·English Grammar - Glossary Chapter 2 (Units 4-8) (de Anika)
Copular verbs
A type of intransitive verbs. They *require a Subject Complement*. Example: I am *cold*. ('be') I feel *col*. ('feel') Verbs of being ('be', 'remain', 'stay') predict being in a location, so their complements are analysed as locative (Cloc). *Attributive*: He stayed *calm*. *Locative/Goal*: He stayed *in bed*. *Attributive*: She went *pale*. *Locative/Goal*: She went *to work*. *Attributive*: He drive me *mad*. *Locative/Goal*: He drives me *to the airport*. *Attributive*: A bicycle will get you *fit*. *Locative/Goal*: A bicycle will get you *to work*.
Stance Adjuncts
Adjuncts which are separated from clause structure by a pause or a comma, and that express a speaker's or writer's attitude to or evaluation of the content of the clause. Example *Obviously,* he'll rely on you even more now. *Naturally*, he spoke to me when he saw me. He spoke to me when he saw me, *naturally*. He *naturally* spoke to me when he saw me. He spoke to me, *naturally*, when he saw me. *·Types:* *A) Epistemic* - Do you believe me? *Of course* I do. They express the speaker's opinion regarding the validity of the content, commenting on the certainty, doubt, possibility and obviousness of the proposition. *Undoubtedly*, he is the finest pianist alive today. *Obviously*, he'll rely on you even more now. *B) Evidential* - *Apparently*, the picture is a fake. They signal the source of knowledge or information (from the speaker's own opinion to the beliefs or accounts of others). *In my view / In my experience / According to / In the words of / Supposedly / Apparently* *According to* the weather forecast, there's a hurricane on the way. *C) Evaluative* - *Amazingly*, he won a gold medal. They are attitudinal, reflecting the subjective or objective attitude of the speaker towards the content and sometimes also towards the addressee. *Surely* you can make up you own mind! *Broadly speaking*, the Health Service is satisfactory. (objective) *Unfortunately*, our team didn't win. (subjective) *D) Style* - *Quite frankly*, it seems good to me. They are the speaker's comment on the way s/he is speaking. (*honestly / frankly / confidentially*) *E) Domain* - *Medically*, the project has little to recommend it. They signal what viewpoint the message is orientated. *·Realisations:* Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefully, probably... PPs: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chance, of course... Non-fin cl: to be honest, to tell the truth, strictly speaking... Fin. cl: if I may be frank with you..., don't take this personally, but...
Connective Adjuncts
Adjuncts which links clauses or parts of clauses, and paragraphs; signalling the semantic relation holding between them (connectors or discourse markers). They can occur between groups, clauses, sentences or paragraphs. Example: The hotel was rather noisy. *On the other hand,* it wasn't expensive. *·Types:* Additive: besides, in the same way, what's more, moreover, plus, as well, also Contrast: instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet Causal: for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus Temporal: first, then, next, after that, finally, at once *·Realisations:* Adverbs: nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, next, now namely, accordingly, consequently, alternatively PPs: in other words, by the way, on top of that AdjGs: last of all, better still AdvGs: more accurately Fin. cl: that is to say, what is more Non-fin. cl: to sum up, to cap it all *Discourse markers*: in conversation turns are often initiated by this element (Well... Now... Oh... So... Right...). They mark a new speaker's turn and the management of information, as well as the speaker's attitude to the message.
Complement (C)
One of the two main functional categories which occurs in post-verbal position (*occurs after the verb or after an object*). It is a central constituent that completes the meaning of the clause and goes after the Predicator. There are two main types: Subject and Object. Semantically, this category encodes constituents that are not participants but are nevertheless normally required both syntactically and semantically. Example: Jo is *a student*.
Adverb particle (p)
A particle which goes next to the lexical verb to create Phrasal verbs or Phrasal prepositional verbs.
Criteria for the classification of clause elements
·Determination by the verb. ·Position. ·Ability to become the subject. ·The structural realisations of these functions.
Circumstantial Adjunct
Adjuncts which provide the setting for the situation expressed in the clause, as regards place, time and manner, among others. They are realised by PPs (drive *on the left*), or AdvGs (drive *slowly*). They generally answer questions with 'where', 'when', 'how, 'why'. Example: The new liner 'Queen Elizabeth 2' sails *tomorrow from Southampton*. ·They provide experiential details about the action or state describes by the verb and answer questions as 'where/when/how/why/what?'. They are the ones most similar to clause constituents. Tom bought a new car *last month*. They are realised by a wide variety of units: a) She called me *yesterday*. (Adverb) b) She called me *too late*. (AdvG) c) She called me *from the office*. (PP) d) She called me *this morning*. (NG) e) She called me *while I was out*. (Finite clause) f) She called *to tell me the news*. (Non-fin. to-inf.cl) g) She called me, *using her mobile*. (Non-fin.-ing cl.) h) She called me, *scared out of her wits*. (Non-fin.,-en cl.) i) *Afraid to leave the house*, she called me. (Verbless clause) ·Units that are set off from the main clause by a comma or a pause are called *supplementives* (g,h,i) ·Certain verbs predict a circumstantial element without which the clause is incomplete. Then, they have the status of a Complement: -*Location in place or time*: after verbs of position ('be', 'stay', 'live', 'lie'...) We live *in troubled times*. The farm is situated *in a valley*. -*Extent in time or place*: after 'take' and similar. The journey takes *several days*. The performance lasts *(for) three hours*. -*Direction and Goal*: after verbs of movement ('go', 'come'...) or movement + manner ('fly') We flew *south*. We flew *to New York*. -*Source*: She tiptoed *out of the bedroom*. We flew *from London*. -*Manner*: with 'behave', and 'treat'. She is behaving *rather strangely*. They treated the prisoners *badly*.
Locative element (Cloc)
An element which is required by a few transitive verbs such as 'put' and 'place'. Without this element the clause is incomplete, therefore, it has the status of a central clause element. Example: *Put* the scarf *in the drawer.* *Place* the casserole *in the microwave.* It is also predicted by many intransitive verbs of motion such as 'come', 'go', 'fly', 'drive', which can predict such meanings as Direction (flying *south*), and Goal, which marks an end-point (go to *Rome*).
Adjuncts (A)
Elements that are usually optional (are not essential for the completion of the clause). Although they are to a certain extent integrated in the clause, they can be omitted without affecting the acceptability of the clause and are often moveable within the clause. Example: He works *in London*. ·It is common to find a number of these elements in the same clause. ˹*If at all possible*˺ I'll see you ˹*tomorrow*˺ ˹*after the show*˺ ˹*outside the main entrance*˺. ·They can be added to any of the basic clause structures: The bells rang *all day long*. SP(A) Tom hired a car *at Doncaster*. SPOd(A) You must allow for delays in *holiday periods*. SPPC(A) He send me flowers *trough Interflora*. SPOiOd(A) The weather is rather unpredictable *in these parts*. SPCs(A) They expected to find themselves up against opposition *any day soon*. SPOdCo(A) ·They usually have a flexibility in position: *Hastily* she hid the letter. She *hastily* hid the letter. She hid the letter *hastily*. ·They express circumstances, specifications and comments of many different types which are attendant on the verb or the whole clause. They occur in a number to express different meanings in the same clause: *Surprisingly* (stance), she *almost* (degree) forgot to set the alarm clock *last night* (time). There are three main types: *Circumstantial, Stance (epistemic, evidential and evaluative) and Connective (not elements of structures, but connectors or discourse markers)*. The *operator-related* one compose the fourth group and are adverbs and adverbial groups which can function as elements of *usuality* ('usually'), *frequency* ('sometimes', 'never'), *degree* ('just'), *modality* ('probably') and *aspectuality* ('still', 'yet', 'already'); and tend to be placed near the finite operator.
Object Complement (Co)
Elements which can be realised by adjectives or NGs and refer to the Object. Example: We found that map *useful*. They made Ken Brown *President*. They appointed James *First Secretary*. This element completes the predicate with an AdjG or a NG following a direct object (which can become the subject of the clause in a passive voice) when certain verbs ('find', 'make', 'appoint') lead us to specify some characteristics of the Direct Object. It can be realised by AdjGs, definite and indefinite NGs and clauses. You (S) are making (P) me (Od) *angry* (Co). ·There is typically number agreement between the Od and this element: Circumstances (S) have made (P) the brothers (Od) *enemies* (Co) But there are occasional exceptions (expressions of size, shape, colour, height...): You haven't made the sleeves *the same length*. ·This element can characterise the Od by a qualitative attribute or by a substantive attribute expressing the name or status of the object referent: Police found the suspects *unwilling to cooperate*. (qualitative) They have elected Ken *captain of the golf club*. (substantive) The burglars left the house *in a mess*. (circumstantial) ·A paraphrase with 'be' can be done to distinguish this element form an Adjunct: The burglars left the house *in a mess*. (˟The house *was in a mess*.) The burglars left the house in five minutes. (˟The house was in five minutes.) *REALISATIONS:* ·*AdjG* A sleeping pill will rapidly make you *drowsy*. ·*NG* His friends consider him *a genius*. They called 'oblique' when introduced by 'as' or 'for' because of the verb (though some times it is optional): Party members regard him *as the best candidate*. Do you take me *for an idiot*? ·*Finite nominal cl.* Dye your hair *whatever colour you like*. ·*Non-finite -en cl.* The authorities had the demonstrators *places under house arrest*.
Subject Complement (Cs)
Elements which can be realised by adjectives or NGs and refer to the Subject. Example: That map was *useful*. Ken Brown is *President*. My brother is *a physiotherapist*. This element completes the predicate after a copular verb by specifying an Attribute of the Subject or its identity. No passivisation is possible. It can be realised by AdjGs, by definite and indefinite NGs, and by clauses. Who's there? It's *me*. She became *a tennis champion* at a very early age. Feel *free to ask questions*! ·This element does not represent a new participant (like an Object does) but completes the predicate by adding information about the subject referent. ·A wide range of verbs can be used to link the subject to its this element: 'be', 'seem', verbs of transition ('become', 'get', 'go', 'grow', 'turn'), of perception ('sound', 'smell', 'look'), and others. The constituent following such verbs will be considered one of these elements if the verb can be replaced by 'be' and can't stand alone, without a change of meaning: I know it *sounds stupid*, but... (=is stupid) (˟I know it sounds.) That *looks nice*. (=is nice) (˟That looks.) ·There are other verbs which can be used intransitively with the same meaning but can be paraphrase containing 'be': Saint Etheldreda was born *a Saxon princess*. (She was born.) (When Saint Etheldreda was born *she was a Saxon princess*.) He returned *a broken man*. (He returned.) (When he returned *he was a broken man*.) He died *young*. (He died.) (When he died *he was young*.) ·Typically, there is number agreement between the subject and this element, and gender agreement with a reflexive pronoun at complement (1); however there are some exceptions (2). (1) Jane isn't *herself today*. (2) Joan an Lionel make *a good couple*. (2) My neighbour's cats are *a nuisance/joy*. (2) Are these sock wool? No they are *cotton*. (2) The twins are *the same height*. ·The identifying type is typically reversible in the clause, but the attributive types are not: The concert was *marvellous*. (attributive) (˟Marvellous was the concert.) The concert was *a great success*. (attributive) (˟A great success was the concert.) The orchestra was *the London Philharmonic*. (identifying) (The London Philharmonic was the orchestra.) *REALISATIONS:* ·The attributive type of this element is realised by AdjGs and NGs: She was *ambitious*. (S-P-Cs) She is *twenty-two years old*. (AdjG) Sam is *a very lucky man*. (NG) His research was recognised *as a great contribution to science*. ('As' + NG) The Rolling Stones' concert was acclaimed *as the event of the season*. ('As' + NG) ·The identifying type of this element is realised by NGs and by clauses: Her name was *Bettina*. (S-P-Cs) Ken's belief is that *things can't get any worse*. (Fin. that-clause) He has become *what he always wanted to be*. (Nominal relative cl.) The only thing I did was *tell him to go away*. (Non-fin. bare inf.cl.) My advice is *to withdraw*. (Non-fin. to-inf. -S) The best plan is *for you to go by train*. (Non-fin. + for + S) What I don't enjoy is *standing in queues*. (Non-fin. -ing cl -S) What most people prefer is *other doing / for others to do the work*. (Non-fin -ing cl +S) ·NGs and AdjGs can occur as both types in passive clauses derived from S-P-Od-Co structures: You are regarded *as a friend of the family*. (We regard you *as a friend of the family*.) The gates were left *open* all night. (Someone left the gates *open* all night.)
Direct Object (Od)
Example: All the men wore *dark suits*. Tom sent me *an email*. We hired *a car*. I have sent them *an invitation*. They appointed *James* First Secretary. *1)* It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs such as 'hit', 'buy', 'send'. It is placed immediately after the predicator, but follows an indirect object if there is one. I have sent *the invitations*. I have sent everyone *an invitation*. *2)* It is typically realised by a NG, but may also be realised by clauses: I saw *the burglar*. (NG) I saw *what he did*. (nominal cl.) *3)* It can generally be 'promoted' to become subject in a corresponding passive clause: *The invitations* have been sent. *4)* It can be tested for by questions beginning with 'Who(m)?', 'What?', 'Which?', 'How much/many?' and by wh-clefts. What did you send? What I sent were the invitations. (wh-cleft) *5)* Semantically, it usually occurs in a high-transitivity situation: in a process of 'doing' in which the referent's state or location is affected in some way. He headed *the ball* into the net. (Affected) *6)* It can be associated with a wide variety of semantic roles and verbs: The burglars used *an acetylene lamp* to break open the safe. (Instrument) I felt *a sudden pain in my arm*. (Phenomenon) He gave the door *a push*. (Range) He swam *the Channel*. (Affected locative) *7)* Non-prototypical range: when the NG is a deverbal noun (derived from a verb) which follows a verb that is 'light' in semantic content such as 'have' ('have a rest/smoke/drink', 'take a sip/nap', 'give a kick/nudge', 'do a dance'...) Swim *the Channel* (O) - achievement completed Swim across *the Channel* (NG complement of a PP, functioning as A) - achievement may be incomplete It can be realised by groups and by clauses: *A)* Nominal Group - We hired *a caravan*. They can be pronouns or proper names, or full NGs. I don't understand *it*. Have you read *that new novel I lent you*? Forest fires are threatening *the world's remaining population of orang-utans*. *Non-typical* ones: include verbs such as 'have', 'cost', 'lack', 'resemble', 'fit', 'suit', 'weigh', 'contain' and 'measure'. All of them answer the questions 'What?', 'Who?', 'How much/many?' and pass the wh-cleft, but don't passivise. She lacks confidence. - What does she lack? - What she lacks is confidence. *B)* Anticipatory it - I find *it* strange *that she left*. It is necessary in SPOdCo structures in which the Od is realised by a finite or non-finite clause. You must think *it* strange *that he refuses to come*. She might consider *it* insulting *for you to leave now*. He finds *it* flattering *having so many fans*. *C)* Finite clause - You know *(that) I am right*. It can be realised by nominal that-clauses (often 'that' being omitted) and wh-clauses. They fear *that there may be no survivors*. No-one knows *where he lives*. You can eat *whatever you like*. Both types of clauses can become subject in a passive voice and the extraposed: It is feared *that there may be no survivors*. It not know *where he lives*. Some can not passivise but pass the wh-cleft test. I wonder *whether they know the truth*. - **Whether they know the truth* is wondered. - *What I wonder* is whether they know the truth. *D)* Non-finite clause - They enjoy *travelling by train*. It can be realised by infinitive clauses with or without 'to', and '-ing' clauses. Many Londoners prefer *to travel by train*. Many Londoners prefer *travelling by train*. These clauses can be replaces by a NG (prefer *the train*), or by 'it'/'that' (prefer *it*); and can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentences (*What many Londoners prefer is to travel/travelling by train*.) However, the chain-like structures don't pass these tests (*catenatives* - He failed to appear. I tried to speak.), and others have a *explicit subject* of their own. They usually represent situations, not entities, and do not easily passivise, but can become the focus in a wh-cleft. *a.* to-infinitive clause The villagers want *to leave immediately*. (implicit subject 'they') The villagers want *the soldiers/them to leave immediately*. (explicit subject 'the soldiers') *b.* -ing clause subject (with genitive or objective case) Do you mind *waiting a few minutes*? (implicit subject) Do you mind *my/me waiting a few minutes*? (explicit subject in objective or possessive case). *c.* to-infinitive or -ing clause He hates *telling lies*. (implicit subject) He hates *people telling lies*. (explicit subject) He hates *for people to tell lies*. ('for' + explicit subject + to-inf) *F)*Prepositional Phrase - The boss prefers *before 10 for the meeting*. They can act as subject or object: *Just before breakfast* is not a good time.
Indirect Object (Oi)
Example: Tom sent *me* an email. I have sent *them* an invitation. ·It occurs only with verbs which can take two objects ('give', 'send') and its position in clause structure is between the verb and the Od. ·It is typically realised by a NG, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause. ·It is associated with *two semantic roles*: -Recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), which in passive voice becomes the subject: She has lent *me* a few CDs. (*I* have been lent a few CDs.) The doctor gave *the injured man* oxygen. (*The injured man* was given oxygen.) Sammy Karanja is teaching *the students* maths. (*The students* are being taught by Sammy Karanja.) -Beneficiary or 'intended recipient', which in passive voice does not easily become the subject: I'll buy *you* a drink. (**You* will be bought a drink.) He got *us* the tickets. (**We* were got the tickets.) She left *him* a note. (*He* was left a note.) -Both have an optional prepositional paraphrase (the Recipient beginning with 'to', and the Beneficiary beginning with 'for' and acting as PC or PO): The doctor gave oxygen *to the injured man*. She lent a few CDs *to her next-door neighbour*. He is teaching maths *to the first-year students*. I'll buy drinks *for you all*. He got the tickets *for us all*. She left a note *for her husband*. ·It can be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the clause: The doctor gave oxygen. He doesn't like lending his CDs. Sammy Karanja is teaching maths. I'll buy the drinks. He got the tickets. She left a note. ·With some verbs ('show', 'tell', 'teach'...) the Od may be unexpressed: Who told *you* (the answer)? Perhpas you could show *me* (how to do it). He's teaching *immigrant children* (maths). ·It is typically realised by a NG, and less typically by wh-nominal relative clause: The clerk handed *him* the envelope. (Recip./NG) You can lend the dictionary *to whoever needs it*. (Recip./PC) Phil has booked tickets *for all his friends*. (Ben./PC)
Predicator (P)
It is always realised by a verbal group (which can be transitive, intransitive or copular) and has a one-to-one correspondence between class of unit and syntactic function in English. Example: Tom *disappeared*. *·Syntactically*, it is th function that determines the number and type of Objects and Complements in a clause (the remaining structure of the clause) and is identified by position and concord. *·Semantically*, it is associated with a number of domains and encodes the following main types of 'process': -material processes of 'doing' with verbs such as 'make', 'catch', 'go'... -mental processes of 'experiencing', with cognitive verbs of perception ('see'...) -relational processes of 'being' with verbs such as 'be' and 'belong'
Object (O)
One of the two main functional categories which occurs in post-verbal position (*occurs immediately after the verb*). It is a central constituent that completes the meaning of the clause and goes after the Predicator. There are two main types: *Direct and Indirect*, which are normally realised by NGs expressing entities (but less typically by other classes of unit). Example: The students carried -backpacks-.(This element usually answers questions with 'who', 'what', or 'which'. - -What did they carry *·Semantically*, this category encodes the key participants in the event other than the subject. The indirect one is associated with the Recipient and Beneficiary roles; the direct one with the Affected, among others. *·Syntactically*, these are central functions which encode participants in transitive clauses, and are identified by the following features: -The Indirect type always goes before the Direct one in the clause when both are present. If there is only one in the clause, it will be a Direct one. -Paraphrase: they usually have alternative prepositional paraphrases, with the status of a Prepositional Complement. -Pronominalisation: they can be realised by objective case pronouns ('me', 'him', 'her', 'us', 'them') -These elements can normally become the subject in a *passive clause*, since the system of voice allows different semantic roles to be associated with Subject and Object functions. (However, passivisation is not a watertight criterion for the identification of object functions). The bomb killed *the policeman*. *The policeman* was killed by the bomb. I sent *her* an email. *She* was sent an email.
Subject (S)
One of the two main parts of the single independent clause (or simple sentence) which encodes the main participant in the situation represented by the clause and has the highest claim to the status of *topic*. This element usually answers questions with 'who', 'what', or 'which', about the clause. Example: *Tom* disappeared. *·Cognitively*, it is that element which has the highest claim to function as Topic in a specific clause in context. *·Semantically*, almost all participant roles can be associated with it: *Jones* kicked the ball into the net. (Agent) *The ball* was kicked into the net. (Affected in a passive clause) *Lightning* struck the oak tree. (Force) *His secretary* has been given too much work. (Recipient in a passive clause). *·Syntactically*, it is typically realised by a NG, but can also be realised by a wide variety of groups and clauses. It must be present in declarative and interrogative clauses but it is not required in the imperative: *Fasten* you seat belts! *a)* It is that element which is picked up in a *question-tag* and referred to anaphorically by a pronoun: *Your brother* is a journalist, *isn't he*? *b)* It is in the subjective case if a *pronoun* is used ('I', 'he', 'she', 'we', 'they'): *We* all left early. *c)* It can be realised by *possessive pronouns and genitive nouns*: *Yours* was rather difficult to read. *Jennifer's* got lost in the post/mail. *d)* It is placed *before the finite verb* in declarative clauses and in wh-interrogative clauses where it is realised by the wh-element: *Susie* is staying with us. *Who* was the last to leave? *e)* It is placed *after the finite operator* (the first element of the VG) in yes/no interrogative clauses, and in wh-interrogative clauses where it is not realised by the wh-element: Are *you* pleased with the result? What film (O) did *you* see last night? When (A) is *Silvia* coming back? *f)* It determines the *concord* of *number* (singular or plural) and *person* (he/she/it). Concord is manifested only in those verb forms that show inflectional contrast: *The librarian* has checked the book. *The librarians* have checked the book. Where is *my credit card*? Where are *my credit cards*? *g)* It determines the present and past tense of the verb 'be': *Our next concert* is on Thursday, and *the last one* was in April. *h)* It determines number, person and gender concord with the Complement of the Subject and with reflexive pronouns at Cs, Oi and Od: *Jean and Bill* are my friends. *She* cut herself (Od) on a piece of broken glass. Why don't *you* give yourself (Oi) a treat? *i)* When it is the same for two or more conjoined clauses, all but the first are regularly ellipted: *He* came in, sat down and opened his lap-top. *j)* When it is realised by a collective noun, concord depends on how the referent is visualised by the speaker: *The committee* is sitting late. *The committee* have decided to award extra grants. There are two main types of unit that can fulfil this function: nominal groups and clauses. *1)* NGs are the most typical realisation as they refer basically to persons and things. *Cocaine* can damage the heart as well as the brain. *The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine* is not known. *It* is alarming. *Pronouns* account for a high percentage realisations of this function. *2)* Finite and Non-finite clauses: they encode persons, things, facts, abstractions and situations. *a)* *Finite clauses*: *That-clauses* represent an attitude, usually that of the writer: *That we've gotten to this point* is astonishing to me. *That he failed his driving test* surprised everybody. *Wh-interrogatives* encode indirect questions: *Why the library was closed for months* was not explained. (wh-interrogative) *What he said* shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause) *b)* *Non-finite clauses*: *To take such a risk* was rather foolish. (to-inf clause) *Having to go back for the tickets* was a nuisance. (-ing clause) *Sign the petition* was what we did. (bare inf clause) *c)* *To-infinitive and -ing clause with own subject*: *For everyone to escape* was impossible. (For+S+to-inf) *Sam's forgetting the tickets* was unfortunate. (S+ing-cl) *3)* Anticipatory it + end-placed subject: the subject sounds formal when is realised by a that-clause and therefore, it is more acceptable to be preceded by 'the fact'. *The fact that* he failed his driving test surprised everyone. The 'lighter' alternative is to *anticipate 'it'* and make an *extraposition* of that-clause or to-inf clause at the end of the sentence. *It* surprised us *that he failed his driving test*. The clause following 'it' + verbs such as 'seem', 'appear', 'happen', 'turn out', is obligatory extraposed. *It turns* out you were right after all. *It seems* the driver lost control. *4)* Minor realisations: *a)* Dummy 'it': it is a non-referential or semantically empty use of 'it'. *It* is nearly three o'clock. *It* is raining. *It* is a long way from here to London. *b)* Unstressed 'there': unlike normal subjects, it cannot be replaced by a pronoun. Sometimes there is a lack of concord an so it is considered a 'place-holder' or 'syntactic filler'. *There* was only one letter delivered today, wasn't there? *There* were only two letters delivered yesterday, weren't there? How many are coming? Well, *there is* Andrew and Sara. *c)* Adjectival NG head: adjectives preceded by the definite article: -to denote human characteristics or conditions: *the brave and the beautiful*, *the poor and the rich*... -to denote abstractions: *the impossible*.
Predicate
One of the two main parts of the single independent clause (or simple sentence) which tends to be the most informative part of it. It can consist entirely of the predicator (P), realised by a verbal group; or the predicator with one or more other elements.
Prepositional Object (PO)
The NG after a prepositional verb which is seen as an object. Examples: I looked after *their car*. You can rely on *Jane in an emergency*.
Prepositional Complement (PC)
The preposition of a prepositional verb + the following NG. Examples: I looked *after their car*. You can rely *on Jane in an emergency*.
Intransitive verbs
Verbs such as 'disappear' which occur in type S-P. They do not admit an object, but certain intransitive verbs predict a complement of space or time.
Phrasal Verbs
Verbs that consist of *a lexical verb + an adverb 'particle' (p)*. They can be intransitive (without an Object) or transitive (taking a Direct Object). Examples: What time do you usually *get up* in the morning? (without Object) (1) She *switched off* the light. She *switched* the light *off*. (Direct Object) (2) She *switched* it *off*. (Direct Object) With a noun as Object, the particle in most cases may either precede or follow the object (1). But if the object is a pronoun (2), the particle is placed after it. Some verb + particle combinations can be used both transitively and intransitively. In some cases the transitive and intransitive clauses form an ergative pair with a causative meaning in the transitive: Terrorists have *blown up* the power station. (transitive) The power station has *blown up*. (intransitive) In other cases the meaning is related by metaphorical extensions: They *broke down* the door to rescue the child. (transitive) Her health *broke down* under the strain. (intransitive) The car has *broken down*. (intransitive) IMPORTANT FEATURES: ·Pronouns precede the particle of this kind of verbs: He *broke* it *up*. (˟He broke up it.) ·The particle is stressed, especially when in final position in the clause: He *broke* it *UP*. Which party did he *break UP*? ·They do not normally admit an adverb between the verb and the particle: ˟He broke *completely* up the party. ·In the idiomatic ones, the particle is usually analysed as part of the verb (*peter out*; there is no separate verb 'peter'), is inseparable from the verb and cannot be fronted: The car *broke down*. ˟*Down broke* the car.
Phrasal prepositional verbs
Verbs which consist of *a lexical verb + a particle + a preposition*. They function like idiomatic prepositional verbs. Examples: *put up with* IMPORTANT FEATURES: ·Pronouns follow the preposition of this kind of verbs: He *broke with* her. (˟He broke her with.) ·The preposition is normally unstressed (the stress normally falls on the verb): He has *BROken with* her. Which girl has he *BROken with*? ·An adverb can sometimes be places between a verb and its following preposition: He broke *completely* with his girl-friend. ·The particle is usually analysed as Complement, so the adverbial particle can be fronted for rhetorical purposes, which is a feature of Complements and Adjuncts.: The rain *came down*. *Down came* the rain. These verbs are characteristic of informal English. They function like prepositional verbs, taking a prepositional object or a PC in the clause: We *ran up against* difficulties (=encounter) They have *done away with* free school meals. (=abolish) Do not confuse with verbs followed by PP (functioning as circumstantial Locative/Goal Complements): I will *call on* Dr Jones. - I will call on Friday. They *looked into* the matter. - They looked into the cave. She *came by* a fortune. - She came by bus. He *stood up for* his brother. - I will stand up for the old woman. We *put up with* the noise. - We put up at a hotel. They *played on* our sympathy. - They player on their home ground.
Prepositional Verbs
Verbs which take *a specific preposition* (and which are *followed by a NG*). Examples: I *looked after* their car. You can *rely on* Jane in an emergency. The preposition + the following NG are often analysed as the Prepositional Complement (PC). Alternatively, the verb and preposition are seen as a whole and the following NG as the Object mediated by a preposition (PO). ·The NG following the preposition encodes a participant which may function in the clause structure. ·The preposition is associated with a particular verb, often called a prepositional verb. Idiomatic prepositional verbs have separate lexical entries in dictionaries. ·Without the preposition, the clause would either be ungrammatical (**look* their cat, **count* Jane) or, in some cases, have a different meaning altogether (see to the baggage / see the baggage). ·The preposition can't be replaced by another preposition without changing the meaning (look after the cat, look for the cat, look at the cat). Types: *A)* As 'look + after'. Idiomatic sentence unit. Both words together have a different meaning from their separate words. I *came across* some old photos. (find) How did you *come by* that job. (obtain) Sandy has *come into* a fortune. (inherit) She *takes after* her mother. (resemble) I *ran into* an old friend. (met by chance) We can't *do without* water. (must have) *B)* As 'rely + on'. Less idiomatic combination whose meaning is sometimes transparent. These verbs are not used without their preposition. How do you *account for* the lack of interest in the European elections? (explain) Someone has been *tampering with* the scanner. (interfere with) *refer to* *deal with* *D)* As 'apply + for', 'approve + of'. They represent a special use, usually with a distinctive meaning of a verb which can function without preposition. *keep to, look at, believe in, count on, hear of, wait for, hope for, arrange for, swear by, laugh at, glance at, bank on* ·*Stranding the preposition*: when the preposition stays close to the verb displaced from its position in a PC. The verb and the preposition stay together usually with the stress on the verb. This happens in relative clauses. We listened to some music. The music [to which we listened]. (Fronted preposition) The music [which we listened to]. (Stranded preposition) I looked after their cat. *The cat [after which I looked]. (Fronted preposition) The cat [which I looked after]. (Stranded preposition) ·*The prepositional passive*: the NG complement of a PP can become a subject in a passive clause. The preposition is obligatory stranded. My cat was *looked after*. Jane can be *relied on*. ·*Realisations of the Prepositional Object*: with POs combinations such as 'run over' are interpreted as transitive and the following NG as an Object mediated by a preposition. He ran over *a rabbit* on a country road last night. (NG) I strongly object to *what you are insinuating*. (nominal clause) He believes in *getting things done quickly*. (-ing cl) She certainly likes being *waited on*, doesn't she? -Passivisation and 'what/who?' questions are reliable in this case. What (animal) was run over? -NGs are the typical realisations of the PO, but nominal clauses and non-finite -ing clauses also occur: What I strongly object to is what you are insinuating. What he believes in is getting things done quickly. -Fronting is not acceptable: *Over what did he run? -Wh-questions admit only the discontinuous structure (stranding): What's the weather like? [*Like what is the weather?] What have you come for? [*For what have you come?] -Short questions in response are very common: We are leaving tomorrow. Where *from*? I have to speak to your headmaster. What *about*? -Certain PPs which constitute fixed phrases are very rarely discontinuous: To what extent do the disagree? [*What extent do the disagree to?] In which respect do you think I am wrong? [*Which respect do you think I am wrong in?] -Two-word or three-word prepositions can be discontinuous, though perhaps less often simple prepositions: His death was due to natural causes. What was his death due to? There are certain regulations which are in conflict with these proposals. There are certain regulations which these proposals are in conflict with.
Transitive verbs
Verbs which usually require one or more objects. They occur in type S-P-O ('carry'), S-P-Oi-Od ('send'), and type S-P-O-C ('consider') in one of its uses.
