English
United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and a number of Caribbean nations.
It is an official language of almost 60 sovereign states and the most commonly spoken language in sovereign states including the
the European Union and of the United Nations
It is the third-most-common native language in the world, after Mandarin and Spanish. It is widely learned as a second language and is an official language of ____, as well as of many world organisations.
1.Anglo-Saxon or Germanic origin 2.Latinate
It is well-established that informal speech registers tend to be made up predominantly of words of 1.__, whereas the proportion of the vocabulary that is of 2.___origins is likely to be higher in legal, scientific, and otherwise scholarly or academic texts.
1.Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales 2.Medieval Latin of the Christian Church
The linguistic shifts in English following the Norman invasion produced what is now referred to as Middle English; 1.____ is its best-known work. Throughout this period, Latin in some form was the lingua franca of European intellectual life - first the 2.___, and later the humanist Renaissance Latin - and those who wrote or copied texts in Latin commonly coined new terms from that language to refer to things or concepts for which there was no native English word.
monophthongal
The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /əʊ/ (/oʊ/) tend towards the ___pronunciations [eː] and [oː] in some dialects, including Canadian, Scottish, Irish and Northern English.
1.Latinate 2.constructing basic grammatical relations, apparently mastering its analytic aspects at an early stage
The historical origin of vocabulary items affects the order of acquisition of various aspects of language development in English-speaking children. 1.___vocabulary is in general a later acquisition in children than the native Anglo-Saxon one.Young children almost exclusively use the native verb vocabulary in 2.___.
language attrition.
The influence of English continues to play an important role in ___
1.tensing of English verbs
The kinship with other Germanic languages can also be seen in the 1.___ (e.g. English fall/fell/fallen/will or shall fall, West Frisian fal/foel/fallen/sil falle, Dutch vallen/viel/gevallen/zullen vallen, German fallen/fiel/gefallen/werden fallen, Norwegian faller/falt/falt or falne/vil or skal falle), the comparatives of adjectives and adverbs (e.g. English good/better/best, West Frisian goed/better/best, Dutch goed/beter/best, German gut/besser/best), the treatment of nouns (English shoemaker, shoemaker's, shoemakers, shoemakers'; Dutch schoenmaker, schoenmakers, schoenmakers, schoenmakeren; Swedish skomakare, skomakares, skomakare, skomakares), and the large amount of cognates (e.g. English wet, Scots weet, West Frisian wiet, Swedish våt; English send, Dutch zenden, German senden; English meaning, Swedish mening, Icelandic meining, etc.).
the Old Norse language
The language was also influenced early on by_____through Viking invasions in the 9th and 10th centuries.
1.the settlement of Viking raiders and Danish invasions that began around the 9th century
Some North Germanic words entered English from 1.____. Many of these words are common and are often mistaken for being native, which shows how close-knit the relations between the English and the Scandinavian settlers were (see below: Words of Old Norse origin). Dutch and Low German also had a considerable influence on English vocabulary, contributing common everyday terms and many nautical and trading terms (see below: Words of Dutch and Low German origin).
have largely been replaced by equivalents taken from Latin, French, and Greek, as English has taken the position of a diminished reliance upon native elements and resources for the creation of new words and terminologies. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register.
Take for instance the various ways to express the word "astronomer" or "astrologer" in Old English: tunglere, tungolcræftiga, tungolwītega, tīdymbwlātend, tīdscēawere. In Modern English, however, the roles of such synonyms
1.Øvre Stabu spearhead
The 2nd-century 1.____, which reads Raunijaz ("tester") in North Proto-Germanic, one of the earliest written samples of a Germanic language.
1.influential "native" varieties of the language.
The English of neighbouring New Zealand as well as that of Ireland have to a lesser degree become 1.___
Middle English
The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy borrowings from Norman French: thus a layer of elaborate vocabulary, particularly in the field of governance, and some Romance-language spelling conventions were added to what had by then become ____.
the United States (229 million), the United Kingdom (61 million), Canada (18.2 million), Australia (15.5 million), Nigeria (4 million), Ireland (3.8 million),South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.6 million) in a 2006 Census.
The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order:___
1.Simplified English
1.___ is a controlled language originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. It employs a carefully limited and standardised subset of English. Simplified English has a lexicon of approved words and those words can only be used in certain ways. For example, the word close can be used in the phrase "Close the door" but not "do not go close to the landing gear". Other constructed varieties of English include:
1.Child-directed speech 2.Anglo-Saxon verb tokens
1.___ which is an informal speech register, also tends to rely heavily on vocabulary rife in words derived from Anglo-Saxon. The speech of mothers to young children has a higher percentage of native 2.___ than speech addressed to adults. In particular, in parents' child-directed speech the clausal core is built in the most part by Anglo-Saxon verbs, namely, almost all tokens of the grammatical relations subject-verb, verb-direct object and verb-indirect object that young children are presented with, are constructed with native verbs. The Anglo-Saxon verb vocabulary consists of short verbs, but its grammar is relatively complex. Syntactic patterns specific to this sub-vocabulary in present-day English include periphrastic constructions for tense, aspect, questioning and negation, and phrasal lexemes functioning as complex predicates, all of which also occur in child-directed speech.
1.In North American English and Australian English
1.___, /t/ and /d/ are flapped [ɾ] in many positions between vowels.[76] This means that word pairs such as latter and ladder may approach homophones for speakers of these dialects.
The nouns for meats are often different from, and unrelated to, those for the corresponding animals, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork; and sheep/lamb and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England, where an Anglo-Norman-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by lower classes, which happened to be largely Anglo-Saxon, although a similar duality can also be seen in other languages like French, which did not undergo such linguistic upheaval (e.g. boeuf "beef" vs. vache "cow"). With the exception of beef and pork, the distinction today is gradually becoming less and less pronounced (venison is commonly referred to simply as deer meat, mutton is lamb, and chicken is both the animal and the meat over the more traditional term poultry. Use of the term mutton, however, remains, especially when referring to the meat of an older sheep, distinct from lamb; and poultry remains when referring to the meat of birds and fowls in general.)
A commonly noted area where Germanic and French-derived words coexist is that of domestic or game animals and the meats produced from them. (give example)
1.formal written English 2.minor spelling, lexical and grammatical 3.American, Indian, Australian, South African, etc.)
A version of the language almost universally agreed upon by educated English-speakers around the world is called 1.___. It takes virtually the same form regardless of where it is written, in contrast to spoken English, which differs significantly between dialects, accents, and varieties of slang and of colloquial and regional expressions. Local variations in the formal written version of the language are quite limited, being restricted largely to 2.___differences between different national varieties of English (e.g. British, 3.___.
billion people
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of fields, occupations and professions such as medicine and computing; as a consequence, more than a___ speak English to at least a basic level.
1. the non-Anglo-Frisian West Germanic 2.No Continental Germanic language 3. Isolation
After Frisian come those Germanic languages that are more distantly related:1.___languages (Dutch, Afrikaans, Low German, High German, Yiddish), and the North Germanic languages (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese). 2.___ is mutually intelligible with English, owing in part to divergences in lexis, syntax, semantics, and phonology, and to the isolation afforded to English by the British Isles, although some, such as Dutch, do show strong affinities with English, especially to its earlier stages. 3.___has allowed English (as well as Icelandic and Faroese) to develop independently of the Continental Germanic languages and their influences.
ability to express synonyms and shades of meaning on its own, in many respects rivalling or exceeding that of Modern English (synonyms numbering in the thirties for certain concepts were not uncommon).
An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases, there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey); or even Germanic words derived from Norman French (e.g., warranty) and Parisian French (guarantee), and even choices involving multiple Germanic and Latinate sources are possible: sickness (Old English), ill (Old Norse), infirmity (French), affliction (Latin). Such synonyms harbour a variety of different meanings and nuances. Yet the ability to choose between multiple synonyms is not a consequence of French and Latin influence, as this same richness existed in English prior to the extensive borrowing of French and Latin terms. Old English was extremely resourceful in its __
1.Basic English 2.Charles Kay Ogden 3.Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930)
Artificially simplified versions of the language have been created that are easier for non-native speakers to read. 1.___ is a constructed language, with a restricted number of words, created by 2.___and described in his book 3.___. He said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for Esperanto, and seven weeks for Basic English. Thus, Basic English may be employed by companies that need to make complex books for international use, as well as by language schools that need to impart some knowledge of English in a short time.
the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
As a result of overseas colonization from the 16th to 19th centuries, english became the dominant language in ----
1.Cockney, Scouse and Geordie 2.Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English ("Ebonics") and Southern American English within American English.
Aside from these major dialects, numerous other varieties of English exist, which include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as 1.___within British English; Newfoundland English within 2.___
Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect. English word order has moved from the Germanic V2 word order to being almost exclusively subject-verb-object; as English makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs, this will often create clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as "he had hoped to try to open it". The long literary history of English has also created many conventions regarding the use of techniques such as verbal nouns and relative clauses to express complex ideas in formal writing.
At the same time, the language has become more analytic, and has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning.
1.aeronautical and maritime communications
Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "world language", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language.[citation needed] It is, by international treaty, the official language for 1.___. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations and many other international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee.
either pretentious or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay "Politics and the English Language", considered an important scrutinisation of the English language, is critical of this, as well as other perceived misuses of the language
Consequently, those words which tend to be regarded as elegant or educated in Modern English are usually Latinate. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is considered at times to be
new distinct languages
Conversely, the natural internal variety of English along with creoles and pidgins have the potential to produce___from English over time.
1.India
Countries such as the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, 1.___ has the most such speakers. Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.
1.Germanic 2. conjugation, declension, and syntax, and behave exactly as though they were native Germanic words from Old English
Despite extensive lexical borrowing, the workings of the English language are resolutely 1.___, and English is rightly classified as a Germanic language due to its structure and grammar. Borrowed words get incorporated into a Germanic system of2.___. For example, the word reduce is borrowed from Latin redūcere; however, in English one says "I reduce - I reduced - I will reduce" rather than "redūcō - redūxī - redūcam"; likewise, we say: "John's life insurance company" (cf. Dutch "Johns levensverzekeringsmaatschappij" [= leven (life) + verzekering (insurance) + maatschappij (company)] rather than "the company of insurance life of John", cf. the French: la compagnie d'assurance-vie de John). Furthermore, in English, all basic grammatical particles added to nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are Germanic. For nouns, these include the normal plural marker -s/-es (apple - apples; cf. Frisian appel - appels; Dutch appel - appels; Afrikaans appel - appels), and the possessive markers -'s (Brad's hat; German Brads Hut; Danish Brads hat) and -s' .
1. the model for the United States 2.General Australian
General American, which is spread over most of the United States, is more typically 1.___. In Oceania, the major native dialect of Australian English is spoken as a first language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, with 2.__serving as the standard accent.
1.the Viking colonisation and influence of Old Norse on Middle English 2.self-explaining compounds (e.g. streetcar, classroom) and nouns that serve as modifiers (e.g. lamp post, life insurance company)
Due to 1.___, English syntax follows a pattern similar to that of North Germanic languages, such as Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic, in contrast with other West Germanic languages, such as Frisian, Dutch and German. This is especially evident in the order and placement of verbs. For example, English "I will never see you again" = Danish "Jeg vil aldrig se dig igen"; Icelandic "Ég mun aldrei sjá þig aftur", whereas in Dutch and German the main verb is placed at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik zal je nooit weer zien"; German "Ich werde dich nie wieder sehen", literally, "I will you never again see"). This is also observable in perfect tense constructions, as in English "I have never seen anything in the square" = Danish "Jeg har aldrig set noget på torvet"; Icelandic "Ég hef aldrei séð neitt á torginu", where Dutch and German place the past participle at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik heb niets op het plein gezien"; German "Ich habe nie etwas auf dem Platz gesehen", literally, "I have never anything in the square seen"). As in most Germanic languages, English adjectives usually come before the noun they modify, even when the adjective is of Latinate origin (e.g. medical emergency, national treasure). English continues to make extensive use of 2.___ - traits inherited from Old English (see Kenning).
the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England
English arose in ___ and what is now southeast Scotland.
Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs (e.g. love/loved or kick/kicked) inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular.
English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other __
1.compound words and affixing existing words
English has been forming 1.___separately from the other Germanic languages for more than 1500 years but shows different patterns in this regard. For instance, abstract nouns in English may be formed from native words by the suffixes "‑hood", "-ship", "-dom" and "-ness". All of these suffixes have cognates in most or all other Germanic languages, but their usage has diverged, as German "Freiheit" and Dutch "vrijheid" vs. English "freedom" (the suffix "-heit"/"-heid" being cognate with English "-hood", while English "-dom" is cognate with German "-tum" and Dutch "-dom"; but note North Frisian fridoem and Norwegian fridom, "freedom"). The Germanic languages Icelandic and Faroese follow English in this respect, since, like English, they developed independent of German influences.
1.British Isles dialects, those of North America and those of Australasia
English has been subject to a large degree of regional dialect variation for many centuries. Its global spread now means that a large number of dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins have evolved all over the world. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the three general categories of the 1.___
1. pluricentric 2.Académie française
English is a 1.___language, without a central language authority like France's 2.__; and therefore no one variety is considered "correct" or "incorrect" except in terms of the expectations of the particular audience to which the language is directed.
lexical stress. An example of this is civilization, in which the first and fourth syllables carry stress, and the other syllables are unstressed.[78] The position of stress in English words is not predictable. English has strong prosodic stress: typically the last stressed syllable of a phrase receives extra emphasis, but this may also occur on words to which a speaker wishes to draw attention. As regards rhythm, English is classed as a stress-timed language: one in which there is a tendency for the time intervals between stressed syllables to become equal, and therefore to shorten unstressed syllables. It is uncertain when English became stress-timed, but as most other surviving Germanic languages are it may date to before the break-up of proto-West Germanic. Stress in English is sometimes phonemic; that is, capable of distinguishing words. In particular, many words used as verbs and nouns have developed different stress patterns for each use: for example, increase is stressed on the first syllable as a noun, giving increase, but on the second syllable as a verb, giving increase; see also Initial-stress-derived noun. Closely related to stress in English is the process of vowel reduction; for example, in the noun contract the first syllable is stressed and contains the vowel /ɒ/ (in RP), whereas in the verb contract the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/ (schwa).[79] The same process applies to certain common function words like of, which are pronounced with different vowels depending on whether or not they are stressed within the sentence. For more details, see Reduced vowels in English. Despite these practices, phonemic stress in English is generally a convention rather than essential to distinguish homophones: in both these examples, whether the word is being used as a noun or verb should normally be clear from context. As concerns intonation, the pitch of the voice is used syntactically in English; for example, to convey whether the speaker is certain or uncertain about the polarity: most varieties of English use falling pitch for definite statements, and rising pitch to express uncertainty, as in yes-no questions. There is also a characteristic change of pitch on strongly stressed syllables, particularly on the "nuclear" (most strongly stressed) syllable in a sentence or intonation group. For more details see Intonation (linguistics): Intonation in English.
English is a strongly stressed language. In content words of any number of syllables, as well as function words of more than one syllable, there will be at least one syllable with___
the United Nations
English of six official languages of ___
1.North Sea Germanic, 2.Netherlands, northwest Germany, and Denmark.
English originated in the dialects of ____ that were carried to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what are now the 2.___
German
English replaced ___ as the dominant language of science-related Nobel Prize laureates during the second half of the 20th century.
1.pronunciation rather than grammar or vocabulary 2.lexical attrition
English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the most distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see regional accents of English, and for a complete list of regional dialects, see list of dialects of the English language. Within England, variation is now largely confined to 1.___. At the time of the Survey of English Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of 2.___ has led most of this variation to die out.
French
English surpassed ___ as the dominant language of diplomacy during by the twentieth century.
1. 3 to 1
Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined and measured. Linguistics professor David Crystal calculates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 1.___.
England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom
Following the extensive influence of ____ from the 17th to mid-20th centuries through the British Empire, it has been widely propagated around the world
In General American and some other rhotic accents, the combination of vowel+/r/ is often realised as an r-coloured vowel.
For example, butter /ˈbʌtər/ is pronounced with an r-coloured schwa, [ɚ]. Similarly nurse contains the r-coloured vowel [ɝ].
1. the simple past tense and past participle ending -ed (Swedish -ade/-ad), and the formation of the English infinitive using to (e.g. "to drive"; cf. Old English tō drīfenne; Dutch te drijven; Low German to drieven; German zu treiben). 2. zero or null
For verbs, these particles include the third-person present ending -s/-es (e.g. he stands/he reaches ), the present participle ending -ing (cf. Dutch and German -end(e)), 1.____ Adverbs generally receive an -ly ending (cf. German -lich; Swedish -ligt), and adjectives and adverbs are inflected for the comparative and superlative using -er and -est (e.g. hard/harder/hardest; cf. Dutch hard/harder/hardst), or through a combination with more and most (cf. Swedish mer and mest). These particles append freely to all English words regardless of origin (tsunamis; communicates; to buccaneer; during; calmer; bizarrely) and all derive from Old English. Even the lack or absence of affixes, known as 2.___ (-Ø) affixes, derives from endings that previously existed in Old English (usually -e, -a, -u, -o, -an, etc.), that later weakened to -e, and have since ceased to be pronounced and spelt (e.g. Modern English "I sing" = I sing-Ø < I singe < Old English ic singe; "we thought" = we thought-Ø < we thoughte(n) < Old English wē þōhton).
/ɑ/ (as in the example of box above) or /ɔ/ (as in cloth)
For words which in RP have /ɒ/, most North American dialects have ___. However some North American varieties do not have the vowel /ɔ/ at all (except before /r/); see cot-caught merger.
1.Anglo-Frisian sub-group 2.Proto-Germanic 3.Grimm's law
Germanic family The English language belongs to the 1.___ of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, a member of the Indo-European languages. Modern English is the direct descendant of Middle English, itself a direct descendant of Old English, a descendant of the 2.___language. Typical of most Germanic languages, English is characterised by the use of modal verbs, the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, and common sound shifts from Proto-Indo-European known as 3.__. The closest living relatives of English (besides the English languages and English-based creole languages) are the Frisian languages of the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark.
syncope in Middle English (e.g. OldEng hēafod > ModEng head, OldEng sāwol > ModEng soul) and to the loss of final syllables due to stress (e.g. OldEng gamen > ModEng game, OldEng ǣrende > ModEng errand), not because Germanic words are inherently shorter than Latinate words (the lengthier, higher-register words of Old English were largely forgotten following the subjugation of English after the Norman Conquest, and most of the Old English lexis devoted to literature, the arts, and sciences ceased to be productive when it fell into disuse. Only the shorter, more direct, words of Old English tended to pass into the Modern language.)
Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Old Norse origin) tend to be shorter than Latinate words, and are more common in ordinary speech, and include nearly all the basic pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, modal verbs etc. that form the basis of English syntax and grammar. The shortness of the words is generally due to ___
the fusion of closely related dialects
Historically, English originated from ____, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain by Germanic settlers (Anglo-Saxons) by the 5th century; the word English is simply the modern spelling of englisc, the name used by the Angles[16] and Saxons for their language, after the Angles' ancestral region of Angeln (in what is now Schleswig-Holstein).
1.non-rhotic 2.alveolar approximant
In 1.___varieties of English (the southern British standard and related dialects), /r/ has been lost except before vowels (still pronounced in "real", "very", but not in "car", "cart").[75] The actual pronunciation of /r/ varies between dialects; most common is the 2.___[ɹ].
1.diachronic change, semantic drift, and to substantial borrowing in English of words from other languages, especially Latin and French (though borrowing is in no way unique to English) 2.bewegan 3. Proto-Germanic
In addition to isolation, lexical differences between English and other Germanic languages exist due to 1.____. For example, compare "exit" (Latin), vs. Dutch uitgang and German Ausgang (literally "out-going", though outgang continues to survive dialectally) and "change" (French) vs. Dutch verandering and German Änderung (literally "elsing, othering", i.e. "alteration"); "movement" (French) vs. Dutch beweging and German Bewegung ("beway-ing", i.e. "proceeding along the way"); etc. With the exception of exit (a Modern English borrowing), Middle English had already distanced itself from other Germanic languages, having the terms wharf, schift (="shift"), and wending for "change"; and already by Old English times the word 2.___ meant "to cover, envelop", rather than "to move". Preference of one synonym over another also causes differentiation in lexis, even where both words are Germanic, as in English care vs. German Sorge. Both words descend from 3.___ *karō and *surgō respectively, but *karō has become the dominant word in English for "care" while in German, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages, the *surgō root prevailed. *Surgō still survives in English, however, as sorrow.
lingua franca of the Christian Church
In addition to native words inherited from Anglo-Saxon and those borrowed from Norman French, a significant number of English terms are derived from constructions based on roots originally taken from Latin, because Latin in some form was the____and of European intellectual life and remains the wellspring of much modern scientific and technical vocabulary.
Canada, where /aʊ/ is also pronounced [ʌʊ] in this position. S
In parts of North America /aɪ/ is pronounced [ʌɪ] before voiceless consonants. This is particularly true in __
Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus, Malaysia, Malta and the United Arab Emirates.
In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language. English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as ____
distinction between /ə/ (schwa) and /ɪ/ (/ɨ/). So for some speakers there is no difference between roses and Rosa's.
In unstressed syllables there may or may not be a
West Saxon
Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of Anglo-Saxon England but the ____dialect eventually came to dominate, and it is in this that the poem Beowulf is written.
1.phonology 2.semantics and phonology 3.Low German
It occasionally gives rise to false friends (e.g. English time vs Norwegian time, meaning "hour" [i.e. "a specific amount of time"]; English gift vs German Gift, meaning "poison" [i.e. "that which is given, dosage, dose"]), while differences in 1.___ can obscure words that really are related (tooth vs. German Zahn; compare Danish tand, North Frisian toth). Sometimes both 2.___are different (German Zeit and Dutch tijd ("time") are related to English "tide", but the English word, through a transitional phase of meaning "period"/"interval", has come primarily to mean gravitational effects on the ocean by the moon (formerly expressed by ebb), though the original meaning is preserved in forms like tidings and betide, and phrases such as to tide over).[citation needed] However, a few other Germanic languages share this same semantic shift, namely 3.___(Tīde = "tide of the sea") and Dutch (getijde, tij = "tide of the sea").
1.Jamaican Patois, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin
Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed on an English base, such as 1.___. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words.
the basic pronouns I, from Old English ic, (cf. German Ich, Gothic ik, Latin ego, Greek ego, Sanskrit aham), me (cf. German mich, mir, Gothic mik, mīs, Latin mē, Greek eme, Sanskrit mam), numbers (e.g. one, two, three, cf. Dutch een, twee, drie, Gothic ains, twai, threis (þreis), Latin ūnus, duo, trēs, Greek oinos "ace (on dice)", duo, treis), common family relationships such as mother, father, brother, sister etc. (cf. Dutch moeder, Greek meter, Latin mater, Sanskrit matṛ; mother), names of many animals (cf. German Maus, Dutch muis, Sanskrit mus, Greek mus, Latin mūs; mouse), and many common verbs (cf. Old High German knājan, Old Norse kná, Greek gignōmi, Latin gnoscere, Hittite kanes; to know).
Like many languages deriving from Proto-Indo-European (PIE), many of the most common words in English can trace back their origin (through the Germanic branch) to PIE. Such words include
1.lexical terms 2.Norman, via Anglo-Norman
Many French words are intelligible to an English speaker, especially when they are seen in writing (as pronunciations are often quite different), because English absorbed a large number of 1.___ from 2.___after the Norman Conquest, and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is made up of words derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (e.g. inflectional endings, use of old French spellings, lack of diacritics, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning of so-called false friends: for example, compare "library" with the French librairie, which means bookstore; in French, the word for "library" is bibliothèque. The pronunciation of most French loanwords in English (with the exception of a handful of more recently borrowed words such as mirage, genre, café; or phrases like coup d'état, rendez-vous, etc.) has become largely anglicised and follows a typically English phonology and pattern of stress (compare English "nature" vs. French nature, "button" vs. bouton, "table" vs. table, "hour" vs. heure, "reside" vs. résider, etc.).
The Oxford English Dictionary
Modern English has not only assimilated words from other European languages, but from all over the world. ___lists more than 250,000 distinct words, not including many technical, scientific, and slang terms.
lingua franca
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global ,___ is the world's mostly widely used language and in some instances the required international language of communications, science, information technology, business, seafaring, aviation,entertainment, radio, and diplomacy.
1.Received Pronunciation
Several educated native dialects of English have wide acceptance as standards in much of the world. In the United Kingdom much emphasis is placed[by whom?] on 1.___, an educated dialect of South East England.
1.United Kingdom 2.the British Empire
Modern English, which includes the works of William Shakespeare and the King James Version of the Bible, is generally dated from about 1550, and after the 1.___became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the lingua franca to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. As a result of the growth of 2.___, English was adopted in North America, India, Africa, Australia and many other regions - a trend that was reinforced by the emergence of the United States as a superpower in the mid-20th century. By the 21st century, it was more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been
1.Basic English lexicon
Ogden did not include any words in Basic English that could be said instead with a combination of other words already in the 1.___, and he worked to make the vocabulary suitable for speakers of any other language. He put his vocabulary selections through a large number of tests and adjustments. Ogden simplified the grammar but tried to keep it normal for English users. Although it was not built into a programme, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses.
1.Halfdan Ragnarsson 2.lexicon with Scandinavian and Norman words
Old English was later transformed by two waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of the North Germanic language branch when _____ and Ivar the Boneless started the conquering and colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries (see Danelaw). The second was by speakers of the Romance language Old Norman in the 11th century with the Norman conquest of England. Norman developed into Anglo-Norman, and then Anglo-French - and introduced a layer of words especially via the courts and government. As well as extending the 2.___, these two events simplified the grammar and transformed English into a borrowing language—unusually open to accepting new words from other languages.
the reduction of native linguistic diversity in many parts of the world.
One impact of the growth of English is___
Angles
One of these incoming Germanic tribes was the __, whom Bede believed to have relocated entirely to Britain.[
modern English
Owing to the assimilation of words from many other languages throughout history, ___contains a very large vocabulary, with complex and irregular spelling, particularly of vowels.
1.Northern Middle English 2.the Acts of Union 1707 3.the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
Scots has its origins in early 1.___ and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources. However, following 2.___ a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from Standard English. Whether Scots is now a separate language or is better described as a dialect of English (i.e. part of Scottish English) remains in dispute, although the UK government accepts Scots as a regional language and has recognised it as such under 3._____Scots itself has a number of regional dialects: pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.
Saxons, Jutes and a range of Germanic peoples from the coasts of Frisia, Lower Saxony, Jutland and Southern Sweden
The names 'England' (from Engla land "Land of the Angles") and English (Old English Englisc) are derived from the name of the Angles tribe—but ____also moved to Britain in this era.
/ɔː/ in many words; for example, sure is often pronounced like shore. See English-language vowel changes before historic r.
The sound /ʊə/ is coming to be replaced by __
1.eponym Angle, 2.Angeln area of Jutland
The word English derives from the___ , the name of a Germanic tribe thought to originate from the ____, now in northern Germany.
language shift and even language death
This increasing use of the English language globally has had a large impact on many other languages, leading to ___, and to claims of linguistic imperialism. English itself has become more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole.
the spread of English literature
Through____, world media networks such as the BBC, the American film and television industry as well as technology, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions.
1.Roman Britain 2. acrolectal
Up to that point, in ___the native population is assumed to have spoken Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, alongside the2.___influence of Latin, due to the 400-year period of Roman Britain.
1.The voiceless velar fricative
Where consonants are given in pairs (as with "p b"), the first is voiceless, the second is voiced. Most of the symbols represent the same sounds as they normally do when used as letters (see Writing system below), but /j/ represents the initial sound of yacht. The symbol /ʃ/ represents the sh sound, /ʒ/ the middle sound of vision, /tʃ/ the ch sound, /dʒ/ the sound of j in jump, /θ/ and /ð/ the th sounds in thing and this respectively, and /ŋ/ the ng sound in sing. 1.___ /x/ is not a regular phoneme in most varieties of English, although it is used by some speakers in Scots/Gaelic words such as loch or in other loanwords such as Chanukah.
A voiceless w, [ʍ], sometimes written
___ /hw/, for the wh in words like when and which, is preserved in Scottish and Irish English and by some speakers elsewhere.
The th sounds /θ/ and /ð/
___ are sometimes pronounced as /f/ and /v/ in Cockney, and as dental plosives (contrasting with the usual alveolar plosives) in some Irish varieties. In African American Vernacular English, /ð/ has merged with dental /d/.
The system of vowel phonemes and their pronunciation
___ is subject to significant variation between dialects. The table below lists the vowels found in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American, with examples of words in which they occur. The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are in relatively standard use in British dictionaries and other publications.
In present-day Received Pronunciation, the realisation
___ of the /æ/ phoneme is more open than the symbol suggests, and is closer to [a], as in most other accents in Britain. The sound [æ] is now found only in conservative RP.
The voiceless plosives
___/p/, /t/ and /k/ are frequently aspirated, particularly at the start of stressed syllables, but they are not aspirated after an initial /s/, as in spin.
The growing economic and cultural influence of the US and its status as a global superpower since the Second World War
____ have significantly accelerated the spread of the language across the planet.
The Great Vowel Shift
_____ that began in the south of England in the 15th century is one of the historical events that mark the emergence of Modern English.
The phonology (sound system)
___of English differs between dialects. The descriptions below are most closely applicable to the standard varieties known as Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American.
Seaspeak and the related Airspeak and PoliceSpeak,
all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson starting from the 1980s to aid international co-operation and communication in specific areas.
1.59 million people
approximately 31.___speak English as their first language.[2] English today is probably the second largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese languages (depending on whether distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects").
Manually Coded English
consists of a variety of systems that have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.
E-Prime
excludes forms of the verb to be.
English
is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca.[5][6]
Special English
is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.
The vowel conventionally written /ʌ/
is actually pronounced more centrally, as [ɐ], in RP. In the northern half of England this vowel is replaced by /ʊ/ (so cut rhymes with put).
English reform
is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.
English
is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey, Guyana, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Africa, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom and the United States.
eenglish
its spread beyond the British Isles began with the growth of the English overseas possessions, and by the nineteenth century the reach of the British Empire was global.
consonant phonemes
the system of _____that functions in most major varieties of English. The symbols are from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), and are used in the pronunciation keys of many dictionaries.