selection favors "efficient" foragers (what food to eat where to search for food how to search for food how long to search for food In addition to foraging, predators must allocate time to avoiding their predators defense searching for mates caring for young Meeting all of these demands requires trade-offs)
Parasites can have intermediate hosts which may not have any __________
negative conseqeunces
Diversity of prey in stomach is an indicator of ________________ of the stickleback
niche breadth
Rhizobium are
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live within the root systems of plants and provide nitrogen allowing then to live in low nitrogen content areas
Of the following, which does NOT characterize a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? A) large population size B) no mutation C) nonrandom mating D) absence of gene flow .
nonrandom mating
Primary succession occurs at a location that was
not previously occupied by a community; a newly exposed surface
Which of the following best represents a measure of ecological density? A) number of frogs per meter of pond shoreline B) number of birds per hectare C) number of mammals per meter D) number of fish per volume of ocean
number of frogs per meter of pond shoreline
A population's density is calculated as the
number of individuals per unit area.
Population is the
number of organisms of the same species that live in a particular geographic area at the same time, with the capability of interbreeding
Which of the following is not a feature of a population? A) size B) density C) number of species D) distribution
number of species
Which of the following mutualists cannot survive without the mutualistic interaction, such as in lichen?
obligate mutualism Definition: one organism cannot survive without the other.
intentional species introduction
occurs from humans for ornamental and agricultural purposes
Dispersion is the pattern
of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population ---clumped (starfish on a single rock), uniform (penguins in their small habitat), and random (flowers in a field)
Different dating methods yield similar ages for fossil deposits, and they all indicate that the earth is ______
old
Amensalism (-/0)
one species is harmed while the other is unaffected
Closed system means that
only birth and death affect a population due to no immigration or emigration
In uniform distribution
organisms are found at a regular distance from each other ex: nesting shorebirds
Invasive species are
organisms that were successfully introduced to a place where they have never occurred. ---sometimes harmless, but mostly harmful
A taller plant shading those individuals below, and reducing available light, is referred to as
overgrowth competition
What is the allele frequency equation?
p + q = 1
If the frequency of one allele (a) is 0.4, what is the allele frequency of (A)?
p+0.4=1 1-0.4=0.6 0.6= (A) allele frequency
What is the genotype frequency equation?
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 OR P+H+Q=1
Which of the following physical structures would a lake possess?
photic layer
Zonation within a community is typically the result of differences in the: a) patterns of predation among species within a community b) rates of reproduction among species within a community c) physical characteristics of the environment across a spatial gradient
physical characteristics of the environment across a spatial gradient
A rank abundance diagram
plots rank abundance (x-axis) against corresponding relative abundance (y-axis) The plot provides information on species richness and species evenness
What does a survivorship curve plot/show?
plots the survivorship against age shows the number of offspring still alive over time -usually plotted on a log10 scale
What does the following formula represent? dN1/dt = r1N1(1 - (N1 + N2)/K1)
population growth of species 1 in presence of species 2
A parasite can alter the behavior of the host making it more susceptible to ______
predation for example: rabbits that are infected are sluggish and more vulnerable to predators
When prey produce so many offspring in a short period of time that predators can attack only a fraction of them, it is referred to as
predator satiation
In a simple experiment involving only predator and prey with no refuge,
predators will typically drive their prey to extinction
Populations can be divided into 3 ecologically important age classes
prereproductive reproductive post-reproductive
Secondary succession occurs at a location that was
previously occupied by a community and then underwent a disturbance that removed all or part of the existing community
According to the Red Queen hypothesis, in predator and prey:
prey must continually evolve means of avoiding capture to avoid extinction
When infected by a parasite, an animal typically A) grows more rapidly than a healthy individual B) is less likely to be preyed on than a healthy individual C) produces fewer offspring than a healthy individual
produces fewer offspring than a healthy individual
_________________- characteristic that shows a small number of discrete phenotypic categories single protein-coding gene
qualitative
____________ characteristic that shows a continuous distribution of phenotypes Encoded by two or more genes Phenotype could be affected by the environment
quantitative
Traits that have a continuous distribution are known as
quantitative traits
In the basic Lotka-Volterra equations that describe predator-prey interactions, the growth rate of the prey population (dNprey/dt) is zero when the density of predators (Nprey) is equal to
r/c
What is the equation used to discover the per capita growth rate of the population?
r=b-d
Describe the exponential growth curve on the graph if: r>0 r=0 r<0
r>0 it increases r=0 it is horizontal r<0 it decreases
NPP (Net Primary Production) is the
rate of energy stored as organic molecules after energy is expended for cellular respiration (R)
Reduced survivorship that reduces the potential future reproduction is ________ fecundity
reduced fecundity
Competitive interactions that negatively affect both species can lead to the divergence of the characteristics which
reduces the intensity of the interaction
Allocation to one aspect
reduces the resources available for other aspects
________________ the proportion of each species relative to the total number of individuals of all species living in the community pi=ni/N
relative abundance
Iteroparity is known as
repeated reproduction; produce offspring repeatedly
For a parasite and host to coexist, the host needs to The parasite needs to have an effect that allows it to survive (reproduce and be transmitted) but
resist infection, eliminating or minimizing the effect of the parasite without impairing its ability to grow and reproduce does not kill the host
Coexisting species of wild cats differ in the size of their canine teeth, which corresponds to differences in their preferred species of prey. This outcome is most likely the result of
resource partitioning
In natural populations, resources are _________ and the environment is _________
resources are limited and the environment is NOT constant. As the density of a natural population increases, the demand for resources also increases
Competition affects growth and development. As the population density increases, what happens?
resources become limited, growth and development are slow at first, but it leads to density-dependent growth
Endemic species have a geographically ________ distribution
restricted
What is the logistic growth equation?
rmaxN(K-N/K)
Migration is the movement of organisms that is
round-trip; occurs daily or seasonal ex: Gray whales feed in the arctic during summer, and winter off the california coast to birth calves
Two responses to limited resources include
scramble competition and contest competition
With a highly abundant prey population size, which component of the functional response in the predator is most reduced?
search time
Pacific salmon migrate upstream and after breeding, they soon die. They are termed
semelparous **Semelparity and iteroparity are two classes of possible reproductive strategies available to living organisms. A species is considered semelparous if it is characterized by a single reproductive episode before death, and iteroparous if it is characterized by multiple reproductive cycles over the course of its lifetime.
The sex ratio in Mammalian populations shifts towards ____ in older age classes, as ____ generally have a shorter life span
shifts towards females in older age classes, as males generally have a shorter life span
Understory:
shrub layers- develops when ample water and nutrients are available. If the canopy is dense and closed, this means less sunlight less less development
Resource partitioning
similar species can coexist in the same habitat because they share resources
Top-Down control
the predator population controls the abundance of prey species ,which influences the abdunance of their food
Complete the following for r-selection: Organism Size: Energy used to make Individual: # Offspring produced: Timing of maturation: Life expectancy: Lifetime reproduction events: Survivorship curve:
small size low energy many offspring early maturation short life expectancy one reproductive event Type III curve
Biotic factors
spatial arrangement of the organisms (size and density)
Coevolution leads to
specialization; changes in the phenotype can limit that ability of a species to engage in similar interactions with other species
Specific attributes to a community include
species number and relative abundance, physical structure- usually defined by plant growth forms, and interactions among species
When an ecologist compares the organisms in different communities by only counting the number of species within each community, the measure of diversity being used is called
species richness
The maximum number of links in a food web is a direct function of
species richness (S) For a food web, the max number of species is S^2
Which of the following communities could exhibit apparent competition? a) species that share a predator but not resources b) species that share resources but not a predator c) species with diffuse interactions
species that share a predator but not resources
What does it mean by Gametic investment?
sperm are consequently cheaper than eggs; which predisposes females to a greater level of parental investment
Parasites increase their fitness by using the host in a close, prolonged association for food, habitat, and dispersal. They usually do not kill the host, but their fitness is reduced by:
stunted growth, emaciation, behavior modification, and sterility
Abiotic factors
sunlight and temperature in terrestrial environments
Killifish (host) with a parasitic trematode infection display abnormal behaviors such as
surfacing and jerking
Genetic mutations can result in
survival of the fittest
Which of the following is an endoparasite? A) leech B) tapeworm C) tick D) mosquito
tapeworm
Environmental conditions such as these can show continuous variation (4 examples)
temperature precipitation sunlight predation level
A trade-off for having many offspring would be
that they would likely be small in size
Population Ecology is the study of
the abundance and distribution of organisms (tolerance and optimality)
If a population has an allele frequency of 1.0, you would say that
the allele is said to be in fixation
Organisms the produce small numbers of offspring show a larger investment resulting in the conclusion that:
the amount of investment/energy spent varies with the size, number, and maturity at birth
The distribution of a population is the area over which it occurs. What does the distribution determine?
the area where individuals are present and/or absent
Territorial competition
the behavior of one species that excludes another species from a specific location that is defended as a territory
Cheetahs nearly became extinct but recovery efforts managed to save them. Now, most cheetahs are genetically identical. This is due to:
the bottleneck effect (most of the population is destroyed)
"K" symbolizes
the carrying capacity for the current environment (the maximum sustainable population size)
Dendrochronology is when you count annual growth rings to determine tree age. The size of the tree is based on
the diameter at the breast height (dbh)
What is Anisogamy
the difference in the size of male and female gametes
A fundamental niche (aka: physiological niche) is
the environmental conditions under which a species can survive and reproduce
Competitive release
the expansion of a species niche when a competitor is no longer present
Early successional species are
the initial colonists (pioneer species). They often have: higher growth rates, small size, high dispersal
Ecology is the study of
the interaction between organisms and their environment
symbiosis is
the intimate and protracted association between two or more organisms of different species
Forest floor
the layer where decomposition occurs and microbes feed on decaying organic material, releasing nutrients for reuse
Identical twin raccoons are raised in different environments and thus have very different feeding behaviors. This is an example of A) heterozygous alleles B) the norm of reaction C) genetic differentiation D) acclimation
the norm of reaction
what does N(t) stand for?
the number of individuals in the population at a given time
Crude density is
the number of individuals per unit area -----square meter or kilometer
Ecological density:
the number of individuals per unit of available living space (expressed in number of birds per mile of hedgerow, RATHER than birds per hectare)
A realized niche is
the portion of the fundamental niche that a species actually uses as a result of interactions with other species
In random distribution
the position of one individual is independent on the position of the other ex: Scattering of plant seeds by the wind