english study guide chapters 4-6

reader-based reasons

A reason anchored in an audience's beliefs and values Reader-based reasons "You should take Western Civ because it is an excellent elective for many disciplines like law, history, business, or art, and it will help in admission to graduate school programs."

writer-based reasons

A reason that is persuasive to the audience, not just the writer (writer-based reasons) Writer-based reason "You should take Western Civilization courses because these courses teach students the evolution and understanding of our culture and history." (This assumes that understanding this is a good thing in and of itself; not everyone agrees or would rank these courses as highly in terms of importance.)

the enthymeme

An incomplete logical structure, depending on an underlying assumption or belief that the audience must accept ENTHYMEME = Claim + Reason + (underlying—usually unstated—assumption, which the audience must supply and accept) Know vegetarian and marine park examples from book

Informal Fallacies

Another response to problem of absolute conclusiveness that doesn't really exist in most real world contexts Don't focus on "form" of the argument (unlike discussions of validity) Helpful for detecting what is uncertain or illogical in the arguments of others See Appendix (pp. 397-404)

Connotation

Connotative Language is the emotional, associative, implicit, attitudinal aspect of words, mostly controlled by careful choices among synonyms. It creates "tone" in writing and reflects the writer's attitude about her subject. skinny vs slender or filet mignon vs piece of dead cow

Unfolding or Open-form Structure

Delayed-thesis form Similar to indirect plan in organizational writing

Establish a Trustworthy Ethos

Establish credibility by being fair, honest, objective, and open to uncertainty Document and cite credible sources Be fair in selecting evidence Write competently and use moderate tone

Accuracy

Is evidence correct? From credible sources?

Typicality

Is the chosen evidence representative and typical? Does it really support what it claims?

Relevance

Is the evidence relevant to the claim? Will the audience believe that the evidence applies to the claim?

angle of vision

Lens. Filter, Screen, Bias, frame through which we view world

real-world argument vs. formal logic

Not grounded on abstract, universal statements as in formal logic (which focuses more on form, validity and cogency than "truth") Fewer absolute categorical conclusions are possible Grounded on beliefs, ASSUMPTIONS, or values granted by the audience, which are often unstated.

STAR

Sufficiency Typicality Accuracy Relevance

Thesis-Governed "Self-Announcing" Structure

Thesis or claim or conclusion is placed early in argument and then supported Similar to the direct plan in organizational writing Derived from the directness of classical argument (oration pattern)

Five Questions to Ask for Analyzing the Audience to Determine Audience-Based Reasons

Who is your audience? How much does your audience know or care about your issue? What is your audience's current attitude toward your issue? What will be your audience's likely objections to your argument? What values, beliefs, or assumptions about the world do you and your audience share?

research reports

a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank.

use narratives

a particular powerful way to evoke pathos is to tell a story that either leads into your claim or embodies it implicitly and that appeals to your readers' feelings and imagination. brief narratives- whether true or hypothetical- are particularly effective as opening attention grabbers for an argument.

frame of reference

a set of criteria or stated values in relation to which measurements or judgments can be made

reason

a statement offered in justification or explanation

claim

a statement that asserts something to be true

putting contrary evidence in subordinate positions

a writer can place a piece of data in a subordinate or main clause of a sentence. claim is summarized briefly and tucked away in a subordinate although clause, while the writer's own position is elaborated in the main clause where it receives grammatical emphasis.

using images (photographs, drawings) to guide the reader's response to data

another strategy for moving your audience toward your angle of vision is to include a photograph or drawing that portrays a contested issue from your perspective.

median versus mean

another way to alter the rhetorical effect of numbers is to choose between the median and the mean. the mean is the average of all numbers on a list. the median is the middle number when all the numbers are arranged sequentially from high to low.

demonstrate professionalism

appropriate style, careful editing and proofreading, accurate documentation, and adherence to the genre conventions expected by your audience all contribute to the image of the person behind the writing.

4 methods of creating ethos

be knowledgeable about your issue be fair build a bridge to your audience demonstrate professionalism

ethnocentrism

belief that your own ethnic or racial group is the norm

build a bridge to your audience

by grounding your argument in shared values and assumptions, you demonstrate your goodwill and enhance your images as a based reasons here to show how their aspect of logos- finding the reasons that are most rooted in the audiences values- also affects your ethos as a person respectful of your readers' view

testimony

by itself, testimony is generally less persuasive than direct data persuasiveness can be increased if source has impressive credentials, which the writer can state through attributive tags introducing the testimony skeptics might undermine testimonial evidence by questioning credentials of source, showing source's bias, or quoting a counter source

use words, metaphors, and analogies with appropriate connotations

by using words with particular connotations, a writer guides readers to see the issue through the writer's angle of vision. writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors and analogies to evoke different imaginative or emotional responses

the Toulmin system

claim reason warrant grounds backing qualifier conditions of rebuttal

use concrete language

concrete language can increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of a writer's prose. when used in argument, concrete language typically heightens pathos.

7 strategies for framing evidence

controlling the space given to supporting versus contrary evidence emphasizing a detailed story versus presenting lots of facts and statistics providing contextual and interpretive comments when presenting data putting contrary evidence in subordinate positions choosing labels and names that guide the reader's response to data using images (photographs, drawing) to guide the reader's response to data revealing the value system that determines the writer's selection and framing of data

conditions of rebuttal

counter-arguments, objections to claims that the writer must anticipate.

kinds of evidence

data from personal experience data from observation or field research data from interviews, questionnaires, and surveys data from library or internet research testimony statistical data hypothetical examples, cases, and scenarios reasoned sequence of ideas

controlling the space given to supporting versus contrary evidence

depending on their audience and purpose, writers can devote most of their space to supporting evidence and minimal space to contrary evidence.

data from observation or field research

field research gives the feeling of scientific credibility it increases typicality by expanding database beyond example of one person it enhances the ethos of the writer as personally invested and reasonable skeptics may point to flaws in how observations were conducted, showing how data are insufficient, inaccurate, or nontypical

data from interviews, questionnaires, surveys

interviews, questionnaires, and surveys enhance the sufficiency and typicality of evidence by expanding the database beyond the experiences of one person. quantitative data from questionnaires and surveys often increase the scientific feel of the argument surveys and questionnaires often uncover local or recent data not available in published research interviews can provide engaging personal stories, thus enhancing pathos skeptics can raise doubt about research methodology, questionnaire design, or typicality of interview subjects

Sufficiency

is there enough evidence? strong vs. qualified claims

how does your audience know or care about your issue

it will affect your introduction and conclusion

what is your audience's current attitude toward your issue?

it will help you decide the structure and tone of your argument

what values, beliefs, or assumptions about the world do you and your audience share?

it will help you find common ground with your audience.

who is your audience?

it will make you think about audience-based reasons.

qualifier

limitations, restrictions, and qualifications that the writer puts on his or her claim to make it acceptable in a real world context. It seeks to avoid unjustifiable or unreasonable absolute claims. Think of our "Teenage marriage is not advisable" thesis, as opposed to a more sweeping (and unjustifiable) "Teenage marriage should be abolished."

emphasizing a detailed story versus presenting

often, writers can choose to support a point with a memorable individual case or with aggregate data such as statistics or lists of facts. a memorable story can have strongly persuasive effect. a different strategy is to use facts and statistics rather than case narratives. the single-narrative case often has a more powerful rhetorical effect, but it is always open to the charge that it is an insufficient or non representative example

choosing labels and names that guide the reader's response to data

one of the most subtle ways to control your readers' response to data is to choose labels and names that prompt them to see the issue as you do. the labels you choose, along with the connotations of the words you select, urge your reader to share your angle of vision

data from personal experience

personal-experience examples help readers identify with writer; they show personal connection to the issue vivid stories capture the imagination and appeal to pathos skeptics may sometimes argue that personal-experience examples are insufficient, not typical, or adequately scientific or verifiable

4 strategies for framing statistical evidence

raw numbers versus percentages median versus mean unadjusted versus adjusted numbers base point for statistical comparisons

data from library or internet research

researched evidence is often powerful, especially when sources are respected by your audience; writers can spotlight source's credentials through attributive tags researched data may take the form of facts, examples, quotations, summaries of research studies, and so forth skeptics might doubt the accuracy of facts, the credentials of a source, or the research design of a study. they might also cite studies with different results skeptics might raise doubts about sufficiency, typicality, or relevance of your research data

hypothetical examples, cases, and scenarios

scenarios have strong imaginative appeal they are persuasive only if they seem plausible a scenario narrative often conveys a sense of inevitability even if the actual scenario is unlikely; hence rhetorical effect may be illogical skeptics might show the implausibility of the scenario or offer an alternative scenario

statistical data

statistics can give powerful snapshots of aggregate data from a wide database they are often used in conjunction with graphics they can be calculated and displayed in different ways to achieve different rhetorical effects, so the reader must be wary skeptics might question statistical methods, research design, and interpretation of data

grounds

supporting evidence and reasoning for the Reason(s): facts, data, statistics, causal links, testimony, examples, anecdotes.

backing

supporting evidence and reasoning for the Warrant

be knowledgeable about your issue

the first way to gain credibility is to be credible- that is, to argue from a strong base of knowledge, to have at hand the examples, personal experiences, statistics, and other empirical data needed to make a sound case

Kairos

the timeliness and fitness of an argument (its good-timing)

warrent

the underlying assumption, value, belief, or principle that the audience has to hold if the soundness of the argument is to be 'warranted' or "guaranteed" by the audience. In Toulmin, this warrant is made explicit and supported.

reasoned sequence of ideas

these sequences are often used in causal arguments to show how causes are linked to effects or in definitional or values arguments to show links among ideas they have great power to clarify values and show the belief structure on which a claim is founded they can sketch out ideas and connections that would otherwise remain latent their effectiveness depends on the audience's acceptance of each link in the sequence of ideas skeptics might raise objections at any link in the sequence, often by pointing to different values or outlining different consequences

use specific examples and illustrations

they provide evidence that supports your reasons; simultaneously, they give your argument presence and emotional resonance.

revealing the value system that determines the writer's selection and framing of data

ultimately, how a writer selects and frames evidence is linked to the system of values that organize his or her argument sometimes you can foster connections with your audience by openly addressing the underlying values that you hope your audience shares with you. you can often frame your selected data by stating explicitly the values that guide your argument.

how to create pathos

use concrete language use specific examples and illustrations use narratives use words, metaphors, and analogies with appropriate connotations

providing contextual and interpretive comments when presenting data

when citing data, writers can add brief contextual or interpretive comments that act as lenses over the readers' eyes to help them see the data from the writer's perspective.

raw numbers versus percentages

you can alter the rhetorical effect of a statistic by choosing between raw numbers and percentages

be fair

you need to demonstrate fairness and courtesy to alternative views. because true argument can occur only where people may reasonably disagree with one another, your ethos will be strengthened if you demonstrate that you understand and empathize with other points of view.

what will be your audience's likely objections to your argument?

your answer will help determine the content of your argument and will alter you to extra research you may need