Environmental final

alternate sources of energy

*geothermal *solar-the sun *hydroelectric *wind- the wind *nuclear power-atoms

New technologies behind Natural Gas

-3D and 4D Seismic Imaging- this technology uses sound wave, imaging techniques and it creates a three-dimensional model of the different layers -Sand Fracturing - helps increase the flow of natural gas and oil from formations underground -Coiled Tubing- reduces the cost of drilling, -Measurement While Drilling- allows for the collection of data from the bottom of a well as it is being drilled. -Slimhole Drilling- drilling a slimmer hole in the ground to get to natural gas and oil deposits -Offshore Drilling Technology- improves offshore drilling rigs and sophisticated navigation systems are allowing safe, efficient offshore drilling in waters -Hydraulic Fracturing or "Fracking,"- is used to free natural gas that is trapped in rock formations.

Deciduous

-4 seasons -winter= cold, snow Locations- Eastern US, Canada, Europe, China, Japan Food Web: -The plants and trees-> producers Primary producers: raccoons, rabbits, ants Keystone species: White-tailed deer Invasive species-> Asian Gypsy Moth (makes silk, reproduced quickly) Climate change on the forest: -warmer= helps forest grow Endangered species: -giant panda= habitat being destroyed -bamboo Human impact: -deforestation -animals lose their habitat

Costs and Benefits of New Oil/Petroleum Technology

-Hydraulic Fracturing is controversial because it depletes and contaminates water and could possibly cause earthquakes. -Scientists worry that fracturing endangers communities living close to fracturing operations. -They have also been known to deplete air and water quality. -Fracturing uses a lot of water that could be used to solve drought -It could also pollute ground and surface water and air quality -New technologies have helped us reach previously inaccessible resources -Hydraulic Fracturing has caused an "economic boom"

New technologies behind Oil/Petroleum

-Hydraulic Fracturing- allows energy producers to tap into challenging geological formations. They dig wells deep into the ground by using a mixture of pressurized liquid that allows oil to flow more freely. -Horizontal Drilling- vertical wells are drilled straight into the ground to reach oil. It is more flexible and precise -Tar Sands- a combination of clay, sand, water and bitumen (a heavier kind of oil). Tar Sands are mined to get bitumen and then it is refined into oil -Deepwater Drilling- involves drilling deep into the sea to get oil. -Seismic Mapping- sound waves are bounced off of underground rock formations to find hydrocarbon reserves. The echoes are recorded and converted and 3D maps help find the oil.

Advantages, Costs and benefits of Oil/Petroleum:

-In the United States it costs $36 to produce a barrel of oil -Oil has a high energy density which means that a small amount of oil can produce a large amount of energy and easy availability. -Almost all of the world's cars run on gasoline which comes from crude oil. -It is widely available and used in almost all parts of the world. -It is many products we use like vaseline, cloth and medicines. -It is easy to produce and refine. -It can produce power 24/7 and is very reliable

Costs and benefits of Natural Gas

-It has low investment costs (it is cost effective). -It is also sold at a lower energy price than coal, oil or other gases -It has lower taxes and fees. -Provides larger environmental benefits than oil or other fossil fuels -It emits 25% less CO2. -It does not put out dust or particles from the burning process -Natural gas burns cleaner compared to other fossil fuels (meaning it makes less greenhouse gas emissions). -It's safer, less expensive and easier to store than other fossil fuels.

Disadvantages of Coal

-It produces more radioactivity than nuclear power. -When sulfur dioxide is emitted in large quantities it is a major source of air pollution. -Carbon from coal stored underground could leak into aquifers, making the groundwater undrinkable. -Coal mining harms the landscape.

Disadvantages of Oil/Petroleum

-Making oil releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. Individual countries are trying to reduce this through carbon taxes and the cap and trade system. -Oil spills have caused water pollution which has caused the deaths of many animals and fish every year. -Ex: The BP Oil Spill causes billions of dollars in losses. -Oil plants give off harmful substances like sulfur dioxide which can cause health problems and acid rain.

How is Natural Gas formed?

-Natural gas was formed millions of years ago when plants and tiny sea animals were buried by sand and rock. Layers of mud, sand, rock, plant, and animal matter continued to build up until the pressure and heat turned them into natural gas (and oil). -A drilling rig drills thousands of feet into the ground and is covered by cement to protect the groundwater from being contaminated. -A gun that pierces through the ground is sent into the well and creates holes in the pipe and blasts the rocks to get the trapped natural gas. -The fractures allow the natural gas to flow to the surface. Sand grains or ceramic pellets hold the fractures open

Costs and Benefits of New Natural Gas Technology

-New innovations have shaped the industry into being a leader in technology. -New technologies make the production of natural gas more efficient, more cost-effective, safe, and environmentally friendly. -Advances in technology mean that one well used to get natural gas today can produce two times as much as previous wells. -New techniques have made people rely less on explosives and its effects on the environment

Greenhouse effect

a natural process in which certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat near earth, preventing the heat from radiating back into space

El Nino

a periodic change in air pressure, wind patterns, ocean temperature, and ocean circulation in the Pacific Ocean

hypothesis

a testable idea that attempts to explain a phenomenon or answer a scientific question

proxy indicator

a type of indirect evidence that serves as a substitute for direct measurement -ex: tree rings, ice core, clues in sediment

methane hydrate

an icelike solid that consists of molecules of methane within a crystal network of water molecules -can be burned to release energy

Kyoto Protocol

an international agreement drafted in 1997 to limit greenhouse gas emissions

the greenhouse gas the most responsible for global warming is:

carbon dioxide

Petrochemicals

chemical compounds that are derived from oil and used to make products

Biomes and Aquatic Ecosystems

climate: temp. and precipitation weather: every day ex: tundra: less precipitation, more snow net primary production: -act of making food, photosynthesis how many plant parts can i make? gross=total net primary: gross, cellular respiration terrestrial biomes: -characterized by -climate -temperature precipitation Note: climate is NOT weather

Future Impact of Global Warming as predicted by computer modeling

diseases: -lyme disease more prevalent -more heat stroke -heat exhaustion sea level: -will continue to rise -need to find new places to live Freshwater supplies -salt water will intrude freshwater aquifers -disappearance of glaciers

ecological footprint

expresses the environmental effects of an individual or population in terms of the total amount of land and water required (1) how to provide the raw materials the individual or population consumes (2) to dispose of or recycle the waste the individual or population produces

natural resources

materials, and energy sources found in nature, that humans need to survive.

renewable natural resources

natural resources that are naturally replenished, or renewed over short periods. ex: sunlight, wind energy, wave energy, and geothermal energy

fossil fuels

nonrenewable energy sources such as oil, coal and natural gas

acid drainage

occurs when sulfide minerals in exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid

climatograph

a diagram that shows an area's average temperature and precipitation -scientists use them to describe conditions in a biome

carbon tax

a fee that the government charges polluters for each unit of greenhouse gas they emit

fossil fuel

a fuel that formed millions of years ago from the remains of living things

How is Oil/Petroleum Refined?

-Oil is originally made up of a lot of hydrocarbons, refining turns the oil into useful substances -Crude oil is heated up, vaporized and then condensed -A new technique called chemical processing that breaks long chains of hydrocarbons into shorter ones helps turn diesel fuel into gasoline -Refineries remove the impurities -Then refineries make the desired products.

Disadvantages of Natural Gas

-The burning of natural gas effects the environment because it produces small amounts of sulfur and mercury. -It also produces nitrogen oxides which is a cause of smog -It might cause a spill and the chemicals could spill out and wreak havoc on surrounding ecosystems. -It also reduces air quality, and can cause night sky light pollution. -Natural gas is not a renewable energy source.

How is Oil/Petroleum Formed?

-There are deposits for oil deep underground in pores and rocks that soak up oil. -They are formed by the remains of organisms that were once living like algae and zooplankton. -Heat pressure rises as organisms go deeper beneath the surface -Depending on the amount of pressure, heat, and type of organism, it determined whether the organisms will turn to natural gas or oil.

How is Natural Gas Refined?

-When people use natural gas it is made of mainly methane, but before it is processed it is made of methane, hydrocarbons, sulfur and carbon dioxide. -When natural gas is processed you separate all of the fluids and hydrocarbons to make dry natural gas -It is processed at a processing plant -Transported to these plants through a network of pipelines

changes in earth's orbit

-affect the distribution of solar radiation, changes may last for 1000s of years

mitigation strategies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

-carbon offsets -carbon sequestration -carbon tax

fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient organisms:

-coal, oil, and natural gas are from the remains of ancient organisms -energy comes from the sun -converted to chemical energy

volcanoes

-expel gas and particles -prevents sunlight from entering earth's atmosphere temporarily -cools the atmosphere

evidence of a warming earth

-global warming vs. global climate change -rising temperatures, changes in precipitation -melting ice

fossil fuel use continues to rise, and the supply of easily obtainable fossil fuels will likely eventually run out

-harder to find new sources -global consumption has risen -most accessible has already been used up -remaining is difficult and expensive to extract -production of oil will decrease

Temperate Forest

-heavy rainfall and moderate temperatures -evergreen -Locations-> north western coast of north America -chile, New Zealand -Humans affecting the Biome: farming, hunting, urbanization -industrial pollution harms water -deforestation Effect of Climate Change: -humid environment -harms water -pest outbreak -forest fires, droughts -extreme precipitation -plant species affected Endangered species: The Red Wolf -population reduced by 10% Keystone species: cougar Invasive Species: -earthworms-> not native -native to Europe -nitrification

finding the cause of climate change

-increase in greenhouse gases -burning fossil fuels, changes in use of land

dessert

-lack of rainfall -adaptations for animals -get water by their food -most are nocturnal -thick leaves on plants -succulents sand dune africa, australia, asia, and america -primary: cacti, ocotillo, sage -insects, lizard, kangaroos -scorpions, tarantulas -fungi -keystone species= hummingbirds -pollinate cactuses and plants -invasive red brome buffelgrass -invasive grass, makes fires -buffelgrass= native of africa -outcompete w native grass -change the ecosystem -wildfires -pulling up the plant -roads = control -brome= invasive grass, wildfire -climate change: -global warming, seasonal plants -ultra violet radiation -toads -endangered -northern jaguar= human activity= hunting -increase in door -reserve land to protect habitats -affecting the biome: drilling for fossil fuels -largest cold desert = Antarctica

Chaparral

-mild, wet winters -warm, dry summers -near oceans, Mediterranean in Europe and Africa -various types of terrain Where is it: -California, around the Mediterranean, South America Food Web:-> producers-> sage brush primary consumers-> black tailed rabbit, golden jackal, earth worm Keystone species:-> Giant Kangaroo Rat Invasive Species: -> spanish broom Climate change= emission rates continue -at risk Endangered Species: Iberian lynx -eat rabbits (which have decreased) -habitat loss Human Impact-> humans cutting down trees, brush and grasses

Grassland (prairie/steppes)

-moderate precipitation -North America, South America, Europe and Australia Food Web: -arthropods/fungi -grass -prairie dogs -owls -coyotes -foxes -bisons Keystone species: -prairie dog, coyote, and fox Invasive Species: -Paintbrush, phlox flowers -nasty invasive grass threatens the landscape Ventenata grass: -toxic fungus Climate change: -relatively dry with strong seasonal climate, vulnerable to shifts -Marine life: -breeding of waterfowl, ducks Endangered species: -jaguar, wild dog Human effects: -meat,fur-> hunt bison, antelope, mammals -agricultural purposes, rearing cattle -fertile soil= wheat farming -deterioration

coal is mined from the ground and used mainly to generate electricity

-most abundant fossil fuel -forms as ancient plant matter -N. America and Asia has abundant coal reserves -China and U.S. are the main producers a. strip mining b. subsurface mining

Regional vegetation

-move water into the atmosphere through transpiration -holds CO2

effects of climate change

-ocean acidity -coral bleaching -changing migration times -shifting habitats -health and economic effects

Charles Keeling

-presented the first evidence that carbon dioxide produce by automobiles and factories was negatively affecting the earths climate -worked in the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii

IV: Conclusion

-profile piece at the beginning of the chapter. Fixing the Ozone hole. -destroyed by CFCs Ozone- O3 -> can be broken apart O- not stable O2: oxygen ozone- farthest layer of our atmosphere, curtain between our atmosphere and space CFCS- chlorofluorocarbons, found in refrigerants and aerosol (hairspray) sprays ozone- protects us from cancers and ultraviolet radiation (hole in the ozone was cooling the planet) -ozone is a pollutant, and bad for breathing, good for atmosphere ethics-study of right and wrong ethics- making judgements, good or bad should or shouldn't know: scientific method, environmental justice

ways to conserve energy

-turn off lights -buy appliances that conserve energy -lower the thermostat -drive less, walk/ use public transportation

ways to conserve energy

-turn off lights, computers and televisions when not using them -wash full loads in dishwashers and clothes washers -unplug rarely used appliances -unplug cell phone chargers when the phone is charged -dont keep the refrigerator door open -remove food quickly -use a microwave to heat food

studying climate change

-using climate models -proxy indicators

natural gas is extracted from the ground and used as a source to produce heat for homes and businesses

-yields a lot of energy -grows faster -large amount of energy

How is Coal Refined?

1.The coal goes to a preparation plant where it gets washed to remove contaminants like rocks and ashes. 2. Large pieces are taken and crushed into more useful sizes. 3. It is transported to the consumer

carbon sequestration

A method of storing carbon emissions to prevent their release into the atmosphere

Environmentalism

A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural world- and, by extension, people- from undesirable changes brought about by human actions.

carbon offset

A voluntary payment made when one industry or person, instead of reducing its own greenhouse gas emissions, pays another group or person to do so

thermohaline circulation

A water movement pattern in which warmer, less salty water moves along the surface of the ocean, and colder, saltier water moves deep beneath the ocean's surface

III Effects of Climate Change

A. Effects on Ecosystems and Organisms 1. Shifting Habitats a. ex: boreal forest invading tundra 2. Changing Migration Times ( especially for birds!) a. ex : Robin returning north too early b. Ex: reaching breeding grounds even a day or two earlier can have far reaching effects 3. Problems Obtaining Food a. Ex: polar bears- sea ice melts earlier and re-freezes later making it harder for them to catch seals. b. Ex: pika - keep moving further up the mountains. - adapted for cold- can die if temps as high as 78oF 4. Effects of a Changing Ocean a. absorbing CO2 and getting warmer (SST) b. warmer water temps coral bleaching c. ocean acidity CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid , H2CO3 5. The future of ecosystems B. Impact on People Right Now 1. Agriculture and Forestry a. factors affecting plant growth- CO2, precipitation, temperature, diseases/ fungal growth b. heat tolerant crops, like sweet potatoes and melons may be doing better but cool temperature crops like spinach/ greens will suffer c. forests are suffering from more fires and insect and disease 2. Economic Effects a. cost of more severe storms b. lost agriculture income c. new technology companies- solar, wind, etc 3. Health Effects a. heat waves-> heat stroke b. spread of illness C. Future Impact on People 1. Diseases a. range of disease spreading animals expected to expand b. ex: mosquito line c. ex: Lyme disease moving into Canada 2. Sea Level 3. Water Supply a. loss of glaciers affecting those who depend on the meltwater b. intrusion of saltwater into aquifers

I. Our Dynamic Climate

A. Energy from the sun 1. Solar radiation is the main source of energy driving weather and climate 2. 30% is lost to space 3. Remaining energy is absorbed 4. Greenhouse effect a. greenhouse gases include H2O, CO2, tropospheric O3, N2O, CH4 b. absorb reflected heat and then slowly release it c. necessary for life on Earth ( but you can have too much of a good thing) 5. Effect of Latitude a. unequal heating b. tropics vs the poles c. combined with the tilt of the earth to give us the seasons B. Wind Patterns C. The Oceans And Climate 1. Thermohaline circulation 2. El Niño and La Niña D. Other Factors that Affect Climate 1. Topography a. altitude b. mountain ranges 4. Changes in Earth's Orbit

II. The Nature of Environmental Science

A. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary (explores different fields of study) pursuit 1. includes natural sciences such as biology, ecology, chemistry, geology. 2. includes social sciences such as ethics, history, anthropology and economics 3. example- ban on leaded gasoline. Explain. lead-> can harm people, but expensive to take out B. People vary in their perception of environmental problems - 1. May depend on age, gender, education, location 2. Ex: DDT (intent of saving people, killing mosquitoes), known to be highly toxic and banned in developed nations However, it may be welcomes by those plagued by malaria in the developing world. C. Environmental science is not the same as environmentalism 1. As a science, environmental science tries to remain objective, studying all aspects of a problem and drawing conclusions based on the data 2. Environmentalism is a movement that works to protect the natural world. Often, environmentalists use the data provided by environmental science D. The science behind the story: The lesson of easter Island (overuse of wood and other resources to build moai and make canoes)

II Climate Change

A. Evidence of a Warming Earth 1. global warming vs global climate change 2. Rising Temperatures 2016 was the warmest year on record 3. Changes in Precipitation more severe storms, more extreme drought, overall eastern NA and SA getting more precipitation 4. Melting Ice Glacier National Park Antarctica's Larsen Ice Shelf 5. Rising Sea Levels Sea Ice vs Land Based Ice Effect of Temperature ( remember the Bill Nye demo) B. Studying Climate Change 1. Direct Measurement of Present Conditions 2. Proxy Indicators a. Ice Cores (data), see pages 508-509 b. Sediments c. Tree Rings 3. Models: Predicting the Future a. climate models b. Testing models for accuracy C. Finding the Cause of Climate Change 1. Charles Keeling 1958 2. Increase in Greenhouse Gases a. CO2 was 315 ppm in 1958; it is now 3. Burning Fossil Fuels 4. Changes in Use of Land

I. Our Island, Earth

A. Our environment is the sum total of our surroundings environment- something we see very day 1. So- what is really included in the term environment? -things that are natural, not man-made B. Environmental science explores interactions between humans and the world around us 1. Our actions affect the environment -for ex: polluting the river, overuse of fish, hunting animals, pollution and factories, polluting the air and water ex: cutting down trees-> paper, building materials -renewable resources 2. What is environmental science? -"the study of how the world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment." (withgott pg. 3) C. Natural resources are vital to out survival 1. Earth is an island. Really? What does this mean? Why is this important? -just surrounded by space, this is it, there's nothing else besides it -this is all we have, this is where we get our natural resources 2. Natural resources are renewable or nonrenewable. Explain. nonrenewable- once you use it, you can't get more ex: crude oil-> gasoline, jet fuel, gold -stuff that's mined: fossil fuels, coal, uranium (nuclear power plants-> electricity) renewable- when overused it can become non renewable ex: wood-> grow more trees, seeds, bamboo -------I------------------I----------------I------ renewable -trees, nonrenewable (perpetual, forever) fresh water -fossil fuels -sunlight, wind, soil (oil, coal) wave energy, -minerals/elements tidal energy spectrum^ not either/or D. Human population growth has shaped our resource use -more people use more stuff (ex: more houses) -finite resources 1. more people use more resources 2. People live longer and have better medical care 3. Agricultural Revolution- farming innovations and more food, steadier food supply-> population increase 4. Industrial Revolution - more goods could be produced and faster -human population goes up quickly Environmentalism vs. environmental science -ozone "hole"- thinner area in the atmosphere E. Resource consumption exerts social and environmental impacts 1. Garett Hardin- "tragedy of the commons"= overusing resources, learn to conserve, we use too much -tragedy= something with bad effects -pollution, soil depletion, over fishing -everybody abuses the resources 2. Explain the public pasture example given in the text-> overgrazing on the public pastures (where animals graze), no grass and bad soil, plow vs. horses -pasture= open field, public fields= commons, *common* field -animals die, go to other places with the herds 3. Explain the lobsters fishery example. What should they do? (lobsters- small amount of babies survive) fishery (place to go fish) -limits on fishing- the fish have to be a certain size (ex: limits on hunting) too small: put them back so they can grow up, how many you can catch -lobster- don't care about their babies, only 12 survive -lobsters ($$), lobster traps= catching many lobsters ex: oyster bay, oyster farming 4. The ecological footprint- impact of your lifestyle on the environment (how many earths support your lifestyle

III. Sustainability and the Future of Our World

A. Population and consumption drive environmental impact 1. The human population is increasing rapidly- > 200,000 people per day 2. We are over 7 billion 3. Ecological footprints vary between nations-in some, resource use is even outstripping population growth -releasing greenhouse gases B. We face challenged in agriculture, pollution and biodiversity. 1. More people need more food 2. Greater food production means more land and increased use of synthetic fertilizers 3. it also means more pollution for farms, factories, homes. 4. Increased pollution of air, land, water will affect people and all other organisms 5. Increased release of greenhouse gases has already led to climate change 6. All of this is already decreasing biodiversity D. Fortunately, sustainable solutions abound (abundance- a lot, abound- a lot of them) -make things sustainable= keep it for a long time E. Are we getting better or worse? F. Sustainability is a goal for the future 1. We need to think about the future and live within the means of our planet 2. There need to be resources left for the future G. Sustainable development involves environmental protection, economic welfare, and social equity (justice-> fair to all people or race, religion, poor and rich people)-> good for environment, economy and the people 1. What is sustainable development? (economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources.) 2. Sustainable development is not an oxymoron 3.Triple bottom line- considers the environment, the economy and the needs of society 1. -development- progress, roads, building, power plants -sustainable- taking into account the economy, environment -ex: low income housing -> wealthy neighborhood-> keep out 3. considers the three things-> environment, economy and needs (are we being equal?) Bottom Line-> money $ 3 p's= planet, profit, people centrism= caring about, center of your view 4.Anthro (human, people) pocentrism, bio (life, living things, plants) centrism and eco (everything, world) centrism

Costs and benefits of coal

Coal is cheap, costing about $33.72 per short ton with a $5.37 per short ton transportation cost. Some benefits of coal are that we have a lot of it (but its not renewable), can be converted into gas, and can be burned 24/7 to make energy. The gas made during refinement can also be used as energy for heat while coal by-products can be used to make synthetic materials like tar, fertilizers and plastics

IV. Responding to Climate Change

A. Use and Production of Energy 1. Adaptation vs Mitigation Generating electricity is the largest source of GHG in the US 2. Efficiency and Conservation a. efficiency ex: Energy Star program ex: light bulbs- incandescent vs CFL vs LED b. conservation Use less electricity by..... 3. Alternative sources of Energy ex: nuclear, solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal B. Transportation 1. Vehicle technology a. in a typical car, only 14-15% of the energy in the fuel is used for motion b. demand for greater fuel efficiency c. hybrids, electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell technology, compressed natural gas. 2. Drive less a. use more public transportation b. bike c. walk C. Other Approaches to Reducing Greenhouse Gases 1. Agriculture and Forestry a. conserve soil- holds more carbon b. plant more trees c. change farming practices to reduce GHG - think about monoculture and CAFOs 2. Cap-and-Trade a. limits to GHG emissions per company b. company can sell left over units 3. Carbon Tax a. fee for each unit of pollution b. common in EU c. downside-fees are passed on to consumers 4. Carbon Offsets a. pay organization that engages in some carbon reduction activity like planting trees or building wind farms b. ex- plane travel 5. Carbon Sequestration D. Cooperation Among Nations 1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC)- 1992 2. Kyoto Protocol a. binding- reduce emissions below 1990 levels b. took effect 2005 c. US didn't sign 3. Copenhagen Accord- 2009 4. Paris Climate Agreement -2016 a. As of March, 2017, 140 signatories b. key goals: i. keep warming well below 2oC ( 3.6oF), preferably no more than 1.5oC. ( we are already up about 1oC) ii. reduce emissions by 2050ish to levels that can be easily absorbed by forests and oceans (Zero net emissions) iii. Countries set own emission goals to be reviewed after four years

Costs and benefits of new coal technology

Clean Coal can be very expensive because of the cost of carbon capture, but costs aren't completely known yet. The technology for clean coal works, but the cost that it could create would outweigh the benefits.

oil sands

Deposits of moist sand and clay containing bitumen (thick, heavy petroleum, rich in carbon)

latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

5.4 Community Stability

Ecological Disturbances: -A community in equilibrium is generally stable and balanced with most populations at or around carrying capacity -Disturbances or changes in the environment can throw a community into disequilibrium -severe disturbances can cause permanent changes to a community and initiate a predictable series of changes called succession Primary succession: -occurs when there are no traces of the original community remaining, including vegetation and soil -bare expanse of rock, sand, or sediment is exposed for the first time -pioneer species, such as lichens, are the first to colonize -the environment changes as species move in, adding new nutrients and generating habitats Secondary Succession -occurs when a disturbance dramatically alters a community but does not completely destroy it -at least the soil from the previous ecosystem remains -commons after disturbances such as fire, logging or farming -occurs significantly faster than primary succession Succession in water: 1. algae and other organisms add nutrients to the lake. Nutrients support more plant growth. 2. soil, fallen, decaying matter pileup upon the bottom of the lake, it becomes shallower and marshy 3. the lake fills in creating a grassy meadow -primary aquatic succession cocues when an area fills with water for the 1st time -disturbances such as floods or excess nutrient runoff can lead to secondary aquatic succession Climax communities: -ecologists once thought succession leads to stable "climax" communities -stable community that completes the succession process -today, ecologists see communities as temporary, ever-changing associations of species -communities are influenced by many factors and constant disturbances Invasive Species: -non-native organisms that spread widely in a community -A lack of limiting factors such as predators, parasites, or competitors enables their population to grow unchecked

Savanna

General Characteristics: -rolling grassland -scattered with shrubs and trees -between a tropical rainforest and desert biome -tropical grasslands -where: Africa, Australia, America, India Food web: zebras, hyenas, cheetahs, elephants, vultures Keystone species: elephants -eat trees and shrubs -knock the trees down -not a forest Invasive species: -plant species -degradation -displacement of native plants -reduce wildlife habitat quality -fires Climate change: -strongly affected -changing rainfall patterns -increased dry periods, decreasing annual rainfall Endangered species: African Elephants -support the WWF Human effects: -industrializing, takes the grasslands

Tropical Rainforest

General Information: Temp: 70-85 degrees Climate: warm all the time Locations: Central and South America, southeast asia, west africa, tropical regions weather: rains more than any biome -96.6 feet a year There are 3 parts: -the understory, producers= fruits, plants (bananas) -animals=monkeys, vampire bats, frogs, pythons plants-> there is little wind to spread pollen Keystone species-> hummingbird, pollen to flowers -bananas and cocoa Invasive species: -umbrella tree-> fast growing, large -agressive colonizer ---- -timber -effects on the ecosystem endangered species: -Organgutans: -10% of females lost -could lead to extinction Climate Change and Human Effect: -rise in global temperature -producer fruit and flowers -changes in weather patterns, rainfall distribution -transformation over time -palm oil, deforestation -grow crops

How is coal formed?

Heat and pressure transforms buried sediments into peat at low pressure and other forms of coal at high pressure (Peat is brown soil that comes from vegetable matter and is used for fuel and gardening)

In-Between Resource

Resource that replenishes over time (if not overused) ex: fresh water, forest products, agricultural crops and soil

greenhouse gas

a gas that traps heat near Earth, preventing the heat from radiating back into space; includes carbon dioxide and methane

Taiga (Boreal Forest)

The boreal forest or taiga goes across much of Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia and Russia The taiga develops in cooler and drier regions They experience long, cold winters and short, cool summers The soil is nutrient poor and acidic Diversity of species is low Coniferous trees adapted well There is moderate precipitation Animals include moose, wolves, bears, burrowing rodents, and lynx They have thick insulation to avoid losing heat Some insect-eating birds migrate during the summertime Food Web: Producers: grass, trees, berries, mosses Primary consumers: porcupine, moose, squirrel, deer Secondary consumers: fox, ermine, wolverine, bear Tertiary consumers: fox, great horned owl, snowy owl, arctic fox, bear Decomposers: fungi Keystone Species: A keystone species in the taiga is the Scots Pine tree. Many animals depend on the tree for a place to grow and as a habitat. The Scots Pine are also endangered. Invasive Species: There are few invasive species in the boreal forest presently. However, some do pose as a potential future threat. Plants like multiflora rose can become invasive. The Multiflora Rose is a shrub that is native to Japan, Korea and Eastern China. It was introduced to the United States in 1866 as a base for roses to be grown and as a food source for wildlife. It poses a problem for the taiga because it colonizes in forest habitats and is known to be "highly aggressive". It spreads by birds eating the fruit and spreading the seeds and when the roots of the plant spread their roots through the ground. To help, individual plants can be dug or hand pulled to avoid resprouting Herbicides can be used to get rid of large populations Endangered Species: They are highly sensitive to anything that upsets their environment The biggest threat for them is climate change because it could mean less snow which they are dependent on for food and reproduction Logging and man made roads have cut into their habitat since they need large habitats Once a population decreases, it is hard for the species to recover Trapping and hunting for their fur has caused their decline However, in places like Québéc, a ban has been placed on hunting or trapping them To help them along with laws that prevent hunting, they should also be bred in captivity How climate change will affect the ecosystem: Global warming may cause an increase in forest fires in the boreal forest Climate change is increasing the strength and frequency of fires, causing the natural regeneration process to lose its balance Climate change will cause an increase in deciduous trees This is happening in the Siberian dark taiga Many boreal forests are expected to get warmer or change to grassland or shrubland Human effects Currently, about two-thirds of the area that is covered by boreal forest is under management that is mostly wood production Industrial development is increasing in the forest Logging for lumber and the production of biofuel are two examples Canadian boreal forests have the highest rate of deforestation Air, water and soil pollution causes more climate change

New technologies behind Coal

The development of "clean coal" which seeks to reduce the effect coal has on the environment by cleaning coal and contain its emissions. This can involve washing the coal, removing sulfur dioxide, reducing emissions using nitrogen oxide burners or using gasification to avoid burning the coal completely. The emissions that are created get the CO2 taken out of them which is then stored either in the ocean or the ground of the Earth.

Tundra

Winters in the tundra are cold and dark whereas the summers are mild and bright. The land in the tundra is not suitable for plant growth. Majority of plants are mosses and lichens located near the ground. Average temperature is around -30 degrees Fahrenheit The soil is frozen underground throughout the year and this is known as permafrost. Examples of animals in the tundra: Polar bears, arctic foxes, snowy hares and snow owls. -The tundra is located in the arctic and at mountain tops at high altitudes. Specifically, Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Greenland, Iceland, and Antarctica Producer: Phytoplankton Primary Consumer: Herbivorous Zooplankton Secondary Consumers: Arctic Cod Carnivorous Zooplankton Tertiary Consumers: Arctic Birds Harbour Seal Capelin Arctic Cod RInged Seal Quaternary Consumers: Harbour Seal Polar Bear The Harbour seal is an example of a keystone species in this food web because: The harbour seal is a food source for the polar bear and without it, the polar bear will have to eat more ringed seal. Without the harbour seal, there will be an increase in capelin which would cause a decrease in the carnivorous zooplankton population since they are the prey of the capelin. There will be a decrease in the killer whale and harp seal populations since killer whales and harp seals rely on harbour seals as a food source. Invasive species: Ships are bringing different kinds of invasive species to the tundra. Examples: the club sea-squirt, Japanese ghost shrimp and the European green crab (theecologist). Originally from Northern Europe, the European green crab is one of the "ten most unwanted species in the world" (Fisheries and Oceans Canada) These crabs compete with native crabs and eat native shellfish and plankton (newsdeeply). Also introduce parasites and destroy the eelgrass beds that are needed by young fish (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). Fisheries and Oceans Canada have been working with universities and organizations to trap and remove the crabs from the affected areas. They are researching the crabs in order to further understand how they are responding to the different conditions. Fisherman have been given permits to kill any European green crabs that they come across in order to help decrease their population size. As a result, the native species were able to return to their territories. How is climate change affecting the tundra? Because of climate change, the tundra will become suitable for trees and vegetation by 2050 (livescience). Temperatures will increase since sunlight will not be reflected into the atmosphere due to less snow and warmer temperatures (livescience). Alaska's Kluane National Park is deeply affected by climate change. The rivers and lakes are decreasing in size New invasive plants are growing Some animal populations are declining in size Native species may feel the need to emigrate and new species are able to immigrate due to the warmer temperatures Due to climate change and industrialization, polar bears have been added to the list of endangered species. Because the ice is melting, polar bears can no longer hunt for seals, their main source of food, and this causes them to starve. In addition, unsustainable hunting remains a problem. People are illegally killing polar bears and they are not reporting it. Polar bears are also forced back onto the land because of the melting ice and this exposes them to industrialization (e.g. petroleum installations Arctic shipping and other forms of industrialization are expected to increase as well. We need polar bears because they are on top of the food chain and their loss will be detrimental to the marine environment. The loss of the polar bear will indicate that there is no sea ice left (indicator species) and cause a loss in biodiversity. Without sea ice, algae cannot grow and this disrupts the entire food chain. Organizations like the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) are preventing conflicts between people and polar bears. The WWF tracks polar bears as well. The WWF also makes sure that industries in the arctic are sustainable and will not damage ecosystems. A "polar code" to make shipping in the arctic safer is also underway. Human impact: Continued air pollution will cause smog and smog will harm the lichen, a major food source for many species. Oil spills caused by petroleum installations are deadly and will destroy ecosystems. The construction of buildings and roads will melt the permafrost. Invasive species are being brought to the tundra on the bottoms of ships. These invasive species spread diseases and outcompete native species for food. The unauthorized killing of animals, such as polar bears, continues to damage biodiversity and the ecosystem.

global climate change

a change in global weather patterns; includes changes in temperatures, wind patterns, rain fall, and the frequency of storms

heat exhaustion

a condition in which the body cannot control its temperature, and body temperature rapidly rises

petroleum

a dark, liquid fossil fuel made up mostly of hydrocarbons -found in underground deposits

climate model

programs that combine what is known about the atmosphere and oceans to stimulate climate processes

sustainable

resource use is considered sustainable if it can continue at the same rate into the foreseeable future

nonrenewable natural resources

resources that are naturally formed much more slowly than we use them ex: crude oil, natural gas, coal, copper, aluminum and other metals

oil shale

rock filled with a mixture of hydrocarbons (that can be buried directly like coal)

predictions

specific statements about what we would expect to observe if the hypotheses are true

sunspot cycles

the amount of radiation the sun emits over time (11 years)

coral bleaching

the death or expulsion of the algae that live in coral reefs and give the coral its bright color; often caused by a change in water temperature or other conditions

environment

the environment includes all living and nonliving things which organisms interact. -it includes the continents, oceans, clouds and icecaps, and animals, plants, forests, and farms

strip mining

the extraction of a mineral by removing a strip of the layers of soil and rock on top of the mineral deposit

secondary extraction

the extraction of crude oil remaining after primary extraction by using solvents or by flushing underground rocks with water or steam

primary extraction

the initial drilling and pumping of available oil

energy conservation

the limiting of energy use

topography

the shape of the land, the surface characteristics of the area (including its elevation and features such as mountains, rivers, and lakes)

environmental science

the study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment

carbon footprint

the total carbon dioxide emissions produced by an individual, group or location

independent variable

the variable a scientist manipulates ("I"- i did it)

subsurface mining

typically the practice of digging shafts deep into the ground to find and remove a mineral

modeling

what scientists use to generate predictions when they cannot observe a phenomenon directly

global warming

wind patterns, rainfall, an increase in earth's average surface temperature