epistemology test 1

13. What is Aristotle's four causes? Clarify what question each cause explains.

Aristotle's four causes are formal (What is it?), material (what's it made of?), efficient (how did it come into being), and final (what is its purpose?).

17. In what sense is Aristotle's theory of knowledge "triadic"? Explain.

Aristotle's theory of knowledge is triadic because it is identifying three levels of knowledge which are in language, in thought, and in reality. All three of these levels build upon each other to help grasp universal principles.

14. What does "empiricism" hold about knowledge? What is the difference between "radical empiricism" and "moderate empiricism".

Empiricism holds that knowledge comes from sensory experiences. The difference between the two are that radical empiricism argues that all knowledge must come solely from sensory experiences, while moderate recognizes the role of reason and reflection.

15. Explain two main differences between "epistemological idealism" (such as Plato's) and "epistemological realism" (such as Aristotle's) as it relates to our knowledge of "reality."

Epistemological idealism holds that reality is a product of the mind, while epistemological realism holds that reality exists independently of the mind. Idealism emphasizes the role of reason in constructing knowledge, while realism emphasizes role of observation and experience.

12. Identify and briefly explain two of Aristotle's critiques of Plato's theory of the Forms as eternal Ideas.

One of the critiques that Aristotle has is how do forms exist on their own if ideas are mental beings. Since they are mental beings, forms would need a mind to exist. Another critique is that a universal idea is not what it signifies. For example, the idea of "hot" is not itself perfectly hot.

11. At the end of the Meno, Plato distinguishes between correct opinion and knowledge. Explain the main differences between the two.

Plato distinguishes between the two by saying that correct opinion is based on belief, while knowledge is based on understanding. Correct opinion is unstable and can change easily, while knowledge is stable and enduring.

5. Explain Protagoras's argument for relativism.

Protagoras's argument about relativism starts with perceptions are what we experience, so all perceptions must be correct, which leads to all judgements are based on perceptions. Therefore, all of this leads to him saying that all judgements are correct, and that truth is relative to the individual.

7. How do scholars generally distinguish between which ideas and ways of doing philosophy are Socrates's and which ones are Plato's? What are the main differences between the two types of dialogues?

Socrates's ideas and ways of philosophy were not theories of his own, while Plato used his own theories. The main difference between the two types of dialogue is that the dialogue begins with an idea, Socrates claims ignorance, an expert claim to know, and then Socrates cross-examines.

19. Explain the difference between telling the truth and thinking the truth. How are both involved in Aristotle's overall understanding of truth?

Telling the truth is saying what you think, while thinking the truth is an agreement between what one thinks and who one is thinking about. Both are involved because they are both necessary for a truth to be considered true in Aristotle's philosophy.

10. Explain Meno's Paradox. How does Plato's theory of recollection try to resolve the paradox?

The Meno's Paradox is that one can't learn something new because one already knows it or one does not know it, so you don't know what to look for. The theory of recollection tries to resolve this paradox by stating the human soul is immortal, so it has access to immortal idea. These ideas are forgotten at birth therefore, learning is a process of recollecting.

4. Who were the Sophists and what did they hold regarding knowledge?

The Sophists were traveling teachers who taught the art of persuasion through speech. They held that knowledge was both relative and subjective, and that there was no universal truth.

8. Although Plato's Meno does not resolve the question: "what is virtue," what are two aspects that are learned through attempting to define virtue that have epistemological significance?

The first aspect we learned was how important it is to question one another to arrive at knowledge. The second aspect that we learned is that knowledge is not learned or discovered, but it is recollected.

6. What are two critiques of Protagoras's theory of relativism? Explain each one.

The first critique of Protagoras's theory asks the question: does just thinking about something make it true? For example, could you say 2+2=5 and be correct? Another critique of the theory is that if all beliefs are true, how can one belief be better than another, which undermines the Sophists' goal of persuasion.

18. Explain the law of non-contradiction.

The law of non-contradiction states that something can not be true and false at the same time. It is so obvious that it is self-evident and undeniable. For example, a desk can not be in a room and not in a room at the same time in the same sense.

2. What are the main metaphysical and epistemological assumptions of the Presocratic philosophers that represent a shift in how human beings view and understand the world?

The main metaphysical assumption is that the cosmos is inherently ordered and intelligible. The main epistemological assumption is that humans are intelligent, and they can grasp intelligible structure of nature.

3. Explain the main problems of knowledge that arise in relation to the problem of Being and becoming (theories of Heraclitus and Parmenides)?

The main problem for Heraclitus is that if knowing means to know what is being, but everything is always changing, then how can we know anything. The main problem for Parmenides is if everything is one, then we can't distinguish or know anything else apart from the one.

1. What are the basic epistemological questions, and what is the main problem that results from them?

The three basic epistemological questions are: what do we know, how do we know, and do we know. The main problem here is that all three of these questions are intertwined, so you can't really start with any one of them to get to the answers to the other questions.

16. What are the three classes or kinds of knowledge for Aristotle, and what distinguishes each one?

The three classes of knowledge are productive, practical, and theoretical. Productive is knowing how to make things, practical is knowing what to do, and theoretical is knowing what something is.

9. What is perplexity for Plato, and why is it so important for his theory of knowledge?

To Plato, perplexity was a positive thing for Plato. It was important for his theory of knowledge because to learn, we must first be perplexed and admit ignorance. He also says that knowledge requires humility and honesty.