ENGR 109 Final cut version

How did the science of thermodynamics develop during the last decades of the 18th and the first half of the 19th century? Explain the basic laws of thermodynamics.

(1796-1832 )- Carnot analyzed the workings of the steam engine and elaborated what we know as the Carnot cycle, which describes what happens in the cylinders of all heat engines thermodynamics, which unified the sciences of heat and motion. first law of thermo- the conservation of energy—the principle that the various forces of nature can change from one form to another and that an indestructible entity called energy is conserved in the transformations •Prescott Joule (1818-89) worked out the mechanical equivalent of heat . *first law of thermo*- the conservation of energy—the principle that the various forces of nature can change from one form to another and that an indestructible entity called energy is conserved in the transformations •Prescott Joule (1818-89) worked out the mechanical equivalent of heat . *German physicist Rudolf Clausius(1822-88 ) formulated the second law of thermodynamics---* This law concerns the behavior of energy over time; The second law implies that energy, like water, naturally "runs downhill" and that, without additional work, reactions are not naturally reversible. (formally, ∆s ≥ 0) third law: entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is 0

Explain the economic, social, and cultural effects of the automobile industry. Focus on its influence on the infrastructures, other industries, public services, financial activities and transportations.

*Economic effects:* The automobile required and or created dozens of other industries such as the rubber industry to create tires. The chemical industry to create oil or engineer better oil and lubrications for the automobiles. Roads for the cars to drive on...Insurance requirements...Law enforcement to ensure everyone is driving their automobile correctly. Fastfood chains to feed hungry drivers. ... *Social effects:* It allowed transportation from city to city, state to state much more quickly. Previously, traveling took quite a while as one had to wait for train or bus. The automobile industry made it much more attractive for people to just get in their car and go. ... *Cultural effects:* The automobile industry along with many other consumer goods industries have their share of advertisements. Having a car is considered to be cool especially in the adolescent years. Also, the automobile industry has created car trends as well that still live on today. For example, there are automobiles trends from the 40's and 50's trucks to the 60's/70's muscle cars and even the 90's imports. ...

McClellan refers to a concept namely the "Second Scientific Revolution". Explain in detail how does he differentiate between the first and the second revolutions.

*First Scientific Revolution:* -Most quantifying and reinventing the classical sciences and breaking the barriers that stood in the way of research while also inventing the Baconian sciences -At this point the classical sciences were quantified and new mathematics were designed around these sciences, while Baconian sciences were merely quantitative meaning that they were experimented on and observed but not seen as pure sciences and thusly it was not a priority to explain what was happening in the experiments. *Second Scientific Revolution:* -Classical and baconian sciences brought together and the baconian sciences were then quantified using new instruments -Mathematization of the previously more qualitative Baconian sciences

Science and industry and the cultures of science and technology generally began their historical unification in the late 19th century. Based on at least three examples describe the process of applying science in industry in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

- Smelting wrought iron and later Steel ie building ships from iron vs wood etc.. - Electricity..thomas edison...telephone vs telegraph. - Aviation 1903 The new nineteenth-century science of current electricity spawned several new applied-science industries, of which the telegraph represents a prime example. Following the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday in 1831, the scientist Charles Wheatstone and a collaborator invented the first electric telegraph in 1837. The telephone was a potent new technological system that emerged out of this same complex of science and industry. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876, but it took some time before telephone challenged the telegraph as an effective communications medium. Such an industry clearly derived from prior work in the new science of electricity. As celebrated in traditional biographies of great inventors, Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) in New Jersey and Joseph Swan (1828-1914) in England independently created the incandescent light bulb through elaborate empirical trials in 1879. The growth of applied science in the nineteenth century was not limited to physics or industries connected solely to the physical sciences. In the realm of scientific medicine, for example, the introduction in the 1840s of anesthesia in dentistry and surgery, and the antiseptic measures developed in the 1860s by Joseph Lister (1827-1912) proved boons for humanity. The germ theory of disease and ideas about microbes in the 1850s led the great French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822- 95) to his studies of fermentation. The resulting process of pasteurization produced practical and economically important consequences for a variety of industries, including dairy, wine, vinegar, and beer production. Related work on silkworm diseases produced similar effects for the silk industry, and Pasteur's later medical experiments to develop inoculations against anthrax, rabies, and other diseases represent the advent of a truly scientific medicine. Chemistry was another a domain where important practical applications in nineteenth-century industry were forthcoming from science. Through the middle of the century the dye industry in Europe remained a traditional craft activity with no contact whatsoever with the world of science. Then, in 1856, following some German advances in organic chemistry, the English chemist William Perkin discovered an artificial dye producing a purple color. Importance of science in context of German education grew further as connections to technology and industry developed notably in chemical industry, electrotechnology, and precision optics. ● The telegraph line helped establish communication. This was possible because of the science of current electricity. It Followed the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday. Charles Wheatstone invented the 1st electric telegraph in 1837. London and Paris became connected by telegraph. ● Electric lighting industry was derived from prior work in the new science of electricity. Created the incandescent light bulb through elaborate empirical trials. A large and complex technological system had to be brought into being before an electric lighting industry could have existed. ● Radio communications (Hertz demonstrated reality of radio waves). Used 19th century theoretical and experimental physics and Marconi exploited them for practical wireless telegraphy. ● Automobile Industry: ford built his first automobile in 1893 and founded the Ford Motor Company a decade later. Cars were made and then changed the outlook on life The steam engine The discovery of neutrons and protons and electrons allowed for nuclear power (does this qualify as early 20th?) Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect circa 1920s, paved the way for LEDs(brighter more efficient light), lasers(communications, precision cutting for metal industry or eye surgery), infrared sensors(motion detection), solar panels(renewable energy)etc. found in almost every modern day system electricity became an integral part of daily lives with Edison's invention of the light bulb having electricity in the house became necessary and through scientific innovation a way of getting electricity to consumers and measuring their usage for billing purposes was invented. with the invention of the telegraph and later the telephone the scientific discoveries of electromagnetic induction and radio waves were now available for people to use and industry to profit from!

Explain the major issues discussed in Newton's Opticks. What was the role of ether in natural phenomena? How did Newton's Opticks influence the 18th century studies on optics?

-*Opticks helped clarify the long-term misconceptions about the properties of light* -*Light was composed of rays; each ray corresponds to a different color and white light represents the combos of all rays and colors* -Different rays are refracted to different degrees through lenses and prisms -Provided the conceptual umbrella beneath the Baconian sciences developed in the 18th century Newton's Opticks (1704), provided the *conceptual umbrella beneath which the Baconian sciences developed in the eighteenth century* - Overturned the belief held by scholars that pure light is white/colorless and is lathered into color by mixture with darkness caused by interactions with matter and showed that light is composed of different hues (7 total) and all colors are formed by various mixtures of these hues

What was the Smyth Report? For what reasons it become public? How do you connect it to the Soviet atomic bomb production?

-*Smyth report was the administrative report by Henry Smyth efforts to develop the atomic bomb, manhattan project.* It served two functions: *(1)*serve as official US government statement and report of the development of the atomic bomb and the processes responsible for the functioning of the nuclear weapons. details of nuclear fission, uranium isotope enrichment, and plutonium production. *(2)* Serve as indicator for which info is still classified such as the US and Great Britain securing of 95% of Uranium * reserves and the plutonium implosion detonator. The Symth report became public to provide citizens with enough information to understand atomic weapons and make sensible policy decisions regarding them. -The soviets gained theoretical information from the Symth report, technical information from the spy ring, and acquire uranium from eastern europe which lead to detonation of their first atomic bomb on Aug 29, 1949

Compare and contrast the "Classical sciences" versus the "Baconian science".

-The *"Classical sciences,"* includes astronomy, mechanics, mathematics, and optics. These fields originated in antiquity; they matured as research endeavors in the ancient world; and they were, in fact, the sciences revolutionized in the Scientific Revolution. -theory- dependent and more mathematical not -experimental in approach, built on math/theoretical foundations, required trained experts -the *"Baconian sciences,"* developed parallel to but largely separate from the Classical sciences during and after the Scientific Revolution. The name derives from the style of science advocated by Sir Frances Bacon. more qualitative in character and experimental in approach -didn't have roots as a formal science but sprang into existence as domains of empirical investigation -More qualitative/experimental in approach -Dependent on instruments, more empirical and only loosely guided on theory -Developed parallel to but largely separate from classical sciences during and after the Scientific Revolution

Explain the technical problems and major achievements in the history of development of the steam engine.

-*Thomas Newcomen*: In 1712, invented the 1st practical steam engine, designed using a cold water injection which injected water to retract the piston but it was highly inefficient due to the heavy consumption of coal, and was only feasible where coal was cheap, in places where it was not cheap, it became more expensive to use them than the coal itself. -*James Watt and John Smeaton:* freed from a dependence on cheap coal, could be set up and used to drive mills virtually anywhere, promoted the expansion of manufacturing in urban centers, eliminated the alternating heating and cooling of the cylinder, more efficient but big and stationary, had a separate tank to hold heat which was still cooler which was used to retract the piston, the steam engines used atmospheric pressure bring the piston back down to where it could be fired thusly they needed to be in a place of constant pressure and were not efficient and could only fit on boats and/or in factories. -*Richard Trevithick:* Much smaller engine, could be placed on a carriage, his high-pressure steam engine altered the economics of transportation by making the railroad possible, used higher pressure instead of atmospheric pressure which allowed the steam engine to be smaller and fit on locomotives. -*George Stephenson:* British engineer who improved Trevithick's engine and introduce the first steam locomotive.

How did the idea of "landing a man on the Moon" develop in the early years of 1960? What were the domestic and international importance of the Apollo 11 achievement?

-American military leaders overlooked the psychological benefits of being first in 1957. American policy makers wanted to be more open/peaceful than the soviets. -Made NASA a civilian agency in 1958 -1961 JFK declared that USA would put a man on the moon and return before the end of the decade -demonstrates the increasing image of science in the Cold War Peaceful manned space flight was needed for American prestige -Important to demonstrate that the USA could organize and use advanced technology as effectively/ better than the totalitarian Soviets. -Protection from ICBM from Soviets. -Then apollo 11 and achievements were made. Apollo 11 domestic and international importance was a symbol of pride and a humanitarian accomplishments respectively.

What was the impact of Sputnik on remodeling the educational system in the United States?

-Americans felt like they were losing the space race and race to produce scientists -The American government wanted to make sure it had access to the products of science and scientists. -The size of university campuses and student bodies grew dramatically in the 1950's and 1960's mostly with subsidies from government defense dollars. 1950 = 9,000 PhDs by 1973 = 35,000 PhDs -*1958 Education Bill: The National Defense Education Act aimed both high school and college science education* •Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) •Emphasis on new methods in teaching mathematics, physics, biology and earth science •Curriculum Reform •On the eve of Sputnik the United States lacked anything resembling a coordinated science policy 1950 = 9,000 PhDs by 1973 = 35,000 PhDs

Describe the scientific societies established in England and on the Continent in the 17th century and explain their role in the advancement of science.

-Bacon and Descartes were major proponents of the social utility of science -In 1662 The Royal Society of London was established -It was important because it was the first institution where scientists could share and publish their findings with each other. -The Philosophical Transaction journal provided a new mode of communicating and disseminating scientific knowledge and research -These institutions were created/maintained by nation states and ruling governments and received official charters as legal institutions and permanent corporations (separated from royal households) -*Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon were major proponents of the social utility of science* -*Descartes*: idea that knowledge should be put to use for the general good of all men -*Francis Bacon*: inductive methodology in science, empiricism *Role:* *1. A new institutional base for science and scientists* *2. The model for a society or academy of science was established and as a result, new institutions arose throughout Europe of a similar fashion* *3. Claims to the social utility of science began to be asserted* *4. Conviction of science can promote human welfare and should be encouraged*

What is "Big Science"? Explain its main characteristic features and its difference with "small science." Name at least two Big Science projects.

-Big Science projects: Manhattan Project, NASA. •Big Science becomes a major way to practice science during and after WWII Big Science is characterized by: •large-scale instruments and facilities •Government funding •Area of study deeply related to national interest (not only war-related field, but also that of health, such as stem cell researches, "applied science") •Mass production of scientific discoveries (= often takes place in industrialized nations) •Collaboration of specialized scientists from different fields

What were the ideological effects of industrialization?

-Drove companies to improve and make industrial products more efficient -Shift from agriculture and trade to mechanization of production -New factory system, replaced wood, wind and water power -Family ceased to be the central unit of production, iron coal and steam became the emblematic resources of society -Restriction of union activities -Urbanization, before more than 90% of European population lived in rural settings and engaged in agricultural activities -New division of labor: men secured employment in factories and women mainly restricted to domestic duties -London population doubles -Pressure on resources increased, shortage in land -Starting point of globalization starting with British companies -Per capita energy consumption is 5-10 times greater than pre-industrial society -No labor laws, working class rights, long hours, child exploitation -Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, new ideology of marketplace, capitalism -Karl Marx, Das Kapital, predicts owners of factories exploiting labor, and class warfare, -landowning aristocracy vs merchant capitalist = transition from feudalism to capitalism

Explain the Military Revolution in pre-modern Europe and its social, political and technological consequences.

-During the Military Revolution tax revenues in western Europe had doubled, more gunpowder was in demand, and more gunmen were being trained. -Expenses in the military had also risen. -The musket was introduced in the 1550s with coordinated routines of loading and firing. -As the military technology had changed old weapons such as bows, crossbows, broadswords, and pikes had become obsolete. Guns became the main prowess in battle. -The substantial government assistance and intervention required by this historically unique military technology led European societies toward centralized authority. - A competition was on the rise between the nations of Europe. -*Military revolution shifted power from local feudal authorities to centralized kingdoms and nation-sates*

How did the science of atomic particles lead to the development of the atomic bomb? What were the consequences in a global scale? (Study carefully pp. 391-396).

-Einstein develops the energy equation E=mc^2 in 1905 -Atomic science began with the experimentation and probing of into the nature of matter.. -discovery of the electron JJ tompson -discovery of the proton alpah particale -discovery of nuetron James Chad wick -discovery of chain reaction enrico fermri bombbared with U-235 - plutonium was by seeborg -Einstein communicates with President Roosevelt about the capability for the element Uranium to achieve a chain reaction that could release an enormous amount of energy. He also tells Roosevelt the capability of using this chain reaction to create an extremely powerful bomb could be possible. With Einstein's advice, Roosevelt organizes the National Defense -Research Committee to speed the development of uranium research with government funding. Required unprecedented cooperation between scientists, industry, and military. -Priorities: Isotope separation → problems: chemically and nearly physically identical Additionally, U-238 is much more natural than U-235 (99:1 ratio) Solutions: Electromagnetic Method → Oak Ridge, Manhattan Gaseous Diffusion → Clinton, Tennessee Additionally, Centrifuge & Liquid Thermal Diffusion Alternate Element Discovered: Plutonium (1941) - Glenn Seaborg (Berkley) → fissions more readily than U-235 First Bombs: Little Boy → Gun Barrel method (Uranium); Fat Man→ implosion fission bomb (plutonium) First Atomic Bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki of Japan → Lead to Unconditional Surrender

How did Copernicus solve the long lasting problems of Ptolemaic astronomy? What were his innovations?

-He solved the problem of retrograde motion and the different seasons that we have. (trailing behind) -Planets, including the earth are rotating in a circular motion around the sun. -He solved the problem of diurnal motion of the celestial sphere. The earth not only moves around the Sun but on its axis at a tilt. -He solved the problem of seasons and the way celestial motion happens through axis of tilt in exposure to sun. -The axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the Solar System.

Why we have to consider magic and the occult science in our study of the history of Scientific Revolution? What is the Hermetic philosophy and its basic assumptions?

-Hermetic corpus: linked the microcosm of the human body with the macrocosm of the whole universe as a whole through a system of occult correspondences and relations of "sympathy" and "antipathy. WHY: -Occult sciences accidentally led to many scientific discoveries since these sciences were mainly experimental, led to creating tools for later scientists to use for their discoveries -Although occult sciences are viewed as irrational delusions and charlatanry. Renaissance magic and associated knowledge systems were spiritual and intellectual enterprises that embodied learned understanding of the natural world. Newton, the guy who independently invented calculus and unified astronomy from Galileo to Kepler, believed in alchemy. -Occult had a dual meaning, both as secrets among adepts and as secrets hidden in nature Hermetic philosophy. -*Hermetic corpus*: fundamental principle of the hermetic philosophy that linked the microcosm of the human body with the macrocosm of the universe as a whole through a system of occult correspondences with relations of sympathy and antipathy -*Hermeticism*: transcendental, divine order in nature framed by underlying mathematical realities and held the optimistic view that humans could understand nature and through magic, operate it under their own interests, characteristics align Renaissance magic with same individuals/historical forces that gave rise to the Scientific Revolution, believed that ancient prophets/scholars knew all about the occult sciences 4 basic assumptions Hermetic basic assumptions: 1. Four basic elements: earth, water, fire, and air 2. As above, so below: The law of attraction is the law of creation. Everything that is coming into your life is because you are attracted to it and allows it to happen. 3. Posthumous Fate: Multiple occurrences of being through manifestation before a person is liberated from any condition ( Kind of like karma? Some one please double check)<<<----i think it means more of SIGNS happen before stuff happens. ie. super nova happened hence something big is going to happen.. not like karma 4. Morality, good and evil 5. Cosmogony: the origin of the universe ( the world and humans are created by god/gods/supreme beings)

Isaac Newton had a unique role in the Scientific Revolution. Describe his works and his influence on the establishment of modern science.

-Major works: *Opticks, Mathematical Principles of the Natural Philosophy (Principia)* -*Opticks*: light composed of rays, each ray is a different color, white is a combination of all rays/colors. Different rays are refracted to different degrees through lenses/prisms. -Unified celestial/terrestrial realms separated since Aristotle -Establishment of three laws of motion -Linked Kepler's 2nd and 3rd law to gravity *Principia*: -Presented universal gravitation and the laws of motion -The structure of the solar system was explained by the force among planets was gravity Built upon Kepler's observations and explained elliptical paths of planets, comet discoveries

Why did the newly independent nations in the 1950s and 1960s become so important in the international politics? How did the US policy makers employ science and technology to modernize those nations? (Wolfe 60-73). Give a historical example.

-Nations became independent in the 1950's and -1960's as a result of decolonization in Africa and Asia. -They became important in international politics because they could adopt either a liberal democratic or communist form of government. -Building dams in Tanzania -Building Expertise in India -Building health in Mexico, (the professor said this was an excellent example)

Explain the major transformations in power sources, building material, marketing system and transportation that happened during the Industrial Revolution.

-Physical resources shifted from wind, wood, and water to iron coal and steam -Building materials went from wood to iron steel allowed for larger ships that were better defended in times of war and allowed industrious nations to colonize weaker nations building of railroads -New foreign markets were needed, such as China -power went from animals to machines in the form of the steam engine which allowed for more resources to be harvested and transported while also allowing for better travel.

From the beginning, the hybrid military-civilian institutes should observe very tight secrecy- security rules. What was the impact of security regulations on the distribution and publication of scientific knowledge after the WWII? Why were some scientists the target of loyalty investigations?

-Security Rules for institutions with defense -contracts -security clearances -classification codes -compartmentalization of knowledge -Affected scientific research and copulation -kept in dark about spending priorities and foreign policy Classified 7.5 billion pages in the 50 years after ww11 -All information related to nuclear technology was born secret -Even knowledge about the practice of science and for reasons behind government interest in scientific information. -scientists who did not approve of building of atomic bomb or hydrogen bomb where suspicious & suspected of being in spy rings -kept off crucial projects

How did the Chemical Revolution happen? Describe the main actors and concepts which laid down the structure of the modern chemistry.

-chemical revolution influenced by the scientific revolution -Focused on being more theoretical than empirical * Contemporary chemistry was highly experimental and instrument dependent* *Developed phlogiston chemistry to become more theoretical* -*Phlogiston* focused on the principle of combustion -According to the theory a burning candle releases phlogiston; the candle when covered with a jar goes out because the air contained within becomes saturated with phlogiston, that prevent combustion -After the chemical revolution it was postulated that the candle goes out because the air in the jar is exhausted rather than saturated -Phlogiston theory helped to explain combustion, plant growth, digestion, respiration, and smelting -Provided a solid framework for the research conducted in the chemical revolution * Major Players* *Phlogiston* chemistry was then replaced by *Lavoisier's oxygen theory of chemistry and combustion* *Joseph Black* discovered "fixed air" (was carbon dioxide) in 1756 Identified it as a distinct gas Helped to break down the notion of "air" as a single element Encouraged the improvement of instruments to identify the different gases in air *Antoine Lavoisier* (1743-94) began his theoretical research with the notion that something is taken out of the air rather than released in combustion -Lavoisier also published a textbook, Elementary Treatise of Chemistry (1789) that taught his new chemistry Elements were classified, such as "inflammable air" = hydrogen, "sugar of Saturn" = lead acetate, "vitriol of Venus" = copper sulfate Lavoisier in the opening of his book separated heat phenomena from chemical phenomena -He also introduced a new ether, caloric, to account for thermal phenomena

How did the hybrid institutes - institutes focusing on basic research and applied science - appeared in the 1950s and 1960s? What was the role of military in establishment of such institutes? (Wolfe 27-33)

APL appeared under the direction of the OSRD at John Hopkins university . Its scientists designed the proximity fuse, a radio-controlled device that exploded shells at a predetermined distance from their targets, but also oversaw its production and taught the Navy how to use it. As the war wound down, the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance took over the contract from the OSRD and APL became the center of the Navy's efforts to develop guided anti aircraft missiles under the name Project Bumblebee. Administrators at John Hopkins had hesitations about nearly every aspect of the project from its classified character to its unabashedly "applied" nature of the research. Nevertheless, the university found the initial $750,000 contract difficult to refuse. After APL accepted the contract, it began working in the university setting with an industrial partner, Kellex Company. Things did not work out, their relationship never materialized. However, as a Navy contractor, the APL thrived as it contributed to the Polaris missile system, solid-rock fuels, and satellites. The role of the military in establishment of such institutes was that it made it easier for such institutes to exist. A major part of speeding up this process would be the funding that the military is able to provide. For example, today, the APL employs nearly 5,000 people and operates a nearly $1 billion budget supplied mainly by the DOD (DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, AKA A MILITARY/GOVERNMENT INSTITUTION). Also as stated by Wolfe, it was less successful as an academic institution as unclassified research received approximately 5 percent of the overall budget. The role of the military is that it is able to classify institutions as part of military spending from which that institution has a much higher budget from which it can do things much faster. [Work (Money = time)] (inverse relationship?) //A federal sponsor usually a defense agency, paid all costs and established programmatic goals while the university provided management services but had few expectations that the unit would perform in an academic context. It is also important to note: APL was more than twenty miles from John hopkins University, I operated at a physical remove from its administrative sponsor. Similar arrangements prevailed at MIT, Stanford, Caltech, Cornell and the University of Michigan to name a few.

Evaluate the role of Galileo in the formation of modern science. Explain his major discoveries, his scientific approach and his mathematical study of nature.

Galileo was the first scientist to truly break through the barriers of Aristotelian societies. He said that we need to interpret the Bible in a way that fits closer to what is observable and true as opposed to ignoring what is truly happening. -Made and utilized one of the first telescopes to study astronomy -Made rigorous observations daily -Viewed the phases of Venus, Venus shows phases like the Moon only it revolves around the Sun -the surface of the moon (disproving that the moon was made of ether and instead of some sort of earth or rock) -viewed sunspots -improved on the telescope with 20-30 magnifications -Galileo also laid the groundwork for other scientists such as Newton to test and formulate new ways of explaining behavior, for example his ideas of relative motion lead Newton to his formulas of gravity and motion -He published two works: Discourse on Two New Sciences & Dialogue one the Two Chief World Systems -He, unlike previous astronomers, made the language of his book very simplistic and in Italian, not Latin, which made them widely accessible to all people not just those in academia -kinematics and the strength of materials, free fall, determined all bodies would fall at the same speed -Leaning Tower Experiment: dropped balls from the tower to discredit Aristotle's view that heavy bodies fall faster than lighter ones -Basis for Scientific method: 1) Observation 2) Measurement 3) Mathematical Expression 4) Experimentation

Explain in detail the background, meaning and consequences of the concept called "the global village".

In his 1964 landmark work Understanding Media, the prescient theorist Marshall McLuhan articulated the concept of the "global village" from the means of electrical technology with television as the leading medium. Certainly no more powerful medium than television arose in the twentieth century for bringing peoples together. By creating a "you are there" feeling, television brings the world to viewers. The coverage of the moon landing in 1969 or the subsequent Apollo 13 disaster unified virtually all of humanity for a single moment. *Thanks to communications satellites, every night on the nightly news*, we see reporters live from hot spots around the world with video footage shot the same day. Sixteen hundred television stations currently broadcast United States, and with the advent of cable and satellite TV viewers have literally hundreds of channels to choose from, channels that cater to all kinds of tastes.: news, movies, business reporting, sports, weather, cartoons, children's subjects, music videos etc -* The basic exchange of information from all corners of the world and the electrical technology that allows for this constant exposure is the idea behind the term of "global village"*, later referred to as the "Global Theater", which I will explain later. The start of this concept allowed many individuals to combine as a single mind and entity for a common goal and helped to educate individuals about anything that interested them; however, with every social change, there will be ulterior motives. *With the constant exposure to information and the capability of the broadcaster to control the information, the "global village" meant to connect individuals on a global scale, started to shift to the potential of "global theater" where you put on a show to control what the individual sees. *Either subtly, or openly, it is still a constant debate about whether the effect of this "theater" helps to foster cultural change, stunt change, control attitudes, and a plethora of other social structures.

. Our understanding of the universe has been changed drastically since the 1920s. Explain the major developments in cosmology in the 20th century. (Discuss the interaction between physics and cosmology, as well as the cosmological models; McClellan, pp.373-376)

In the eighteenth century, astronomers had broached the idea that the Milky Way was an "island universe," 1920's American astronomer Edwin Hubble: extragalactic nature of "nebulous" bodies and the distances involved, and expansion of the universe became established. *Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis debate AKA The Great Debate. Shapley- the milky way encompassed the entirety of the universe, Curtis-milky way was a part of many galaxies.* 1930s, relativity and particle physics greatly affected cosmology. Einstein's equation of matter and energy, along with evolving understandings of nuclear processes, not only led to practical applications in the atomic and hydrogen bombs but also to theoretical understandings of thermonuclear fusion as the energy source powering the sun and the stars. The discovery of thermonuclear processes, by replacing ordinary combustion models, greatly extended the age of the sun and the solar system. Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson: 3° background radiation helped establish theory of the big bang. Won Nobel prize.

Explain the condemnation of 1277 and its consequences in philosophy and natural sciences.

On March 7, 1277, the Bishop of Paris, Stephen Tempier, prohibited the teaching of 219 philosophical and theological theses that were being discussed and disputed in the faculty of arts under his jurisdiction. -*philosophers promoted independently while theologians thought natural sciences as competing system of knowledge and felt there was a threat to secular philosophy * -caused by the conflict bewtween theologians and philosophers -The bishop of Paris with the backing of the pope condemned the teaching of 219 execrable errors held by some Aristotelians and subjected anyone who held or taught them to excommunication. liberated them to conceive new alternatives in solving long-standing problems in Aristotelian science and natural philosophy. produced a paradoxical effect... a path opened for masters in the arts faculty to consider any and all scientific possibilities as long as they stayed out of theology and did not claim that their intellectual games had any necessary relation to the world as God's artifact. *Buridan and Oresme both entertained the idea of the daily rotation of earth on its axis, but both rejected the idea - Oresme rejected it because of apparent conflicts with passages in the bible*

. Radioactivity, the photoelectric effect, and the mathematics of black body radiation were three major puzzles of physics in the beginning of the 20th century. Explain in detail how did scientists solve them in the first few decades of the century.

Radioactivity-energies from matter murie curie and Photoelectric-sheds light on material, produces electricity Understanding of photoelectric kicked off the quantum revolution Black Body Radiation- how does it absorb & radiate energy -energy production & absorbed in packages, not a slope graph of energy, but a step graph -absorbed in specific amount(no 1.5 electrons) -learned about atomic structure & created electron energy levels

Describe the content and importance of Galileo's major publication Two New Sciences.

Strength of materials Motion of bodies laid the principles for other scientists such as Newton and Halley brought the ideas to light that motion can and should be measured About how beams break and how balls roll down inclined planes (p. 234-235) Written in "dialogue form" split into 4 days with three voices of reason (salviati, sagredo, simplicio) Day 1: Cohesion of bodies, breaking strength of materials. Theory of scaling (ex. a wooden boat weighing a million tons), nature of fluids, etc Day 2: Strength of the beam is proportional to the square of the cross sectional depth Day 3 + 4: The rate at which a body falls is proportional to its weight. This totally re-conceptualizes Aristotle physics, which the medium through which bodies fall matters. Lead to Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment Velocity is proportional to the time elapsed. Galileo's law of falling bodies: distance a body falls is proportional to square of time of the fall. All objects fall at the same accelerated rate in a vacuum Kinematic law: describes a motion, does NOT explain it

-How did the higher education institute - the University - established in Europe? Compare and contrast it with similar Islamic institute- the madrasa.

THE UNIVERSITY • Created to harbor high learning. • European civilization created new external conditions o Science o Natural Philosophy • Set the stage for "new learning" culture • Prior, emphasis remained on theology and religious affairs • Growth of history of science and learning resulted from the growth of 12 century universities • First University: Bologna University • Rise of university coincided with burgeoning cities and growing wealth o Burgeoning of cities and growing wealth by agricultural revolution. • Universities are secular communities of students and master teachers • Universities depend on student body to pay • Student body attends Universities for job prospects • University: middle ground between the total state control of bureaucracies and wholly individualistic character of hellenic science • Functioned to train: clergy, doctors, lawyers, administrators, and teachers • Universities were highly religious before the Scientific Revolution • Curriculum included: Logic, Grammar, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music • Based off the teachings of Aristotle MADRASA • Depends on state and individual patronage • Independent feudal institutions • Madrasa was not a self governing corporation (Prohibited in Islam) Pg 107 • It did not maintain a standard curriculum, and it did not confer degrees(Pg107) o prohibited from teaching anything contrary to the tenets of Islam • Centered in the Middle East • school for legal instruction in the "Islamic sciences"—law, not theology,being the preeminent science in Islam. • Secular topics were discussed

Describe the background, major components, and the final results of the Manhattan Project. Explain this project within the context of the Big Science.

The Manhattan project was a research and development project for producing the first atomic bombs. It was led by the United States with the support of UK and Canada. It started with the *Einstein's letter to Roosevelt.* The letter states the discovery of the chain reaction and the possibility of releasing nuclear energy. The United States began the Manhattan project by further researching Uranium-235. They hoped Uranium-235 will serve as fuel source for an explosive device. There were three sites of research for the Manhattan project such Los Alamos - New Mexico, Oak Ridge- Tennessee and Richland Washington. These particular sites were chosen because they were far from the coastline and less vulnerable to enemy attack from Japan and Germany. The Manhattan projected consisted of a General Director and a Scientific Director. Groves served as general director and Oppenheimer served as scientific director. The Manhattan Project consisted of the development of the plutonium bomb known as "The gadget". The first explosion occurred at the Trinity site in Los Alamos. Further research eventually led to the creation of two the types of Atomic bombs. A gun-type atomic bomb known as " Little boy" was created and an implosion type atomic bomb known as "Fat Man" was created. The Manhattan project concluded with using little boy to bomb Hiroshima and Fat Man to bomb Nagasaki. This concluded World War II. Big science: Big facilities, lots of people, and all around was big... Words of the professor

Explain the major developments in the fields of electricity and magnetism in the early 19th century which led to the non-laboratory use of electricity. Describe the related key actors and discoveries.

the second scientific revolution began at the turn of the 19th century mathematization of the previously qualitative Baconian sciences unification of Classical and Baconian sciences Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) discovered electric current through frog legs (aetherial animal electricity) (too early?) 1800: Alessandro Volta published his invention of the battery 1820: Hans Christian Oersted discovered that magnetism is perpendicular to electricity 1831: Michael Faraday created current by moving a magnet through a wire coil 1820s: Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity Robert Grove discovered photoelectricity shortly afterwards These discoveries raised hard questions that could only be answered quantitatively Electromagnetic Induction Theory

Agricultural technology in Europe experienced a revolution during the high Middle Ages. Explain the major developments occurred in this revolution and discuss its social, cultural and economic consequences.

• Plow o allow clearing of fields which increased agricultural productivity and in turn increased population • Oxen to Horse: o Horses were cheaper o Horses can transport food and products faster and farther. o Horses could be bred for specific jobs (war, farming,...). o Increase village size because horses could work a larger radius. • Horse harness o The horse collar let the horse pull from the shoulders rather than the neck. o Increased the horse's pulling power from about 1000 lbs to o 5000 lbs. o The plow horse could increase farm production as much as 30 percent for those peasants who could afford horses. o This led into the feedback cycle of producing more food, population growth, and developing new lands for even more food production. • Heavy plow o could cut through the deep, wet, and heavy soils of Northern Europe o Much better than the light scratch plow. T o Two advantages ♣ First, it cuts the soil so violently that there was no need for cross plowing as there was with the scratch plow. ♣ This saved time, which could be used for, among other things, clearing more land and producing more food. ♣ Second, the heavy plow created furrows, little ridges and valleys in each plowed row. In times of drought, water would drain into the valleys and ensure some crops would survive. In times of heavy rains, the crops on top of the ridges would not get flooded out. As a result, peasants could usually look forward to at least some crops to harvest even in bad years. This made agriculture in the rocky lowlands of europe possible and the development of agricultural villages in those regions. • Three field crop rotation o Peasants divided their farmland into three fields, one for winter crops, one for summer crops, and one to remain fallow. o The use of the fields was rotated each year. o To prevent soil exhaustion, was to use different crops that took different nutrients from the soil. o The winter crop typically would consist of winter wheat or rye, and the spring crop would be either spring wheat or legumes (beans or peas) (the book says here that "a winter wheat crop and a spring crop of oats, peas, beans, barley, and lentils, with the third field left fallow." which means unused.) o Provided people with a more balanced diet. o It would take nitrogen out of the air rather than the soil, and when buried, actually replenish the soil with nitrogen. ♣ (The Romans referred to this as "green manuring".)

How did European scholars assimilate Aristotelian philosophy within the framework of traditional Christian worldview?

• Scholars used Aristotelian philosophy as a form of support of the bible. They used natural philosophy as a means to describe the workings of the bible. • Physics Laws -> Aristotle | Divine Laws -> Bible • Conflicts with Aristotelian philosophies include: o The eternity of the universe o The soul o Cause and Effect • Divine Comedy • Check page 185 from book ----- - the assimilation caused more people to know and understand Aristotle's philosophies creating frcition between Aristotelian and Christian beliefs

What kind of labor-saving technologies developed in Medieval Europe (after 1000 AD) and what were the impact of those technological innovations on the European civilization?

• watermills, windmills, flour mills, hammer mills, heavy plow, horses, 3 field roation system • Because of o -population increase o -increased food production • European engineers developed a fascination for new machines and new sources of power, and they adopted and developed novel methods of generating and harnessing it. • Waterwheel o The waterwheel became widely used to wring energy from the profusion of streams that run through many parts of Europe, and it powered a variety of other machines including sawmills, flour mills, and hammer mills. • Windmills o In some districts windmills increased cropland by reclaiming land from the sea. o The need may be attributed to a lack of surplus labor and to the increased production levels generated by the Agricultural Revolution. That is, with more grain to grind, a widespread shift to water- or wind-powered milling machines was only to be expected. o The mill existed in antiquity, but saw limited use perhaps because of the availability of slaves and human muscle power to do the work required to grind grain. o It is no coincidence, therefore, that slavery withered away in western Europe coincident with the advent of labor-saving machines. Their civilization was literally driven by comparatively more powerful "engines" of wind and water which tapped more energy of one sort or another than anywhere else in the world - the implementation of technology can be attributed to the lack of manpower -Printing - before the monks have to hand copy Aristotle/textbook lead to cheaper to learn and directly lead to scientific revolution. - "Slaves withered away in western Europe coincident with the advent of labor-saving machines"