ED 300 EXAM answers

Krashen's i+1 and compare it with ZPD (Lightbown & Spada, p.118) Mary

"In Krashen's i+1, the input comes from outside the learner and the emphasis is on the comprehensibility if input that includes language structures that are beyond the learner's current developmental level." (Lightbown & Spada, p.118) According to William Dunn and James Lantolf, they argued and said that i+1 and ZPD are not comparable since they both address different issues of development. ZPD is Zone of Proximal Development. ZPD is where with children, they can advance even higher with additional help. Example: A student learning to read, with the help of a parent or teacher, the adult can help push that student reading even further. To be more specific in the definition, the "i" is the language learner/acquirers' current knowledge and the 1 is the next rule that learner is due to acquire. While the ZPD is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she could achieve with help from the experienced others.

critical period hypothesis (CPH) (Lightbown and Spada, p22) relative to first language acquisition (support as well as lack of support), and why it cannot be applied to second language acquisition. Mackenzie

The CPH-(Critical Period Hypothesis is a hypothesis that believes that knowledge and skills are learned at certain periods of our life's. If gone past these critical time periods, it is believed that it Is impossible to acquire these abilities. Support that shows this for developing ones first language is the genie case. She was deprived during her childhood- a crucial time for language development; and now can not speak as an adult. One thing that shows lack of support for this hypothesis is ASL. It has been shown that children that are deprived from learning ASL, due to their parents not knowing about their deafness, are able to learn their language later and past the critical periods in time. This hypothesis can not be applied to learning a second language, because learning a second language deals with memorization of words. CPH, it is a hypothesis that living beings such as animals and humans are genetically born to have a time frame in their lives where they are able to acquire certain skills and information. It ties in closely with first language acquisition because if children are not exposed to language throughout their early childhood they may never be able to acquire the skills to speak according to the CPH. CPH can not easily be applied to second language acquisition because when acquiring a second language you look to your first language knowledge. The CPH relates more to first language acquisition because this time frame takes place when you are acquiring your first language. There is no CPH when acquiring your second language and if you acquired your first language already you have that to refer too.

Prism model by overdo 4 Components inside this model? How they are interrelated?

The Prism Model Describe the Prism Model: Thomas and Collier developed the Prism Model to demonstrate the interrelationship between the four components that influence first and second language acquisition in a school setting. These four components occur simultaneously. Sociocultural Processes: This component is at the very center of the prism. It represents the students social and cultural aspects of their life- "...past, present, and future, in all contexts-home, school, community and the broader society." In terms of second language acquisition, sociocultural processes include a student's, "self-esteem, anxiety, or other affective factors." All in all, social and cultural influences contribute a great deal to a student's academic achievements in second language acquisition. Minority groups of individuals who are learning a second language are often faced with prejudice and discrimination strongly influence a student's response to learning the new language. Language Development: Second component of the model. This includes the acquisition of oral and written knowledge "...of the students first and second language across all language domains, such as phonology (the pronunciation system), vocabulary, morphology and syntax (the grammar system), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (how language is used in a given context), paralinguistic (nonverbal), and discourse (stretches of language beyond a single sentence)." Academic Development: Third component of the model. This includes all school work such as language arts, mathematics, social studies, and science. All academic work contributes to the expansion of vocabulary, sociolinguistic and discourse aspects of second language acquisition. Cognitive Development: The fourth component of the model. This is the subconscious process that occurs naturally through development from birth, throughout schooling, and beyond. Interconnectivity: Each one of these components occur simultaneously and are all interdependent on the other. If one component is neglected, then the overall growth and success of the student's language development is compromised. The academic, cognitive, and linguistic components are all intertwined throughout the student's development. How can this model inform instruction?: This model can be used to inform instructional planning by making sure that you are looking at the whole child and all that may be influencing their learning. Making sure that students have a supportive educational environment that allows all developmental components to thrive naturally in both L1 and L2, using a whole language philosophy, incorporating social and academic language development into every lesson will extend into meaningful application.

Describe the two major myths/misconceptions described by Cummins (Cummins chapter 3, reading for session 6) and what are some of strategies for contradicting the myths. Reesa

The first misconception mentioned in the Cummins text refers to making inferences about a child's ability to think logically on the basis of their familiarity with English. Often times children with a different native language other than English are thought to need special education evaluation or are thought of as less capable than their peers. This comes from thinking their language development is causing a deficit in the general education setting. The second misconception mentioned refers to the fact that a child's ability to converse in English indicates their language proficiency in other areas of English. Therefore, the misconception is considering a child's conversation skills as their language proficiency in the language. I think the best strategy in contradicting these myths begins with really understanding why and how bilingual students are failing academically. It is important to understand that each student has different needs and not all ELL students are the same. I also think understanding a student's L1 proficiency is a good first step in understanding how to meet the needs of your student. Getting an understanding of what they are capable of in their L1 would be beneficial in understanding what sort of supports they may need in English. Lastly, I think having educators really start to learn and understand what defines "language proficiency" is important in contradicting the myths so that educators can understand where their students are at in terms of their language proficiency. This would help with sending the appropriate message to students so that there is not the disengagement in their academics. ELL students need to know that they are capable and the work they are doing in the classroom is supporting their academic needs. For the first myth that non-English speaking children are educationally handicapped can be contradicted through education. As Cummins wrote that the misconception is still common among some educators and academics that have little background and experience in sociolinguistics. So we need increase awareness that these children are capable academically and that the reasons for their struggles are because they are being taught in a language they are not fully proficient in and their cultural background. In the second myth that children's conversational proficiency is an indication for their overall proficiency in English, Cummins provides a rationale that has been used to rationalize bilingual education; that lack of English proficiency is the main reason for bilingual students' academic failure and that it is to make sure that these students do not fall behind while learning English. Cummins argues that this rationale ignores the deeper reason for students' performance, be it social or historical, it also doesn't specify what being proficient in English means. You provided good reflection and thought on correcting those two myths.

Sociocultural (Lightbown & Spada p.118) perspective on language acquisition and how that influence second language instruction Yalda

The sociocultural theory assumes that cognitive development and language development come from social interactions. This interaction is typically occurring when a student interacts with an interlocutor within their Zone of Proximal Development, which is a situation in which the learner can perform at a higher level because of the support offered by an interlocutor. Sociocultural theory influences second language instruction because it explains how important conversations are to students. Whether those conversations happen between peers or teachers and students, they are critical for language development. An example of this could be encouraging small group discussions and large classroom discussions to increase conversation in the classroom. The main idea of sociocultural perspective is that language acquisition is acquired through cognitive processes of internalizing and connecting knowledge and learning experience through social interaction.

ZPD Zone of Proximal Development by Vygotsky (Lightbown & Spada, p.25, p. 118)---relevant to support language, cognitive, academic, and socio cultural development John

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as: "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). According to Lightbown and Spada Vygotsky argued that in a supportive interactive environment, children are able to advance to higher levels of knowledge and performance. Vygotsky referred to a metaphorical place in which children could do more than they would be capable of doing I independently as the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development is an area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by a teacher or peer with a skill set higher than that of the subject. The person learning the skill set cannot complete it without the assistance of the teacher or peer. The teacher then helps the student attain the skill the student is trying to master, in hopes that the teacher will no longer be needed for that task. Vygotsky suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development. The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. By understanding what children are able to achieve alone, as well as what they are able to achieve with assistance from an adult, educators can develop plans to teach skills in the most effective manner possible, giving students a gradual release of responsibility to perform tasks independently. This process is referred to as scaffolding, which is the way in which an adult helps the child learner to move from the inability to perform a task to being able to do so through guidance, interaction and questions. A child riding a bicycle would be an example. A child would start riding by just getting on the bicycle with the assistance of an adult. When the child had mastered that skill it is time to move on to the next skill, that of pedaling. An adult would assist in instructing the child how to pedal and balance. Eventually he/she would perform that task with no help needed at all from the adult. The child would then wish to explore further features of riding a bicycle, perhaps switching gears. The adult would step in and show the child the proper way of switching gears.

Identify multiple effects/benefits of bilingual education (Garcia chap 1 p.11; Genesee, chapter 2), who benefits from bilingual education, and how can mono-lingual teachers support bilingual education? Cassandra

When it comes to bilingual education, it is seen to be beneficial for all learners, children, adults, and just everyone in general. There have also been studies that show bilingual education creates lifelong language-learning situations where individuals show to have cognitive and social advantage over those of monolinguals. According to Garcia, bilingual education has the potential of being a transformative school practice, and when it is being used, it allows children to expand on their intellect and imagination, which helps in how they choose to express themselves in/to the world. In school systems, classrooms are changing to more of a multilingual/multicultural setting, and where linguistic and cultural diversity is becoming the norm. So in order for monolingual teachers to support bilingual education, one step they can do is to encourage students the value of continuing to develop linguistic skills in their L1, as well as provide the parents with resources and advice to promote L1 in their homes. Not only that, but teachers can begin to create an environment for students where they feel comfortable with efforts to use language; where individuals are focusing on the meaning and message of what is being said rather than the form of how it is being used, which can lead to better thinkers and communicators for the long-term. In addition to creating a comfortable environment for students, teachers can also think about involving parents by including family literacy and having books in the languages of the community accessible, that can also help in contributing to the development of L1 in homes.

contrastive analysis (Lightbown and Spada, p.41) and error analysis (p.42), and the effects of them on teaching practice. Kathryn

contrastive analysis is a hypothesis that errors in speech of second language learners are a result of a transfer from their first language. Some people assume that language errors that occur in the first language will also occur in learning the second language which isn't always true. An example that supports this would be the transfer of sentence structure - which can be different based on the language. Error analysis describes the errors second languge speakers make. It helps describe and understand many of the errors not addressed by contrastive analysis which tries to predict errors. Contrastive analysis is assumed that the errors in the second language is a transfer of the learner's first language, but not all error s can be explained by the transfer alone. This analysis is bidirectional meaning that if someone who speaks English tries to learn French and someone ho speaks French tries to learn English, they would both make errors on parallel linguistic features. Error analysis is to look at the different kinds of errors the learners have made and make sense of the errors and try to understand how the learners are processing the second language. In practice these things are helpful for educators to understand that the learner's errors are being made because of their understanding of the second language, some of the errors that are made can be seen as "developmental errors"

grammatical morphemes (Lightbown & Spada, p.46) and the concept of "communicative competence" (Lightbown & Spada, p.60). How these concepts can be used to inform instructional planning? Kylene

grammatical morphemes are the endings the English language uses on words to show if it is past tense, present tense or future tense. Some examples of these are "ing" or "ed." They can also be an "s" added to the end of a word to show possessives or if the word is plural. Communicative competence is the language users knowledge of vocabulary, pragmatics, and pronunciation. It is important to pay attention to your ESOL students uses of grammatical morphemes because they are necessary to show when something is happening. It is also important to know what their communicative competence is when lesson planning. By knowing the extent of their knowledge you are able to determine their ZPD and create a lesson plan that allows academic growth.

Describe the common beliefs about language are: language as a right; language as a problem; language as a resource and provide one example for each of them (Garcia chapter 1 and PPT for session 2) Tamara Twa

"Phonology" can be referred to as the study of distinguishing sounds or pronunciation in a language. It can be referred to practices or studies of how learners perceive sounds of a language and how they utilize language to pronounce words (Lightbown and Spada, 2013, p.68). Also, researchers often name "phonology" as "segmental and suprasegmental system," which refers to the "prosody" (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, pp. 30-31). It is important to mention that "segmental and suprasegmental" differ form each other in how sound is stressed in a language (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 31). For instance, segmental is used specifically for single "vowel and consonant sounds" and how they are allocated whereas "suprasegmental" is used for outlining "rhythm (i.e., the timing of syllable length, syllable stress, and pauses) and the intonation contours (i.e., pitch patterns)" which supplements "sound sequences" when language is vocalized (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 31). Since these "suprasegmental" characteristics also known as "prosody," it is important to indicate that "prosody" plays an important role in correctly transmitting the talker's communication and purposes to a "listener" (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 31). The research in this field highlights that when children learn to speak their first language, they first use "prosody," which means "suprsegmental rhythm and intonation" prior to learning "segmental - vowel and consonant sounds" (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 31). Also, the study on phonology indicates that it is very challenging to teach ELL adults to correctly pronounce words in a second language due to the variation of sounds and words of their first language (Lightbown and Spada, 2013, p.68). Since researchers place a greater emphasis on studying grammar when it comes to properly educating ELLs, not enough research has been done in studying "phonology" (Lightbown and Spada, 2013, p.68). However, educators recognize that teaching ELLs in properly pronouncing second language words is equally important as teaching them grammar. Studying phonology can help teachers to plan lessons and properly educate ELL students. A scholar, Allen (1971), suggested that educators should approach their instructions as follows: direct students' attention to a few major patterns (for example, the intonation contours discussed in this chapter) alert students to differences between the punctuation system and the intonation system distinguish between isolated sentences, which generally can take several intonation contours, and the intonation of ongoing discourse, in which case only one intonation contour is generally appropriate teach students skills so they can make reasonable guesses about the speaker's intention in any given speech situation, based on the speaker's stress and intonation

Behaviorist (Lightbown & Spada, p.15) perspective on language acquisition and how that influence second language instruction Kathy

A Behaviorist is the idea of learning that involves children mimicking their surroundings and positively benefitting from it. The more the child hears, the more they are able to pick up on, the better the language is acquired. This means that this style of learning is very community based, and which means that people learning a second language (who is a behaviorist) would do a lot better in the classroom setting, or anywhere that they are surrounded by the language. The key concept of the behaviorist perspective is based on the theory that language acquisition can be explained by imitation, children will imitate how a language is produced around them, and a child's ability to reproduce or attempt to reproduce what they have heard, is due to positive reinforcement. The order of behaviorist perspective would be imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habit formation. One teaching example could be like "read after me" while teaching students vocabulary and pronunciation.

"developmental sequence" in language acquisition? (Lightbown & Spada, p.217, L&S p6 L1 development, L&S p45 L2 development) and how can it be used to inform instructional planning with English language learners? Sebastian

According to Lightbown & Spada, the true meaning of "developmental sequence" in language acquisition is that there are periods (sequences) in which learners pass to be able to surpass certain challenges. In L1 acquisition, children go through a lengthy period of listening to people talk to them before they are able to produce their first words. A period like this is primarily used for young students to discover what language is and how it helps. Next, in L2 acquisition, this period is not necessary for learners, since he/she already knows about the certain language, he/she has basically already acquired it. With this being said, what is the best first step a second language learner can make to acquire a language? developmental sequence is the general pattern and order in which language learners tend to acquire aspects of the language, despite them having various levels of motivation, variation, and instruction.

fossilization (lightbown & Spada, p. 43) and universal grammar (Lightbown & Spada, p.20, p.224), how can these concepts be used to inform instructional planning? Monica

According to Selinker, fossilization means to describe a persistent lack of change in interlanguage matters, even after extended exposure to or instruction in the target language. It was said it can be true for those exposed to their L2 does not provide enough instruction with good feedback that can help recognize the differences between their interlanguage and target language. Universal grammar is created by Noam Chomsky. It is an innate ability to acquire, develop, and understand language. It is a theory that suggests some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain and manifest without being taught. We are all born with innate knowledge of grammar that serves the basis of language acquisition. Children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete sentences, and slips of the tongue. These concepts can be used to inform instruction planning by knowing what went wrong and what we can do to fix that. With fossilization, this can mean that the learning environment wasn't appropriate. It could mean that certain aspects of the language weren't learned completely or correctly right, which makes them have difficulties of learning more into the language. For Universal Grammar students will pick up and learn naturally about what they know and the differences. They will begin to develop certain properties. It would prevent them from pursuing all sorts of wrong hypotheses about how the language works. As teachers, we have to make sure they understand the correct way and forms and it is that way instead of what they think it is. One thing about UG is that Chomsky's theory believes that all languages have grammar that allow all cultures to communicate complex thought, for example, in ALL languages we can express past tense even if there are thousands of way to actually form or mark past tense in a sentence. Chomsky believes that we are all born with an innate knowledge of grammar and that language is a basic human instinct.

BICS & CALPS What is it? Example of each? Why is it important for teacher's and students to understand?

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills is also known as BICS According to Cummins theory, students that enter into school with little to no knowledge of the language spoken at this school is more inclined to achieve BICS in a year or two. BICS is basically the language that kids learn outside of the academic learning area. An example of this is when I was younger I learned more basic English when I was interacting with other kids on the playground and imitating my favorite shows than in my ELL skills class because there was no pressure for me to be grammatically correct .In addition, Cummins theorized that because of this imitation that students are not motivated enough or have disabilities which then lead to students being put into special education classes. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency is also known as CALPS According to Cummins it takes several years to achieve CALPS and is more likely accquired by students who enter school and already speak the school language; therefore, as an ELL student trying to reach that level is exceedingly difficult and requires a lot of time and patience. Cummins adds that ELL students tend to fall behind academically and lose opportunities that students with CALPS have because of the lack of knowledge in the language spoken at school. An example of CALPS for me would be all the other white kids in my class during elementary who knew exactly what the teacher was saying because they spoke the school language (English) at home. On the other hand, I struggled to even communicate with my teacher when I needed something because I had no interpreter and google wasn't a thing back then, and I couldn't read the gibberish written on my homework assignments. BICS and CALPS are important to teachers and English language learners because they both need to understand that it takes a lot of time to strengthen your second language, it wont come in days or months, it takes years of practice and patience. In addition, as teachers we should keep in mind that not all students learn the same way or at the same pace; therefore, we can't say that a student needs to be put in a special education class because they are developing a lot slower than others.

bilingualism and second language education with Garcia's dynamic bilingualism (Garcia's chapter 1 and PPT for session 2) Ana

Bilingual education is different from traditional language education programs. Traditional language education programs teach a second or a foreign language as a subject. For example, every subject is taught in English, and one class is Spanish and the students learn about the Spanish culture and their language. Bilingual education programs uses two languages and assimilates into the educational content. For example, math would be taught in a different language than social studies. Bilingual Education Traditional Second Language Program Use language as a medium of instruction Teach language as a subject Providing meaningful & equitable education; develop multiple understanding; appreciation for human diversity Use only the target language in instruction Use 2 languages to educate generally, meaningfully, Equitably and be able to function across cultures. To learn an additional language and become familiar with an additional culture Assimilation of language and content Explicit language instruction

additive and subtractive bilingualism (Lightbown & Spada, chapter 1 p.32-33) and sequential and simultaneous bilingualism (lightbown & Spada chapter 1), and provide one example for each of them. Marycarmen

Children who learn more than one language from early childhood are referred to as "simultaneous bilinguals" in comparison to those who learn another language later on in their lives are called "sequential bilinguals". As an example: Children who are born into families where parents already have another language other than the dominant one, who learn it in their home along with developing their considerable first language are considered "simultaneous bilinguals" vs those who learn a second language by taking a course in high school or college will be referred to as "sequential bilinguals". In 1987 Wallace Lambert coined the term subtractive bilingualism. Defining it as the loss of one language on the way to learning another. Wallace argues that there are negative consequences when children are encouraged to lose their first language in order to gain another. Some of the results can be detrimental to a child's self-esteem, familial relationships, and academic difficulties. There is a transitionary period where they have not yet mastered either languages. Traditionally, the suggested 'solution' may be the eradication of the family language at home. Further research has evidence suggesting that a more inclusive approach is additive bilingualism. An additive approach is one which encourages the maintenance and of the home language while the second language is being learned (Lightbrown and Spada,p. 33). This is especially important to continue developing the relationship with family and the ability for them to communicate with their own language in richer and more elaborate terms. Further developing the first or family language creates the opportunity to develop cognitive and effective use of language they understand easily while still learning the additional language. As an example, students who immigrate here with their families and are encouraged to lose their language by educational institutions in order to assimilate are also losing an ability to continue communicating with family in their home country. Additionally there may be a time when they cannot clearly communicate effectively with their family or classmates.

CUP and SUP (Common underlying proficiency vs separate underlying proficiency) models for understanding bilingualism and how these concepts can be used in instructional planning? (Ovando article, p.130 and Cummins chapter 3, session 6's reading) Mireya

Common underlying proficiency suggests that "academic skills, literacy development, concept formation, subject knowledge, and learning strategies all transfer from L1 to L2 as the vocabulary and communicative patterns are developed in L2 to express that academic knowledge" (Ovando, C. J., Collier, V. P., & Combs, M. C., 2003, p. 130). This provides the base to develop the first and second language. This implies that student should be encouraged to used their native language skills in order for them to make progress in their second language acquisition. They should continue to practice their native language at home. This perspective supports bilingual education. Separate underlying proficiency is a model that believes that L2 proficiency develops through the instruction of L2 only and not L1. Instruction in L1 does not help to developed proficiency in L2, instead, children should be exposed to the language they are learning. The implications for instruction of this model suggests all-English classes because L1 and L2 acquisition is not connected.

Communication model and it's 4 quadrants "Cognitive and Contextual Demands" What classroom activities could be used for each quadrant?

Cummins' quadrant communication model is a method of categorizing the types of cognitive tasks language acquiring students engage in while considering their prior knowledge and contextual background with the language and task at hand. This contextual background refers to both the external context of the support the task itself offers and the internal context of personal experiences that allow the student to make meaning of the situation. The model is designed with an x-axis of context embedded and context reduced on either side and a y-axis with cognitively undemanding at the top and cognitively demanding at the bottom. This model, therefore, provides four pairs of categorization that can be used to explain the "range of contextual support and degree of cognitive involvement in language tasks and activities," (Cummins, 2001). The following activities are examples of tasks that would fit into each specific quadrant: A. Studying a map, informal/in-person conversations, following specific directions or illustrations for activities. B. Following a schedule, telephone conversation, following written directions, oral presentations. C. Demonstrations, science experiments, basic mathematics, lessons with visuals and graphics. D. Standardized tests, higher-level mathematics, lectures, reading textbooks. For example, you may describe it as a graph separated by the X and Y-axis, the X-axis represents the division between cognitive and linguistic tasks, those that are either cognitively and linguistically demanding or undemanding, the Y-axis representing the separation of linguistic context which can be either embedded or decontextualized (content reduced), this Y-axis has now divided the model into four sections or quadrants, the first two quadrants A and B are on the left side of the model and are described as the context embedded demands which can provide many clues to give the language learner feedback so that they know if the message is understood. You did a good job overall, just be specific about the detail "location" of each ABCD section among the X and Y-axis.

language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada p.79-84) and describe environmental characteristics that influence language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, chapter 3) Nazia

Describe individual characteristics that influence language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada p.79-84) and describe environmental characteristics that influence language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, chapter 3) Individual - Language learning aptitude, Learning styles, Personality, Age, Learners' beliefs, attitudes, and motivations. Example if shy tend to be on the quiet side vs. outgoing person likely to engage and speak up. Another is the learner's age - the older learner may be patient with learning and meantime that learner focuses on understanding language rules. The younger learner, may bore quickly and moves on to learning socially instead formally. With age, we could link attitude. Open mindset vs. close mindset will also influence language acquisition. The environmental characteristics that influence language acquisitions are the learning spaces. The learning space may be a classroom, social gathering, and workplace. Classroom set up, teaching styles, social dynamic or power relationship between languages for example, "members of a minority group learning the languages of a majority group may have different attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members learning a minority language" (Lightbown & Spada p. 89). Work environment - customer service jobs interaction between customers will increase language acquisition. Example of the classroom - teacher uses incentives to encourage engagement, participation, and risk taking. Instructional activates vary from sitting down to movement (acting out games and board games). The teacher creates an environment where language learners of individual characters feel comfortable learning.

Innatist (Lightbown & Spada, p. 20) perspective on language acquisition and how that influence second language instruction Esther

In Lightbown & Spada, Chomsky argued that innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar allows all children to acquire the language of their environment during a critical period of their development. The innatist theory is mainly concerned with first language acquisition. It asserts that humans have access to the knowledge that is processed innately. From my own experience, having been born in Romania, I do believe that a lot of knowledge about the language I had already had processed innately. I didn't feel like I had to learn or make an effort to speak it. I agree that it only relates to first language acquisition rather than second language acquisition. Unlike innatist theory, the term behaviorism is the idea that something can be learned through imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habit formation. An example of behaviorism would be learning how to speak a language by having to speak with people daily in that specific language and learning it over time. When it comes to second language acquisition, behaviorism is the most convenient and useful theory. innatist perspective views language acquisition not as something that is taught, but that it is something that children are biologically programmed for. Language is seen to develop in the same way any other biological function would, such as walking, and that the environment a child hears language is only a basic contribution. It is based of Chomsky's hypothesis that all human languages are based on that same innate, or natural human, universal principles.

Describe positive and negative transfer/roles of first language on second language learning (interference vs support), for the positive transfer, think about this as principles for cognitive, academic, and socio/cultural processes as well as discrete language skills (Ovando article, p.130 interdependence of L1, L2; Lightbown & Spada, chap2 p.58-59, cross linguistic influence), and how can these concepts be used to inform instructional planning? Michael

In terms of the transferring influences from L1 to L2 during the second language learning process, based on the many researches conducted by scholars, there will be both positive and negative impacts from the experience of L1 on the process of learning L2. As of the positive side of the transfer process, students can gain the similar experience in L2 with the experience in L1. Languages always tend to have many theories and structures in common when coming down to academic and literacy. When students perform well on the L1, students tend to be able to easily acquire the structure in L2. Nevertheless, if students could have "threshold" in L1, they might have the same difficulties in L2. Thus, the learning of L1 could potentially have impacts on L2. What the author also mentions about is that as the process moving forward in years, L1 would not be able to have dramatic intervention in L2. Students need to practice more or have more L2 related experience to truly exercise their L2. Especially when it comes to the point of BISC and CALP, it is essential for students to understand the structure and grammar in their L1, so that they can better or faster obtain the content in their L2. For the negative side, what I notice as the negative influence from L1 to L2 would be the BISC part. When students spend most of their time in their CALP process, less time in BISC process. Though students could perform well in the academic part of the language, students would not be able to communicate fluently with it. For example, recalled the entire process of my English learning process as L2, the 95% of the content that I obtained was academic, may be less than 5% are BISC. Thus, when firstly coming to study aboard in States, I was not able communicate effective with others. Often times, what pops up in my head would always be the structure of my first language, which turns out to be really bizarre structure. Thus, the process of L1 could have negative impacts on L2. Besides, in terms of the cultural and social side, L1 may also have negative effects on L2. All these concepts can be used within a classroom would be that the teachers need to understand the natural process of acquiring the language in both L1 and L2. Teachers need to gradually repeat the key structure of the language and sequentially move ahead to the next stage. Teachers ought to ensure that students are getting the concepts and the language structures. There should no be any rush during the entire learning process.

interlanguage? (Lightbown and Spada, P.220), how can it be used to inform instructional planning with English language learners? David

Interlanguage is described as a learner's knowledge based on their second language. It's characteristics that they might present from their first language and are incorporated into their second language. It's that middle ground that helps achieve the second language knowledge by using concepts learned from the first language. An example could be a student trying techniques that he or she remembers from learning their first language and incorporating them into their second language practice. I've seen a lot of this apply to my experience working with students because I once did this speech screening where the kid was being tested on their first language pronunciation and while he was reading the words in Spanish he was also helping himself out by picturing examples of where he had seen that item or picture on the flashcard. I also hear lots of kids think out loud in Spanish for example (counting in Spanish, referring to the item and then trying to process what it's called in English). Many students also ask for clarification on how to pronounce a word by describing how the word sounds from their understanding, it's quite unique and used quite often. It's their attempt to try and learn more and more about their second language, this process also changes because the more they learn, the more developed their interlanguage approach will be toward their second language. Eventually this interlanguage can become fossilized and as they conclude their understanding about their targeted language.

phonology (Lightbown & Spada, p.68) and define prosody and segmentals (Lightbown & Spada, p.68, Celce, chapter 3 reading for session 7). How can these concepts be used to inform instructional planning? (Celce, chapter 3, p. 47 reading for session 7) Tamara Mardukhayeva

Language as a problem The issue of language as a problem stems from the symbolism of a nation and links closely to patriotism or at least an idea of an elite language that varied depending on who was in power. The idea of language as it represents the education of a whole people means that it provides unity. Branching and accepting languages other than the accepted one was a problem because language dealt with a group identity. Bilingual education solved the "problem" of groups of people not speaking the newly established chosen language. Furthermore, although there was effort to provide a sort of transition from their home language to the new one, the overall goal of language education was to provide a means to teach students acquisition of the most "elite" language of the time or location. The purpose of using the home language in any case here is only as it is tied to learning the language of colonialism. This can be related to most colonialism and schools where students were forced to learn a language other than their home language. English only schooling reflects this idea, as well as the idea that students who simultaneously learn their home language will struggle learning a second one. Language as a right This occurred when social inequities came into more focus. This instigated an attack on language teaching as only a means to teach the language of power. Instead of losing their home languages, it emerged that people had the right to develop their home languages. From this perspective, language must be fought for as it has to do with advocacy and individuality. In this respect, people were able to develop ways to learn and teach their home languages. An example of this is when Japanese American immigrants fought for their students to learn Japanese in schools. Language as a resource Language as a resource occurs in a broader more dynamic fashion in a growing and globalized world. This recognizes the social and cultural aspect of language and how powerful it is to allow people to balance their identity as how it relates to others within their linguistic group and those in others. In this line of thought, monolingual schooling becomes continuously more obsolete. Multiple languages have gained dominance but there is greater support for bilingual and multilingual education. Language is such an enormous portion of culture and the promotion of multiple languages helps promote diversity and equality. What we expect from bilingual education makes for the best example of language as a resource where it bridges the gap between languages, cultures and identities and promotes diversity.

Krashen's monitor model, including each of the five hypotheses that make up the monitor model (Lightbown & Spada Chapter 4, p.106). How can these hypotheses be used to inform instructional planning?

Lightbown and Spada (2013), describe an innatist language-learning application called The Monitor Model, which was created by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s. This model involves five separate hypotheses for how Krashen believes languages are learned. The first is the acquisition/learning hypothesis. Krashen suggests that we acquire the bulk of our language the same way a small child does, subconsciously, and without effort. Learning, on the other hand, is less common, and is the result of direct conscious teaching, rule-memorization, etc. The monitor hypothesis is second. Krashen describes language students participating in "spontaneous conversation" gleaned from acquisition and then using one's inner monitor to take rules learned to correct and make adjustments to this subconsciously acquired language. Third, is the natural order hypothesis. In this, Krashen asserts that we learn all language in a logical procession, whether it be our first language, or subsequent language. The comprehensible input hypothesis is a crucial part of the Monitor Model. In this hypothesis, we acquire language when we are at the level i + 1. I + 1 means that we are at the level of our own comprehension plus one more step, taking us just beyond our comfort zone. The final hypothesis is affective filter. Krashen posits that our ability to acquire/learn a language is directly affected by our emotions and attitudes related to the experience of learning that language. Even when we are exposed to great amounts of language, we may fail to acquire as we should due to our negative emotions and expectations. When I consider how these hypotheses can be used in the planning of language learning in a classroom setting, I think primarily of the final two hypotheses. Keeping children learning at an i + 1 level is important in many arenas besides language. This is akin to Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal development - one is what the child can do with a little bit of help, and one is what the child can do if pushed just a little beyond his current capabilities. The affective filter is important to remember as teachers. Students who are not enjoying learning, or are having negative experiences related to a subject (think math), are going to struggle simply because they believe learning is somehow unpleasant or necessarily leads to failure or confusion. Acquisition/learning hypothesis refers to we acquire language through exposure to samples of language and we learn language through conscious attention to form and rule learning. Teachers can provide meaningful interactions from which language can be acquired. Monitor hypothesis refers to second language learners use acquired language for spontaneous communication and use learned language to monitor language output when there is sufficient time, concern for correctness, and relevant rules and patterns have been learned. Teachers need allow for content over form in discussion/speaking settings to prevent students from over-monitoring language, or use guided instruction to give students the time and relevant rules to assist in written communication. Natural order hypothesis refers to language acquisition happens in predictable sequence (both L1 and L2), so instructions that depended on repetition and drill of decontextualized sentences, did not seem to favor the development of comprehension, fluency, or communicative abilities.

pragmatics (Lightbown & Spada, chap 2 p,65), the cultural nature of language learning, and how these concepts be used to inform instructional planning? Kaserina

Pragmatics deals with the way in which one expresses their words in communication. The way in which words are said (syntax); the order (organization), expression and context, are all important components in communicating your message across effectively. Simply knowing how to pronounce the words is not enough for effective communication. Understanding context and politeness is important since you could come off as rude or demanding if you do not understand the correct ways in which to ask or explain something. Lightbown & Spada explain that there are five-stages of acquisition that deal with development of proper pragmatics; pre-basic, formulaic, unpacking, pragmatic expression and fine-tuning. These concepts are important to be aware of for instructional planning since they will allow you to understand what stage the language learners is at and go from there to properly help them develop the skills they need to excel to the next step. The reading also brings up the importance of moving beyond the typical classroom dialogue in which there is the instructor doing all the speaking at the child and the child speaking back when allowed. Doing language development exercises with the students in which they are starting the conversations and touching on a variety of topics can be helpful for the students. Pragmatics are the cultural norms that surround speaking. It is how we express things like directness, politeness, and more in different settings. These things can be taught by social interactions. Language, culture, and identity are widely connected within each other. For most people their first language and the culture that surrounds it are largely apart of their identity. You did a nice job giving instructional planning recommendations.