Empiricism

Phenomenology

Both a philosophical school of thought and a long standing popular approach to psychology It aims to describe and interpret people's perceptions and perspectives and examine how they are related to their experience of the world around them . A persons perception of the meaning of an event , as opposed to the event as it exists externally to ( outside of) that person . The focus of what people experience in regard to some phenomenon or other and how they really interpret those experiences It aims to describe a " lived experience" of a phenomenon - " what is it like to experience such and such " It seeks to understand HOW PEOPLE CONSTRUCT MEANING Understanding of experience is central to understanding any discipline . Begins with the " bracketing" of the question of whether people's experiences ( and reports of that experience ) can be linked to any kind of reality that is separate from those experiences .

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked Potter and Wetherell and Freesmith text influenced social psychologist to rethink Cognitive models Discourse = talk , speech JEFFERSONIAN Transcript - for anaylsis of discourse and conversation : particulary focus groups

Discourse Analysis/ Discursive psychology (DA) TALK And SPEECH REPERTOIRES🍒🌶 and RHETORIC LANGUAGE USED- how does the person use language What do people do with language How it is spoken about How people use discursive resources in order to achieve interpersonal objectives in social interaction POSITIONING When we use language we are always using it as a CONSTRUCTION YaRD REPERTOIRES🍒🌶( all the language, items , things people use to perform or play : their performance the full supply of their language to show their skill knowledge ) LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL PERFORMANCE 🍒 it's productive Language just doesn't just reflect reality Eg label ( internal state - I'm happy) Eg describe ( it's cold outside ) Rather it CONSTRUCTS versions of social reality When we talk we make certain versions of the world possible , we build certain versions of the world . When we used language we always use it purposely , intentionally, we use language to achieve particular certain social objectives - so when we talk we talk were talking for spur pose DISCURSIVE STRATEGIES - building a speakers credibility - building a particular case - eliciting audience emotion 🍎🍉🍒🌶 : category entitlement - (the doctor told me , my layer said , reference entitled so your case becomes more credible ) : concession- I take your point BUT at the end of the day it's better to - it's about placing yourself as reasonable , before you make your balanced and informed case rather than just an opinion ) : consensus - we all new he was envious , everybody else has gotten : disclaimer - I'm not anti them , I'm not a racist but : footing - she guilty her lawyer says she is guilty : Stake management (confession and inoculation) - Confess you have a stake in the issue - inoculation : I was sceptical before I tired I Pantene but wow . Categorisation ( detail, or vagueness) Eg detail , he left the building wearing a red top and black pants at 7:15. Eg vagueness: it was kinda orange, and I think 7am :Gerrymandering - omitting information to make a case, take out the evidence you don't want in a discussion . :Making evidence ' speak for itself' , - obviously , the facts show Three part list : where you have 3 elements for your argument 1st order positioning : positioning someone as wrong 2nd order positioning : rejecting the 1st order eg no Credentialing- assert her authority and give argument greater power : I went to uni , I taught at UNC , Im a doctor , I'm a psychologist. ACTIVE VOICE - I hit my brother ( you are the orchestrator of the action) PASSIVE VOICE - I was hit by my brother or my brother was hit by me RHETORIC / RHETORICAL : marked by or tending to use exaggerating language or bombast,mot talk figuratively. To talk in substantive ways Using figures of speech,decorative, ostentatious , meaningless, flowery, styling, strategies to create particular versions of self and reality Talk about carpentry really well , however are not a carpenter . BLAME Naturally occurring conversation /unstructured / mundane talk It's like conducting a forensic examination of communication : taking it apart and looking at the various building blocks and looking at how it works Not good for case studies as only one person talking - need more ( depending on topic - small number for deep analysis) The use of language in order to manage social interactions to achieve interpersonal objectives - eg attribute blame I'm a feminist but I like men and wear high heels Rhetoric disclaimer - person taking up an identity that not popular, thus disclaims it by saying I still like men and I'm attractive b/c I wear high heels . Men have testicles so they can't cross legs however women don't so they can The ways in which we produce our identity through talk The process by which we negotiate an identity drawing in ideas and processes and relationships, discourses to frame their identity and they can shift throughout the process It's not a passive process : interpretive REPERTOIRES the common sense ways in which we make sense of or social world the terms and metaphors we use in how we talk about different things : subject positions - the position we take with interpretive repertoires : ideological dilemmas - contradictory arguments that don't remain, shift within a repertoire we are using The language used to talk about gender - it's not so much about how someone experiences the self as gendered or what it means to be gendered rather - how does the person USE LANGUAGE to talk about gender, what interpretive REPERTOIRES are drawn by the person, biological discourse, social discourse, learning 📌 RQ: how does one adult use language to talk about gender? What interpretive repertoires are drawn upon by the person in his/ her account of gender? What accounts are privileged ? To what effect? How participants use language in order to negotiate and manage social interactions to achieve interpersonal objectives : :Justify an action - eg it was my passionate nature - therefore not take responsibility - the act was out of there control :Attribute blame :Disclaim an undesirable social identity -I'm not a racist but :categorisation :Blame : Legitimise attribute to a higher authority - I agree with the prime minister PRIVILEGED what accounts come out that are more important when talking about gender and what effect does that have , what exp does it set up for them Naturally occurring speech, conversation, focus groups, semi structured interviews - least favourable Identification of discourse , rhetorical strategies used in language ,to manage an interaction to promote interests ( disclaimers , footing shifts)

Critical realism

Extreme realism ( positivism ) and extreme relativism ( social constructionism) is rejected Knowledge is seen as historically and culturally specific, a social viewpoint in context to values, with the possibility to gain access beyond reality Language is not only seen as a simple reflection of 'reality' but also as having the capacity to shape our thoughts and our conceptions of what is real , thus direct consequences in terms of what courses of action in the world are seen as legitimate or not Knowledge of reality is distorted to some extent by our perspectives , by power and culture, meaning that truth claims can be evaluated against evidence , but knowledge and truth are still recognised as being to some extent socially constructed .

Primary index

Indices- social science index

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked ( John Smith 1990's

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis ( IPA) LIVED EXPERIENCE ( lots of detail fromthe particpant) Lived experience and meaning making Attempts to understand - WHAT ITS LIKE from their point of view Semi structured interviews emotions, values and priorities (1-8:4-6 usually) IDIOGRAPHIC approach - it DOES not intend to generalise It is a little bit more critical realism than GD FUNDAMENTAL TENETS Phenomenology Hermeneutics Ideography PHENOMENOLOGY- reflecting on EVERYDAY EXP to gain an understanding of its order and coherence - iterations ( movement between data and analysis) leads to theory becoming CONCEPTUAL AND HIGHER ORDER 1ST ORDER the actual activity 2ND ORDER mental and affective responses to the activity - eg remembering, regretting, desiring) 🍒🌶 EG . things can seem very diff from how we usually take them for granted, 1 minute of time can vary considerably if your hanging to a cliff versus waiting for a train Trying to understand the world from the participants view Lived experience ( themes that capture the lived exp) HERMENEUTICS : 🍒🌶 Hermeneutics, the science of INTERPRETATION, Uncovering the MEANINGS concealed by the phenomenon's mode of appearing Therefore IPA uses a DOUBLE hermeneutic DOUBLE hermeneutics : the participant making sense of their own world : the researcher tries to make sense of the person making sense of their exp The double hermeutic means that the researchers pint of access to the particpants experience is through -The particpants OWN ACCOUNTS - the researchers OWN FORE CONCEPTIONS around the phenomenon ( already existing perspectives and prejudices ) 🍒🌶🍉🍎 Therefore the researcher must critically evaluate and reflexively evaluate these participant and researchers FORE conceptions - reflexive statement : Thus we use bracketing BRACKETING ( bracket off YOUR own expectations, beliefs , FORE conceptions and immerse yourself into their emerging exp. and accounts ) A cycle or circle of Iterative process - hermeneutic circle ( going around) 🌶🍒🍉 Own How participants make sense of personal and social world What meanings do experiences, states hold for them Rq: what is the lived exp of gender in everyday life for one adult living in contemporary Australia. E.g what does it mean to be mad - mental health worker What does it mean to be super women - women Purposive homogenous sampling ( people who have lived had the experience you are studying) with small number of participants ( case studies, interviews) ( using thematic analysis) Identify concepts , group into sub themes according to similarities , group sub themes into master themes , order themes from most important to least, in capturing lived exp/ meaning making , find identifiers and quotations , double hermeneutics and hermeneutic circles, bracketing

Boolean logic

Or = expands * = wild card And = narrows search Not = excludes items

Two types of reflexivity

Personal - how the researchers own values , beliefs , political comments, physicals presence , our social identities ( class, cis-gender, race) have shaped research Epistemological or functional - how assumptions made in the course of the research affect research process, findings and interpretations - how the questions may limit how participants are able to respond or how the design can limit findings

Empirical Empiricist

Research involving collection and analysis of data Vs All knowledge claims must be grounded in data Reliable ( production consistent and replicable outcomes) and valid ( measures what is aims to measure )

So far discussed qualitative research as using the epistemological framework of constructionism However the six different approaches vary according to the extent to which they take up constructionism Depending on your epistemological position shapes theoretical framework, it determines the methodology used to interpret the text METHODs 1: Epistemological position (Language is a mirror it reflects reality)

They ask different research questions and use different data, and are interested in different types of analysis Experiential Realist / Critical Realist ( Epistemological position) (GT) & (IPA) (theoretical boundary ) The aim is to gain a better understanding of people's experiences, ways of thinking and actions how they think and feel Language is a reflection of INTERNAL CATEGORIES that can be accessed What they say /talk - accept what people say more or less is accurate reflection of what's in their head and how they understand the phenomenon/ situation etc Retain the notion that language is a reflection of internal categories of understanding Can be used to access what people think and feel But they do this critically more quantitatively

Two implications of positivism

Entities and representations can be distinguished meaningfully from each other & The extent to which representations are accurate reflections of entities or the way things are can therefore be judged

General sources

Internet Google News papers mags Psychology today Wiki Google scholar

RELATIVISM Contemporary positions ( linear ) Qualitative approach

Is the view that our representations of things in the world are socially constructed and can't be seen as simple reflections of how those things actually are Relativist research would be interested in identifying and exploring the consequences of how alcohol is regarded rather than in working out wether it is an illness or or a moral failing Truth tends to be seen as something that we create and derive through social interaction rather than something lying around out there waiting to be tripped over and discovered Social constructionism , extreme relativism ( rejection of the notion of truth)

The British empiricists

Locke, Berkeley, Hume

Qualitative data analysed realist

More quantitative ( counts )

FOCUS GROUPS (DA)

Naturalistic forms of communication Conversation analysis Interaction between individuals Exploratory as precursor quantitative In depth from larger number of people Shared negotiation of ideas Socially undesirable responses Perspectives of marginalised groups Requires a moderator Good for individuals with lower literacy May be diff to Analysis Artificial setting

Qualitative research Each research method has different philosophical roots Has different theoretical assumptions Asks different questions Uses different questions Uses different methods in the collection of data Emilys different analytical stargazing

One set of data can generate multiple I meanings depending on who is doing the interpretion of the data It can Give voice to a particular people on a particular issue Detailed inscriptions of event/experience Develop theory Look at text and challenge the meanings /theories Identify discourses- speech and shared or taken for granted understandings of the world - eg what makes a good wife, virginity only lost via opposite sex person etc

Primary sources abstracts / journals Collection of abstracts

Psych INFO Journal articles Medline Pro quest

Psychology

Psychology is a discipline that relies on empirical evidence Research methods are ways in which evidence is collected : confirm hypothesis ( quantitative) : to ANSWER research questions ( qualitative) Don't make predictions or confirm hypothesis

Classic empiricist

Skinner ( behaviourist)

QUALITATIVE - one set of data can generate multiple meanings depending on who is doing the interpretation of the data Epistemology How does the world work What is the relationship btw the knower and the known What role do values play in understanding the world Are causal possible What is the possibility of generalisation. What does research contribute to knowledge What types of data analysis are employed

( research methods that aim to answer research questions ) Social constructionism :There are multiple realities : The knower and known are interdependent : Values mediate and shape what is understood : events shape each other, multidirectional relationships can be discovered : only tentative explanations for one time and place are possible TRANSFERABILITY : the discovery of new propositions is sought : examinations of people's words and actions in narrative or descriptive ways- no reductions of data at point of collection EXPLORING : individuals perspectives and the meanings they attach to things EXAMINING: how ideas, events and things are represented in language and made sense of

QUANTITATIVE Epistemology How does the world work What is the relationship btw the knower and the known What role do values play in understanding the world Are causal possible What is the possibility of generalisation. What does research contribute to knowledge What types of data analysis are employed

(Research methods that confirm hypothesis) Positivism & empiricism :There is one reality :The knower can stand outside what is to be own :Values can be suspended in order to understand :One event comes before another event,and can be said to cause that event :Explanations from one time and place can be generalised to other times and places :Generally, verification or proof of propositions (hypotheses) is sought :Observations are converted into discrete units or numbers that are compared to other units / numbers using statistical analysis EXAMINING : how individuals feel, think and behave DISCOVERING : what influences how individuals feel think and behave DETERMINING : the consequences of how individuals feel think and behave

METHODOLOGIES for different questions 7 criteria Each research method has different philosophical roots Has different theoretical assumptions Asks different questions Uses different questions Uses different methods in the collection of data Emilys different analytical stargazing

1: Epistemological position 2: Research question 3: What constitutes data 4: How data are analysed 4: Reflexivity 5: Critical language awareness 6: How validity is judged

Five principles of qualitative THE BIG FIVE

:Naturalistic ( two types) - Productive- participants and what we ask them to do, who we ask and how we generate the data. - Selective - diary , media , blogs etc :Ecological value Not in a lab rather a real life setting , can retain a messiness :Representativeness attempt to capture richness, depth, detail, complexity of phenomenon- there is no right answer - one story in many story , who is telling, what their stake is in the story Replication is NOT a criterion : Active participant role- MEMBER CHECKING, ethics OBJECTIVITY - respondent validation ( similar to reliability : consistent replicable outcome) Computer software analysis of data ( larger numbers of participants) : the type of research question - DOES NOT test hypothesis seek to make comparisons

Social constructionism ( relativist- things in the world are socially constructed) FOUR TENENTS

:Representations- no direct relations between entity & reps ( we only study representations) :No truth- does not Pre-exist it is created via social interaction ( normal and natural) and those meanings then become codified, agreed upon & recognised as "normal" or "natural" :Language the way in which we understand and construct our world Thus how they talk, how they use language, what do they do with it- research into the representations of reality not reality itself - thus language studied as that is what we use to represent reality. :Meaning and context - objects take on meaning in relations to our plan for them : bottle ( context vase drink out of or weapon) the bottle doesn't have a meaning in and of itself ( it's just a thing a piece of glass ) it only gets a meaning depending on the context in which you use the bottle.

Reflexivity

A constructionist critique of positivism USED To establish VALIDITY of the research A reflection of the researchers own personal positions when talking about data and highlighting things that may be possible affect , it is being transparent and providing the reader an educated assumption about how the researchers position may impact the research Science best served when bias opening acknowledged - awareness of our contribution to meanings construction throughout research

Positivism

A straightforward relationship and direct correspondence exits between the world and an individual's perception and understanding of the world Cause is nothing more than CONSTANT CONJUNCTION and all that we need to demonstrate a causal relationship is to observe ( reliably and often) constant conjunction - thus sceptical of using participants accounts and self reports as useful data b/c this is not the same as directly observing the phenomenon under study

Selecting the right method

Although choice of research methodology is shaped by epistemological framework ( critical realist or social constructionist view) , choice of research methods is independent ( to some extent) of epistemological framework. : wether you are taking up a critical realist or social constructionist position - eg case study are amenable to both positions Most amenable - yield textual data Interviews , focus, some observational, case, ethnography's, narratives, memories that selective data such as media

Objectivism

An objective account of the world that is free from the perceivers own unique perspectives and standpoints

INTERVIEWS Co - constructed & What how narrative

Are ways of formulating information NOT collecting data ( old ways - data excavation) : ridged : unchanging :Available for retrieval not contaminated by research process or affected by interviewer NEW WAY - Social interaction ( but not random , they reveal something important to them in the interaction , consistent with underlying reality and meaning making ) Co- constructed Interview relies on interaction b/w two individuals Dependant on the person interviewing results in an inter action/ standpoint thus construction of diff reality results Reflexivity important What / How Both can choose what they talk about & how All options are viable and are TRUTH, at the time depending on the circumstances TRANSCRIBING AND INTERVIEW qualitative - verbal interview transcribed will constitute the DATA Verbatim transcripts : Jeffersonian :

Contextual constructionism ( to some extent both these are realist ) Intersubjectivity and meaning making

Contextual Constructionism Ways of telling stories to get at generally speaking identities ( NA , Written in 1st person 📌) ( MA, written in 3rd person ) Mem- the process by which we form our identity Narr- product of how you see yourself ( product of identity formation) NP and MW are not interested in the Analysis of linguistic devises ( although they do use some deconstruction such as metaphor ) or the role of language They are CONTEXTUAL Excellence - reflexivity statement- research standpoint contextualisation

PROBS WITH INTERVIEWs Research, Interviews and methods

Critical realism vs Social constructionism - if life is great - we cut down the individual to try to find problems - assumption that they will reveal the real person, critical ( IPA ) realism, trying to illicit something deep in the interview situation, (The real person) Identify that individual is invested in presenting a particular face to a particular audience There is an assumption that we can actually get to the real person by listening to what they are saying we can get to the real person by asking them questions and they are going to give themselves up, ( reveal themselves to us ) That's an assumption that CRITICAL REALISTS make , the bottom of IPA type qualitative research ( true info will be accessed by the right questions) BUT - the argument is can you actually really get to know the real person ( can you tell from the conversation), or should you be just looking at the words , is SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM To not be invested in what the individual is actually saying is the truth, or any representation of the real person - just interested in the way in which they contexts words, and how the context actually shapes the sorts of language that is actually used in the context So social constructionist say you can never get inside someone's head , what you look at therefore are the actual words regardless of sanitisation of conversation

Epistemological position Qualitative research methods are characterised by epistemological diversity

Determines: What constitutes knowledge What counts as evidence What counts as truth How truth is recognised How do we recognise knowledge when we see it, how can we determine what a fact is , what is truth and how do we know when we have it , what differentiates knowledge from beliefs .

1: Epistemological position (Language is a construction it builds it doesn't reflect) Words are never natural reflections of reality - rather they are influential choices that represent reality in selective ways.

Discursive/ Constructionist Radical constructionist/ Social constructionist (DA) & (FDA) Aim is to explore the role of language in the construction of reality Language is a form of social action that constructs versions of reality Just interested in language - what language they are using, POSITIONING , what understanding of messages around the language- contextual and standpoint dependant, meaning is constructed by the actors in a situation through language Truth is NEVER absolute it is a socially agreed upon MEANING Rhetorical analysis and linguistic deconstruction ( unpacking text) thus conversation is better to analyse as more open. Furthermore our taken for granted rules and beliefs are the built- in - meta narratives of our society as communicated through talk

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked NOT SO MUCH WHY THEY HAVE CHOSEN THAT WORD OR DISCOURSE ( Foucauldian psychs are not interested in that level of psychology RATHER WHAT THAT WORD MAKES POSSIBLE FOR THAT PERSON FOR People Positioning is central to Foucauldian discourse Discourses are shared taken for granted assumptions about the way the world works that are used in the negotiation( reproduction/ resistance ) of power relations They are statements spoken from somewhere by someone and thus involve language Speaking both brings into being and positions the (speaker as subject) and who or what is being (spoken about as object: eg gender) SUBJECT POSITION 🍎🍉🍒🌶central to Foucauldian ARE NOT ROLES Replaces the ides of a coherent subject who exists before and across discourse 🍒🌶 Eg biomedical discourse - subject as patient eg ill health passive - lactase recipient of care within a trajectory of care Eg : neoliberal - social reality pictures circulating sexual : girls say it's my fault it's just a silly thing - but don't reference unethical that guys do that - therefore sets them us as neoliberal discourse empowered agents of their destiny so anything they do is totally responsible for what happens so it shuts down other ethical discourse represents that what the guys did was unethical .

Foucauldian Discourse Analysis - POWER TAKEN FOR GRANTED ASSUMPTIONS people draw on and affect POSITIONING 🍎🍉🍎🍒yourself around language sets you up in terms of what it makes possible for you .THE PERSON speaking is SUBJECT no interest in a SELF or FIXED IDENTITY, FIXED PERSONALITY because depending on your standpoint you can take up different SUBJECT POSITIONS 🍓🍅🍉 POWER, RIGHT, KNOWLEDGE TRIANGLE :Rules of right ( who has the right to say or do something) :Effects of knowledge ( produced and transmitted) :Effects become truth ( truth in turn reproduces this power) DISCOURSES They construct social and psychological realities However discourses are not STABLE OR PREDETERMINED ( counter discourses do eventually emerge) not uncommon to be contradictory however there are some facets of life that are simultaneously held: sex , gender , cultural and socioeconomic Describe and critique the discursive worlds that people inhabit ( shaped by shared meanings through language ) any image , visual , language , pictures Explore the implications of these worlds for subjectivity of experience How the participants uses language to privilege certain ways of being in the world, ( subject positions) , that set up certain expectations for behaviour and make available particular powers to actors . SUBJECTIVITY ( self understandings ) and interactions with others It's epistemological framework - role of language in constituting social and psychological life : end result is subjectivity - how does taking up this particular perspective set up and shut down possibilities in terms of lived experiences , in terms of what they can do what they can say how they can be What kinds of Objects and subjects are constructed through discourses What kinds of ways of being these discourses make available to people And what sorts of possibilities those worlds actually create , what sorts of ways of existing in the world it creates, and which perspective ACTUALLY is attached to greater power, for the person that holds it and the person who doesn't hold it Whose interests are served by this knowledge What interests does the knowledge oppress Eg explore the implications of these worlds for subjectivity and experience - girls empowered vs girls needing to be protected from adult pleasure : Race : sex biological gender : dominant themes ' regimes of truth' : what does the discourse set up if you take up refugee versus asylum seekers - what that word makes possible for that person , what sets up, shuts down eg. Asylum seeker drawing on particular assumptions associated with that discourse - taking asylum from conditions that are unbearable and that makes possible certain things and that people respond to you in a different way compared with if you take a discourse around refugee - :Men don't cross legs women should :Benevolent sexism- what does that set up for you as a man or a women : not always used to gain power or authority - can be used to reinforce or reproduce existing systems of power or privilege - or can be used for privilege, or take up subject positions in discourses to undermine or resist that power : working to trouble dominant discourses that try to position you in a certain way , if you take up a certain language its sets you up so people will use language to subvert or reposition themselves : male dominance : gender using them to say men are this way because of biology versus women , and men may use language : physically vagina versus balls Men are dominant leaders of the pack so they are privileged have aright to do certain things and women do not cannot Using that language to marshalled to continue to reproduce a position where men are privileged however also As a white male he is now a member of a group that is being discriminated against - so for Foucauldian there are interesting contents and contradictions : it's not about taking up one position that makes you power, it's more how you try to use discourse to get there It's more how you are reproducing certain understandings that lead privilege that leads to power ( multiple discourses ) male biology , rights and then also discrimination. Which of these interpretive repertoires have they chosen to account for gender or anything and why have they chosen it over another , POWER (probing those concepts to get to a result) Discourses are coherant ways of talking about the world that are TAKEN FOR GRANTED that we take them as TRUTH - why one particular version of talk is privileged over another :eg mental disorder as an illness ( model framework; that it's taken out of your hands your sick and need meds) versus mental disorder as contextually grounded ( the disorder is within context - ABI or dug addiction, thus you can have control and empowerment within the disorder , can make a choice ) Victom versus survivor RQ: what sharedTAKEN FOR GRANTED understandings does the average person use in speaking about gender. What subjectivities and expectations do these understandings create? How might the structure power relations among those who take them up? Any visual or written text ( depending on topic - small number for deep analysis) Identification of objects, ways of talking about objects that are used to negotiate power subject positions , subjectivities , ( ways of being) and possible actions arising from ways of speaking about objects Understanding of POWER reproduction and resistance of power, how people mobilise language to reproduce ,existing power relations or challenge them in some way - so the notion of discourse , these taken for granted understandings of the world are used by people to try challenge existing power relations or use , reproduce them in some way SEVEN STAGES OF PROCESS : Discursive constructions- all the different ways the object ( eg gender) is constructed in the text , shared meanings : Discourses - focus on the differences between the constructions - how the object ( gender ) is constructed within wider discourses : Action orientation - examines the contexts within which the different constructions of the object are being deployed ( what is gained from constructing this, what is its function, how does it relate to their constructions within the text) : Positioning's - examines positioning that speakers can take up or place other within SUBJECT Positions are NOT ROLES🍎🍉🍒🌶always has direct implications to subjectivity : Practice - what is the relationship between discourse and practice , how did discourses constructions OPEN UP OR CLOSE DOWN possibilities for action Eg - so if your a women its not your job to initiate sexual interaction , always wait for mens, regardless of how you feel Discourses can limit what can be said and done : Subjectivity- discourses make avaiable certain ways of seeing the world and certain ways of being in the world They CONSTRUCT SOCIAL and PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITIES 🍎🍉🍒

THEMATIC ANALYSIS (TA) Theoretical boundary 🍒 TA Epistomology is wether you are realist or social constructionist It's critical realist more realist that's critical

GENERAL way of analysis data METHOD OF IDENTIFYING! ANALYSING! AND REPORTING PATTERNS IN DATA. What is common to your participant, capture the experience It MINIMALLY organises and describes a data set in rich detail the most common form of analysis in qualitative research. A THEME - something important - an important idea that arises in relation to your research , captures some level of a patterned response or meaning in data set 🍒it's an idea that arises from concepts and sub themes that point to a theme eg : social relationships, it's a tough role, it's a man role . It will be comprised of related ideas SUB THEMES - that occur again and again and again , that connote some sort of emotional or AFFECTIVE experience because they are EMOTIONS 🍎(1st chunking process is your sub themes ) A way of reducing complex set of data into a more manageable way Breaking it down , chunking it , It emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or "themes") within data.Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question. The themes become the categories for analysis. Thematic analysis is performed through the process of coding in six phases to create established, meaningful patterns. These phases are: familiarization with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes among codes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report. 🍎🍉🍒 CONCEPTS - identify interesting words / phrases that seem important, eg happy sad, men are alpha women rock .used to contracts sub themes SUBTHEMES- chunk words that represent related ideas ( hang together and explain why you have chunked them that way) THEMES (2-3)- refined /chunk related ideas into a cluster that captures how the ideas are related CAPTURES some level of a patterned response in a data set SUPERORDINATE - one over arching idea that captures what your research is attempting to do , HIGHER Order theme meaning that can capture your entire experience . Chunking- based on conceptually similar - chunking - breaking down till until 2-3 themes ( similar to factor analysis) Eg : question What is the meaning of gender in the everyday life of one adult in contemporary Australia Taken up by GD and IPA However what differentiates the two approaches is the research question that directs the approach Epistemologically - Realist (GD) versus a little further closer to Social Constructionist (IPA) Eg : questions What theory of gender emerges from accounts of emerging adults considering sex reassignment What is the meaning of gender in the everyday life of black female adults living in contemporary Australia

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked OPEN CODING = concepts from data AXIAL CODING = subthemes SELECTIVE THERORETICAL CODING = relationships between themes CODE = THEME 🍎 THEORETICAL STATEMENT = SUPERORDINATE THEME 🍒

Grounded Theory (GD) - critical realism ( language provides participants with a tool to capture their experiences.)less so than IPA Development of theory grounded in data Collecting information before making conclusions It USES inductive ( from observations to theory ) versus deductive ( go from theory to observations INDUCTIVE REASONING looking at a particular situation and trying to understand what's going on - called aANALYTIC INDUCTION LANGUAGE is a tool that allows them to convey and capture their experiences So even though there is an assumption that language reflects reality, grounded theorist still are interested in the participants CHOICE of words MAJOR TRAITS Theoretical Analytical Cyclical THEORETICAL : generation of a theory 🍓 It's interested in actions, interactions , social processes of people Aim is to build a SUBSTANTIVE THEORY - makes sense of its own context versus a grand theory ( eg attachment theory, behaviourism, psychoanalysis) Grounded theory aims to develop data that makes sends in its own context.an IDEOGRAPHIC approach versus and nomothetic approach it's not trying to frame generalised laws that account for human behaviour 🍎🍒🌶 ANALYTICAL Theory building- trying to develop a theory grounded in data, it's important to develop THEORETICAL SENSITIVITY - to meanings CODES and CATEGORIES in data -🍎🍉 CODE = THEME THEORETICAL STATEMENT = SUPERORDINATE THEME TWO types of comparisons Eg a process of asking questions why are they same or different , constant comparisons, waving a red flag, theoretical comparisons🍎 :constant comparison ( conceptually similar, compared for similarities and differences) : theoretical comparisons - looking at properties and dimensions :negative case analysis - detailed examination of case that does not fit emerging theory, alternate explanations etc ( you have an obligation to show good research eg someone doesn't fit - detailed analysis. Theory deductively tested - what they find in analysis will then be the basis for whom they next choose to interview - called THEORETICAL SAMPLING , continue to cycle until nothing new emerges - called THEORETICAL SATURATION often a 1st part of theory building for quant process🍎🍉 An ethical issue , is the fact that as each sample collected - a new form to the ethics commity needs to be sent. Gradual sampling - semi structured interviews , data collected until saturation ( 8-12) SELECTIVE What words they analysis 🍅🍉 Words that indicate time, emotions particular, meanings and words used in simile or mETAPHOR INVIVO - participants words CONSTRUCTION - researcher 🍉🍎 IMPORTANT LANGUAGE THEY USE ( same as thematic analysis but called different). CODE = theme Like a FUNNEL starting with basic concepts, then sub themes within, then deeper and interpretive connections THREE MAJOR PROCESSES 1:Open coding: concepts from data (Concepts (TA) 2 : Axial coding: related collections of concepts that are more general to give categories SUBTHEMES TA) 3: Selective Theoretical coding: leads to ONE CENTRAL CORE CATEGORY ( MOJOR THEME ) and identification of relationship b/w this and other categories Basically it is a central core category that encapsulates all of your data ( theme) , then what you do is identify relationships/and connections /compare between that particular CORE category and other categories or THEMES that have emerged through the data Once the 3 coding steps are completed - the theory itself is stated - this theoretical statement is equivalent to SUPERORDINATE THEME in TA ) This has the power to explain - the dynamics of the contexts in which participants carry out their lives 🍉🍎 MEMO : written reflections on the analytical process. Note in journal part of an AUDIT TRAIL ~ reflexivity Also good for drawing causal connections CYCLING :ITERATION leads to theory ,becoming more conceptual, CYCLING data to theory, movement between data and analysis reflecting on links b/what is seen in data and what emerges - you modify your theory in line with what's coming out of your data : leads to a higher order theme . :DELAYED LITERATURE REVIEW -no review, avoids priming of ideas Research question about development of a theory Adopting a grounded theory - advocate for a delayed literature review if the existing lit is known will contaminate findings

TYPES OF CASE STUDIES ANALYTIC INDUCTION 📕📌 (GD)

INTRINSIC vs INSTRUMENTAL Intrinsic : cases are pre- specified since intrinsic interest pre exists the research represents nothing but themselves researcher interested in that pre existing case in particular, rather than a more general problem or phenomenon No purposive sampling Cases PRE EXISTS the research ( patients rare disease, Sybil dissociative identity disorder) VS Instrumental : examples of more GENERAL phenomenon ( bereavement, marriage , fame ) Allows researcher opportunity to study phenomenon of interest (fame, addiction) Research question identifies an interest then cases are selected to explore how a phenomenon exists within particular case Therefore individuals experiencing the phenomenon of interest become case for analysis eg celebrity rehab ( studying rehab or the experience of addiction in diff grps (Dave could be the case of celebrity with addiction), addiction among celebrities, the experience of celebrity leading to addiction etc SINGLE vs MULTIPLE📕 Single: detailed investigation of a single case , intrinsic interest to researcher Provide opportunity to test applicability of existing theory to real world data. Eg a critical test for a well formulated theory 📌 Or , unique or extreme case of intrinsic interest to the research , revelatory case that may have been previously in accessible ( Sylvia Plath) VS Multiple: opportunity to generate NEW THEORY ( thematic analysis) Theoretical formulations developed and refined based on comparative analysis of a series of cases 1st case tentative predictions/ hypothesis about what you might be expecting , then subsequent cases that allow you to explore those hypothesis, each new case your emerging theory will be developed and modified to account for all instances of the phenomenon of investigation until. Toning new emerges from the data. Called ANALYTIC INDUCTION 📕 DESCRIPTIVE vs EXPLANATORY⏰ Descriptive : provided a detailed description of the phenomenon within the context of the study, information collected WITHOUT CHANGING the environment (Anthropologists , sociologist, and educational ) Ethnography's - are descriptive case studies , eg studying teaching and learning in an innovative school VS Explanatory: Generate explanations for occurrences with which they are concerned Descriptions are accompanied by attempts to use explanatory concepts within the accent Used to explain CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS b/w variables and develop theory Researchers then take them to test out in QUANTITATIVE research Eg using an explanatory case study to refine a theory ( theory generation) then test it out using quantitative Ethnography's and grounded theory use explanatory case studies Eg beyond description, using a case study to test and refine an instructional theory.

Replication Reliability and validity ( quantitative) And Triangulation (objectivity & reliability) , excellence , reflexivity Internal coherence , deviant case analysis, reader evaluation

Important for building of causal laws/ relationships Reliability and validity ( quantitative) Generalisability Qualitative ( transferability) OBJECTIVITY must be able to demonstrate that the categories and themes that you identify EMERGE FROM THE DATA ! Rather than being imposed in the data by the researcher RESPONDENT VALIDATION : Member checking Computer software VALIDITY : TA & GT - IPA, - Triangulation ( qualitative ) two independent researchers that code and compare themes accounts , converge and confirm observations Also NEGATIVE CASE ANALYSIS ( similar to deviants case analysis in DA) CONTEXTUAL EPISTEMOLOGY 🍒🌶🍉 NA and MW : Excellence conducted from within contextualist perspective (reflexivity) here this means that the relationship between accounts and context ( situational , personal , social ) within which they have been produced is clearly demonstrated ALSO Reflexivity extremely important for IPA however important for all NW and MW also Reflexivity :Applies to participants accounts, experiences thoughts and feelings :Researchers accounts,Analysis and interpretations of data RADICAL CONSTRUCTIONIST EPISTEMOLOGY DA & FDA :Internal coherence ( HANGS TOGETHER , does the analysis tell a good story, is it clear does it generate new insights , is it theoretically sophisticated , it is persuasive :Deviant case analysis ( deviant cases are actively sought out and addressed ) :Reader evaluation extent to which the study is seen to contribute insights and understandings on the part of the reader - must include RAW DATA and VERBATIM QUOTES , which allows the readers to arrive at their own interpretation of material. TRANSFERABILITY Despite the use of epistemology to determine the criteria by which a particular qualitative research study can be judged , ALL qualitative research can be judged against transferability Transferability : refers to the extent to which ASECTS of qualitative research can be transferred to other GROUPS OF PEOPLE or CONTEXTS. Eg dichotomous idea of gender is transferable across different contexts , cultures, society , legal etc VERSUS Generalisability : refers to wether or not the results obtained in one study can be applied to wider or different populations ( HORIZONTAL extension of results)

CASE STUDIES ( Idiographic)

In depth , intensive sharply focused exploration of single occurrence/case Used in psychology, psychoanalysis , political theory, social anthropology, history, education and sociology No intention to generalise Singular entities ( one particular unit : organisation, city, person, patient, school, nation/ state , intervention, community) NOT itself a research METHOD ( rather it Involves a range of research methods to collect and analysis data : can be used in quant but basically qual) FIVE FEATURES of a case study. :Ideographic ( concerned with particular - rather than identifying general laws of human behaviour - no generalising or replicating :Attention to contextual data- holistic - what is happening in environment that leads to whatever is happening in the case :Triangulation - multiple methods of case , interviews, narratives etc It's about building a picture to gain a understanding of the phenomenon 🍐🍎🍉 :Temporal element- investigation of occurrences over time (7 up doc) :Concern with theory - generation of theory - often used in GD Eg Freud and Piaget used cases and date generated to build there's around cognitive development and psychoanalysis On the bases of one case they build a theory, on that base they select another case and based on the 1st case and new info MODIFY theory until nothing new emerges METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN A CASE STUDY Researchers need to select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies : semi- structured interviews : participant observation : diaries Personal and official documents DATA ANALYSIS Thematic analysis (TA) Grounded Theory ( GD) Interpretive phenomenological analysis ( IPA) Foucauldian analysis ( FDA) NOT ( DA) 📕as its NOT one set of language - (group of people in naturally occurring conversation/ speech ) If your interested in case studying You need to consider :Selction of case- who you chosse :Methods of data anaysis - guided by reseacrh question RQ ( if your interested in; building theorys - TA or modified induction ( if your interested in; lived exp , meaning making - IPA ( if your interested in taken for granted assumptions that people draw on to make sence of their world - FDA :Role of theory - initial testing :Ethical concerns ADVANTAGES Address wide range of exp, behaveoiurs , phenomena Rich data High ecological value Versitle appriach DISADVANTAGES Methodological triangulation framework ( eg qualitive and quantitive data counting etc used therefore have to explain)

PSYCHOLOGIES TURN TO LANGUAGE:

Informed by POST- STRUCTURALISM and COGNITIVISM Post structuralism - language is a construction yard Cognitivism - language as a mirror is inadequate to capture people's experiences and subjectivities🍒🌶🍎 Key text that influenced - to RETHINK that language is not just a MIRROR nor structures and universal laws POTTER AND WETHERALL'S texts It's not about mental representations, rules and structure of language that propose an underlying truth - rather it's about understanding language and how we use it 1st - SOCIAL SCIENCES COGNITIVISM : MENTAL representations ONLY ( what's going on in our heads ) or the rules that control cognitive mediation of input from the environment STRUCTURALISM : postulate the existence of UNIVERSAL LAWS and structures to human behaviour : assumption that All phenomena have an UNDERLYING OBJECTIVE STRUCTURE structure that can be discovered if the right method ( objective and scientific) are used If we use the scientific method we can uncover it as an objective that separates us as researcher 2nd - POST STRUCTURALISM : Rejects these TWO assumptions That there can be an ULTIMATE TRUTH you cannot access it by some method. Our understanding of the world and ourselves is NOT a product of understanding rules and structures rather it's a products of UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE and how we use language Our perspective is a by products of social interchange and depends on point of view /on where you stand in relation to others ( reflexivity) POSITIONING (DA) Thus argue that words do not convey 'true' representations of mental states - they are not interested in mental states whatsoever - that don't say they don't exist ( like radical behaviourist) they say we cannot access them so let's look at what we can access which is language . Therefore whenever we use words we are taking part in a conversation and the has a PURPOSE and all,participants have a STAKE Therefore we need to take into account the SOCIAL CONTEXT with which they speak : males talking to females about sharing house cleaning. : diff depending on who they are talking to i.e. male Hence they are ways of disclaiming socially undesirable social identity - not a lie rather they are orienting toward a particular reading of the questions being asked - thus account of that reading need to be understood in relation to that reading - social construction - when people talk the world gets constructed Communication shapes the world

Empiricism Empiricism framework Knowledge acquisition

Knowledge of the world must be derived from "facts of experience" - sense perception provides basis for knowledge acquisition Proceeds through A systematic collection and classification of data/observations ( smell, touch, sight)- observations are compiled into ideas ( scientific) theory

Critical language awareness CONSTRUCTIONIST Social constructionist Radical discursive methods THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE INTHE CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY

Language is a construction yard ( constructionist) (DA, FDA) Language CREATES ( constructs) reality. The role of language in the construction of reality Language is a social action that constructs versions of reality Language cannot be used to access internal mental states or truths words are NEVER simply natural reflections of reality - rather influential choices that represent reality in selective ways- participants are CHOOSING what they say and share and how they share it . These choices constitute our knowledge of the world and so will present and represent our own reality in a particular way : contextual : standpoint dependant AIM of research🍓🍎🍒 : how meanings are produced : how meanings change across culture and time : how meanings shape experiences

Critical language awareness REALIST ( what they say is real) Experiential and Critical realist

Language is a mirror ( realist ) ( Thematic analysis TA, GA, IPA : more critical realist ) - what they say IS Language is a reflection of internal categories of understanding And the way people think and feel However cognitive view is that mirror is inadequate Experiential /Realist 🍎🍒🌶 Aims to gain better understanding of People's experiences Peoples ways of thinking Peoples actions Is a reflection of internal categories of understanding Used to access what people THINK And FEEL

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked

MEMORY - interested in PROCESS/ COLLECTIVE (MW) HOW OUR IDENTITIES FASHIONED through our experiences A method for exploring our position in the social world Memory's are the material out of which we make ourselves Memories of specific situations will more likely contain : contrasts and contradictions : ambiguities : inconsistencies Therefore reveal the PROCESS of SELF FORMATION , vs narrative which is the end PRODUCT ( a rehearsed, coherent recounted products of self formation) 📌📕⏰☎️REMEMBER THAT FOR EXAM Process of self -identity making - construction through memory Collection of memories that fashion how we identify, memories that trigger self it is NOT events themselves that are important BUT THE PROCESS by which we attempt to : as simulate the unfamiliar : resolve conflict and contradictions : construct version of self and past Working with memories of specific situations Forgrounding detail rather than biographical narratives and lengthy accounts WRITTEN IN 3 RD PERSON ( it will reveal more info detail, more gritty/socially less desirable, will contain more contradiction, conflict ambiguity vs if written in 1st they try to justify and make coherant) 📌 (4-8) collective memory accounts generated by triggers which must be specific Individual analysis ( sequences of actions, roles, relations, cliches , contradictions, what is said and not said , cross sectional analysis, similarities and differences , reoccurring themes ) Can be used for social construction of emotion Ways in which individuals process the social world in attempt to find meaning and pleasure in it. RQ: how are our identities FASHIONED through our gendered experiences 3 x PHASES Generating memory : choose grp, use TRIGGER ( saying sorry) , write memory Analysis: sequence, role relations, cliches, contradictions, what's said what's not , what's implied.Cross sectional analysis of other grp memories- similarities, diffs, common themes ideas patterns Integration and theory building: existing theories explored, what extent do they account for grp observation, do they fit, can models be changed or new generated to account for grp obs

2: Research Question The qualitative methodology chosen will depend upon the nature of the question being asked

NARRATIVE - interested in identity PRODUCT ( NARR) telling a story POWER AND LOVE ,victim to victor Experience of self particular experience , disruptive event ( product of self construction) Interested in the product of identity making process The final story , the autobiographical account- rehearsed, and recounted many times- more stereotyped and coherent - they reveal more about the PRODUCT of self formation versus MEMORY work : that is more about the PROCESS ⏰📕📌 Written in 1st person 📌 Experience of self - how do the stories we tell explain who we are , particular experience ; disruptive event - divorce, marriage , death Stories we use to capture identity - princess ( Cinderella/ frozen from victim good girl to princess and free) hero, victim What sorts of subjectivity of experiences do those sorts of stories set up - identity Purposive sampling - small number (1-8) life story interview, narrative interview, episodic interview , particular disruptive event all interviews or written accounts semi structured Descriptive reading, (summary and sub plots) interpretive reading, structure tone dominant themes, (power vs love) contact , language ( imagery and metaphors )☎️ RQ: what accounts of gender emerge through the life stories of a group of adults who experienced WWII.

NARRATIVE Story telling - we convert everything around us into a story

Narrative is At the heart of being human They way in which humans "Makes sense of order and disorder and chaos in the world " Through narrative we " define ourselves" Distinguish ourselves from others , how different we are from others UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS of particular experience ( narrative interview) or particular disruptive (episodic interview) Life story interviews Focus grps Personal journals Video or photo collages ( Instagram ) 📕 Narrative is ORGANISED into a LINEAR sequence , rehearsed into a story with a start, middle and end Has two functions : Emplotment and creation of self identity 📌 :Emplotment brings ORDER to DISORDER to the plot , however it is PROVISIONAL (subject to change) :From victim to princess : self identity we tell stories to ourselves and others this creates a narrative identity, we can hold a variety of narrative identities attached to different social relationships , this establishes a sense of localised coherence . Narrative accounts are shaped by social contexts Narrated frames story but character of story depends on - audience( who we talk to & social cultural context) eg group identity - the ROMA gypsies - victims , outsiders , outcasts . POWER LOVE THEMES 📕( McAdam 1993) Agency Relationships Themes underly major beliefs and values - what has directed their strivings in life the quest for agency (power) or relationships ( love) Analysis of narratives (2 types) DESCRIPTIVE :structure and content :Short summary : Identify sub plots and establish connections INTERPRETIVE Structure and tone - these will give you a glimpse of the person Structure : Regressive - tragedy : Progressive - comedy : stable - satire Tone : Regressive - pessimistic : Progressive - optimistic : stable - neutral/ objective ( listing of events) Contexts are personal experiences or societal broader narratives eg. being an outsider Metaphors used to frame experiences , love is a battle field - warfare , love as economic exchange ,many ways in which individual conceptualises their world

OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES

Observing is part of every empirical science research , without engaging in observation, would not be able to conduct any type of research Also a method of data collection FEATURES : the extent to which Covert Standardised / systematic Natural setting Observer takes part in the activity being observed Observer - self observing ( reflexivity) CONTEXT :Laboratory - fully structured , systematic, grid coding and video record ( more quantitative as data collected at time of ob) 📕, extraneous variables controlled , replication possible, lacks ecological validly , behaviour not spontaneous or realistic , ethical issues :Field- naturalistic , set period of time , recorded while unobtrusive, notes taken and data complied later ( some reflexivity) good ecological validity, realistic spontaneous behaviour, behaviour less subject to demands characteristics of the setting, however difficult for observer to be unobtrusive :Participant - and observer balance between dual roles observing and participating eg memory work , asking questions and sitting back documenting , informally interviewing ( reflexivity) KEEPING NOTES Substantive - description of settings, events , people Methodological - process of observation itself Analytical - data analysis and theory building RECORDING - if CODED then not qual 📕 Event sampling - one particular event Time sampling - snap shot

Qualitative data collection realist

Productive data- participants and what we ask them to do, who we ask and how we generate the data.

Qualitative data collection constructionist

Selective data- diary , media , blogs etc

Scientific theory Criteria for the scientific theory within positivism and empiricism Falsify or disconfirm The scientific method

Set of concepts and propositions that describe and explain certain aspects of human experience Parsimony - must be able to explain a broad range of phenomena Falsifiability - a theory's claims must be able to be falsified: a collection of observations can never give rise to categorical statement "X causes Y" however many times we observe X causes Y the possibility of the next observation may be an exception Therefore no scientific theory can ever be verified conclusively Discover what claims are NOT true by process of elimination move closer to what is true - hypothetico-deductivism i.e. the scientific method Heuristic value - must build on existing knowledge by constant generation of a hypothesis Known as the Hypothetico-deductivism Observation Objective tools and methods ( produces good science) Experimentation (causal relations) Replication

Metal - Narratives

Strong taken for granted rules and beliefs within society - ideologies Eg women should not have sex with multiple partners - trashy Men can- legend

Qualitative data analysed constructionist

Techniques grounded in forms of rhetorical analysis and linguistic deconstruction ( unpacking texts)

Secondary sources

Text books Anthologies Annual reviews Psych bulletin

BRACKETING

The idea in phenomenology that we can leave aside the question of whether people's experiences are separate from reality Identifying and holding any preconceived beliefs and opinions that one may have about a phenomenon in an effort to confront the data in a pure a form as possible - the isolation of the pure phenomenon versus what is already known of it.

STORY COMPLETIONS TASKS

The meanings participants draw upon when writing their stories Taken for granted assumptions As the phenomenon is addressed indirectly it requires the participant to fill in the blanks - Addresses questions - how do participants understand a phenomenon , what perceptions they have , and Taken for granted assumptions do they make about phenomenon Particularly good for COMPARISONS - response of diff grps to same story, see if changing a key feature ( gender character, ability) produces diff responses Can use TA, FDA,Metaphor analysis , Linguistic deconstruction Advantage- rich data, fast , generate large amounts data, participants have control over data produced Disadvantages- life story approach time consuming, cannot prob responses after the fact, huge story differences brief, long fantasy humour etc .

Ontology

The theory about the nature of reality or being - that things are in the world - defining and cataloging the things that exist - it might involve questions about wether personality or intelligence exists

How do we approach research

The theory of knowledge 2 traditional frameworks :Positivism :Empiricism Contemporary : constructionist

The goal of positivism ( linear) Quantitative approach REALISM

To reach an objective account ( free from bias) = truth To produce an account of entities ( that is knowledge) that is distinct from the individuals perceptions and beliefs about them. Positivist approach is underpinned by epistemological realism Unreconstructed positivists (naive realism)- is the view that our representations of the things in the world are relatively straightforward reflections of the way those things actually are Entities pre-exist and give rise to their surface representations - and judging which of those seems to be correct

RESEARCH METHODS TYPES

Types: QUALITATIVE Observational Archival Case studies Interviews Focus groups Ethnography / Auto-ethnography Narrative/ Memory work QUANTITATIVE Questionnaires / surveys Quasi experiments / experiments

Constructionist

What we know of the world is a product of the discourses (language) and systems of meaning within which we reside Truth is NEVER absolute it's a socially agreed upon meaning

Epistemology

investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge. ... epistemology, or theory of knowledge, Epistemological position