ESSE Content Exam Study Guide (ILTS)

Population Density

the number of organisms per unit of volume or area

Principle of Fossil Succession

the observation that certain assemblages, or groups, of animals and plants have lived during certain time periods over geologic history

Incomplete Dominance

the phenotype of the heterozygous is intermediate between those of the homozygotes

Environmental Ethics

the philosophical discipline that considers the moral and ethical relations of human beings to the environment o Helps define the man's moral and ethical obligations toward the environment o Human values: the things that are important to individuals that they then use to evaluate actions or events o Topics include water and air pollution, depletion natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems, and global climate change

Voltage

the potential of a group of charged particles to do work in an electric circuit o Electrons at a higher voltage will light a light bulb more brightly or spin a motor faster than will electrons at a lower voltage o Batteries are the most common types of voltage sources in our day-to-day lives ▪ A battery uses chemical reactions to generate voltage ▪ Every battery consists of two electrodes made of different metals and an electrolyte solution that aids the chemical reactions ▪ Positive end of the battery = cathode ▪ Negative end of the battery = anode o Electromagnetic induction: the ability of a changing magnetic field to exert a force on charged particles o Generators are responsible for nearly all of the energy that comes to your house ▪ Nuclear, coal, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind power are a few examples as to how electricity is generated o Photovoltaic solar panels convert light energy from the sun through a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect o Thermoelectric generators convert heat energy directly into electrical energy o Piezoelectrics generate very small voltage when squeezed o Hydrogen fuel cells convert chemical energy and can keep generating as long as hydrogen and water are fed in

Sustainable Forestry

the practice of regulating the forest resources to meet the needs of society and industry while preserving the forest's health o Trees and forests have environmental benefits: trees capture and store carbon dioxide, forests play a key role in the water cycle, tree roots father water from the ground and release it into the air as water vapor o Selective logging: the practice of removing certain trees while preserving the balance of the woodland --> planting more trees and giving them time to mature before harvesting while expanding the land area of trees

Pollution

the presence of a pollutant in the environment and is often the result of human actions o Physical pollution: the introduction of discarded materials into the environment ▪ Sent to landfills → designated areas for trash disposal in which the waste is dumped and then covered by soil o Chemical pollution: introduction of chemicals into the environment ▪ Pesticides used to control insects and fertilizers used to make soil more fertile contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals ▪ Can contaminate and run off into bodies of water where they can deplete oxygen levels o Biological pollution: introduction of living organisms, which grow and become invasive, into the environment ▪ Begin to eliminate native species

Ecological Succession

the process by which the species structure of an ecological community changes over time • Primary succession: begins in an area where the soil has not yet formed o First organisms that colonize the new habitat and make up the pioneer community are mostly lichens and mosses o Climax community: the community that can be stably maintained after ecological succession is completed • Secondary succession: begins after an event clears the community but lives the soil intact o Chaparral ecosystem —> a type of ecosystem characterized by dense, evergreen shrubs, mild and rainy winters, and hot and dry summers ▪ Truly a biome

Acceleration

the rate at which an object changes its velocity o Vector quantity o A = (vf - vi) / (tf - ti) o Units for acceleration are distance/time^2 → m/sec^2

Clouds

tiny drops of water or ice that form in the atmosphere ▪ Fog: clouds forming near the ground ▪ Often form as warm, moist air rises and cools ▪ The larger the temperature difference between the two air masses, the stronger the the wind and lightning forms

Recessive Trait

trait not expressed in a heterozygous state ex. aa

Parallel Circuit

multiple paths for the electrons to pass through the resistances

Deposition

where sediment and other broken-down parts of rocks accumulate to create landforms

Limiting Reactant

reactant that is used up first

Deconstructive Interference

when the crest or trough of two interfering waves meet, one amplitude subtracts from the other

Domains (3)

▪ Archae: Archaebacteria ▪ Bacteria: Eubacteria ▪ Eukarya: Protists, Fungi, Plants, and Animals

5 Factors that Determine Weather

1. Temperature 2. Air Pressure 3. Humidity 4. Cloudiness 5. Wind

Advantages & Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

Advantages: o Abundant and accessible o Provide a large amount of concentrated energy for a relatively low cost o Allows power plants to be fueled by them → creating electricity o Oil can be transported through pipes → relatively easy to transport Disadvantage: o Produce carbon dioxide when burned → leading factor in global climate change o Coal is problematic because it produces pollution → the release of pollutants into the atmosphere that fall back to Earth as precipitation (acid rain) o Oil must be transported once obtained → oil spills can damage fragile marine environments and pollute the ocean o Nonrenewable resource = once the fuel is burned for energy, it cannot be replaced during our lifetime

Tidal Energy Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages: o An inexhaustible energy source —> as long as the moon orbits the earth o Predictable energy source —> uniform and reliable o Clean energy source —> cheap after the initial investment is paid off ▪ Tidal energy has a high energy density, meaning that the tides store a larger amount of energy than most other forms of renewable energy, such as wind Disadvantages: o High upfront costs —> one study noted ocean power generation can cost more than $400 MWH compared to other renewable energy sources at $150 MWH o Limited suitable locations for tidal energy —> a suitable location must have sizable ties to justify the cost of constructing a power plant —> Environmentalists are concerned that tidal energy can be detrimental to marine life —> disrupting the movements and migration of fish and other marine life in the oceans + killed by turbines o Intermittent energy source —> only occurs twice a day for high tides therefore, a reliable storage system is necessary o Difficult to transport tidal energy —> often located far from the communities that will be consuming the energy + vulnerable to severe weather

Geothermal Energy Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages: ▪ Renewable energy —> appears on the water cycle ▪ Clean energy —> no burning or requirement of minerals, metals, etc. ▪ Easy on Environment —> do not require the clearing of the large areas of land, damming of rivers or mining like other energy sources Disadvantages: ▪ Initial cost from researching appropriate areas, building the power plants, and drilling into the earth ▪ Lack of equipment and qualified staff that adds to initial costs ▪ Location specific —> must be an area with sufficient geothermal activity at the depth that is shallow enough for easy drilling ▪ Reservoirs can run out of steam ▪ Potential danger of hazardous substances being released ▪ Suited for only local energy and heat generation

Denitrification

Bacteria use nitrate as source of oxygen and convert nitrate back into atmospheric nitrogen

Alleles

Different versions of the same gene ex. A & a

IPAT

Environmental Impact + Population + Affluence + Technology o This equation was proposed by two scientists: Ehrlich and Holdren in the early 1970s as a way to calculate the impact of humans on the environment o Ecological Footprint: the measure of the demand for resources required to support a lifestyle o Population: the total number of people o Affluence: the average rate of consumption of individuals within the population o Technology: the energy resources needed to meet the consumption needs

Coulomb's Law

F = k (q1 * q2) / d^2 o The force between between charged particles is affected by the individual charges and the distance between them o The force changes in direct relation to the product of the particle charges and in inverse relation to the distance o A change in distance has more influence on force o The particle charges and stance always work together to affect the force

Stages of Interphase:

Gap 1, S, and Gap 2 ▪ Gap 1: cell growth with protein synthesis at the beginning and preparation for S phase at the end ▪ S: chromosomes of the cell are replicated ▪ Gap 2: preparations for M phase ▪ Coping of the chromosomes that are made during S phase are chromatids

Geothermal Energy

Heat from within the earth that can be used for heating or to generate electricity ▪ If heated water within the earth does not reach the earth's surface, its remains as underground concentrations of hot water and stream = geothermal reservoirs ▪ Geothermal heat pumps: a ground source heat pumps, are systems that use the stable temperature of the earth to heat and cool buildings ▪ Water and other fluids are circulated through the loop of buried pipes —> During the winter, heat from the ground is pulled into the building and circulated through a duct system —> during the summer, the process is reversed

Ohm's Law

I = v/r o Current = I o Voltage = v o Resistance = r • Directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance

Water Cycle

Important and natural cycle of how water changes phase and location on and in Earth o Without the water cycle, all of the rivers, lakes, and oceans would dry up, plants would have no water to drink from the ground, no weather that includes rain or snow to help regulate temperature

Mendel's Second Law

Law of Independent Assortment: alleles of one gene sort into gametes independently of the alleles of another gene

General Wavelength Info.

Light comes in wavelengths from short to long o Visible light is in the middle of the wavelength spectrum o Short wavelengths include gamma rays and X-rays o Longer wavelengths include microwaves and radio waves

Measures of Central Tendencies

Mean, Median, Mode, and Range o Mean: average ▪ Add together all of the numbers in your data set and divide by the number of values in the data set o Median: middle number listed in order from least to greatest o Mode: most popular choice or occurred most often ▪ There can be more than one mode or no mode whatsoever o Range: difference between the highest and lowest values

Carbon Cycle

Pathways that carbon takes through living organisms and the environment o Primary source of usable carbon from plants is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not in the soil —> the main sources of phosphorus and nitrogen cycles are terrestrial plants o Plants take atmospheric carbon dioxide and converts it to high-energy containing carbohydrates from little potential energy ▪ Photosynthesis: autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy —> energy can be stored in the carbon bonds of lipids and proteins o Cellular Respiration: oxygen is used to convert organic molecules to carbon dioxide and water and provide energy for the cell • Carbon stored as buried organic material may eventually be turned into fossil fuels

Cyclones

Refers to many different types of storms → all are spinning storms that rotate around a low pressure center o Hurricanes, typhoons, and tornadoes are types of cyclones o The location of each is what makes all unique o Tornadoes = land o Polar cyclones = polar oceans o Tropical cyclones = tropical oceans • Form from a thunderstorm cloud • Mesocyclone = on land • Tropical depression = tropical oceans

Fossil Fuels

The accumulated remains of living organisms that were buried millions of years ago o This organic matter was eventually covered by layers of sand, rock, and mud that later turned into sedimentary rock • Three main fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas • Coal is formed through mainly dead tree and plant matter → swamps and cogs had covered most of the earth and that is where most coal now lies → creating a soupy plant-filled stew = peat o The peat became buried under layers of sediment and water squeezed out with heat and pressure to transform it into carbon-rich substance = coal • Much of the energy of fossil fuels originates from living organisms and the process of photosynthesis

Cells

The basic fundamental unit of life All organisms are composed of cells &: o They contain DNA as a heritable genetic material o They transcribe DNA into RNA and translate RNA into proteins on ribosomes o They can regulate transport across a cell membrane and require chemical energy for some cellular processes

The Big Bang Theory

The current model that describes the early development of the universe established by George Lemaitre o The universe started as a little speck of a hot, super-massive, and super dense ball 13.7 billion years ago → a violent explosion hurled the material within that ball into all directions of space o After expansion and cooling, neutrons, protons, atoms, stars, galaxies, and more began to form o The Milky Way will be swallowed by the neighboring galaxy of Andromeda in three billion years o 100 billion years from now only a few galaxies will survive

Index of Refraction

The difference between the speed of light in a vacuum and the speed of light in a certain medium o Formula = n = c / v —> c = speed of light in a vacuum and v = speed of light in the medium —> ratio of these two speeds always makes a number that is grater than or equal to 1 because light always travels slower through material than in a vacuum • Snell's Law shows how the ratio of the n-values is the inverse of the ratio of the angles —> inverse of the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the inverse ratio of the indices of refraction

Sex Chromosomes

The genotype of the sex chromosomes determines the sex of the individual o Sex-linked trait: a recessive gene that is located on the X chromosome ▪ Recessive trait will preferentially be found in males compared to females o Sex-limited trait: a trait which is only expressed in one of the sexes

Stoichiometry

The measurement of elements → study of chemical quantities consumed or produced in a chemical reaction • Mole: a unit of measurement • Molar mass: one mole of a substance has a mass that is equal to its atomic mass expressed in grams • Mole ratio: ratio of moles of one substance to the moles of another substance in a balanced equation

Hydropower

The power from moving water • Hydroelectric power: the use of moving water to generate electricity o Accounts for 40% of all electricity in the United States to now just around 6 or 7% • Use of the continuous water cycle → constant circulation of the earth's water • Hydro Plants are typically built by or around rivers due utilize the gravity acted on water o Fasting moving water or the use of waterfalls o Facilities where electricity is generated using the energy of moving water

Eutrophication

The process by which a body of water becomes overly enriched by nutrients o Overabundance of nutrients stimulates the rapid growth of algae and aquatic plant life → depletes dissolved oxygen ▪ Dissolved oxygen refers to the amount of oxygen contained in a body of water o When eutrophication occurs, a body of water can undergo explosive growth of algae at or near the surface of the water = algal blooms o Human activities can contribute to excess amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus into water o Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): a measure of the amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water

Earthquakes

The shaking of the ground when rock below Earth's surface breaks, comes in one large burst of energy • Faults are fracture lines along broken rock that move o Movement along faults may not cause an earthquake, but if the movement builds up enough energy the stress causes the rock to reach their breaking point and release that energy as an earthquake o Foreshocks: the energy released and ground shaking before an earthquake o Aftershocks: the energy release and ground shaking after an earthquake o Seismic Activity: the movement of ground, on a machine (seismograph) ▪ Seismograph: a machine that calculates and records seismic waves

Toxicants

Toxic substances in the environment o Found in things like cosmetics, medicines, household cleaners, pesticides, detergents, heavy metals and a number of manufactured chemical products ▪ Carcinogens: cancer causing chemicals ▪ Mutagens: mutation causing chemicals ▪ Teratogens: chemicals that cause harm to unborn babies ▪ Allergens: cause allergic reactions to the immune system ▪ Neurotoxins: chemicals that affect the nervous system ▪ Endocrine disruptors: mimic hormones and cause developmental defects o Tend to be concentrated in water systems → runoff carries toxicants from large areas of land and contaminates surface water and groundwater ▪ Air transports chemicals thousands of miles

Theories of Geological Evolution

Two main theories about the history of Earth o Catastrophism → assumes that these were violent, short-lived, large-scale events ▪ Proposed by Georges Cuvier → influenced by biblical interpretations and believed that all major geologic events are now finished o Uniformitarianism → supports the idea of gradual, long-lived, small-scale events ▪ Proposed by James Hutton → based heavily on scientific observation and assumes that all major geologic processes are still happening today o Both theories acknowledge that the Earth's landscape was formed and shaped by natural events over geologic time

Evolution

a change in a characteristic within a population over time o Theory of Acquired Characteristics: characteristics acquired by an organism during its lifetime can be passed on to its offspring ▪ Also known to be Lamarckism

Punnett Square

a chart that can be used to predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring in a genetic cross o Monohybrid Cross = two heterozygous or mixed origin • P generation = first generation or parent generation • F1 generation = Filial or first offspring • F2 generation = offspring of F1

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally o Polarity: difference in charge in bonds → affects how molecules interact with each other

Polar Covalent Bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared unequally

Dihybrid Cross

a cross between two individuals that are heterozygous at two different loci o Produces a 9:3:3:1 ratio among the four different phenotypes

Friction

a force that restricts motion → any time an object comes in contact with a surface

Index Fossils

a fossil representing a plant or animal that existed for a relatively short duration of time

Law

a general statement about a group of observations that has no exceptions to the rule ▪ Also known as a universal fact

Survivorship Curve

a graph of the number of individuals still alive at each age

Galaxy

a group of stars, dust, and gases held together by gravity

Central Vacuole

a large storage compartment in plant cells ▪ Largely for storing water but can also hold food and waste ▪ Contains digestive enzymes ▪ Help maintain a neutral pH level

Insulator

a material that contains these types of atoms has very few, if any, free electrons and does not transfer electrical energy well

Conductor

a material with many free electrons allows easy transfer of electrical energy

Control

a means of ensuring that only one factor is being tested at a time

Power

a measure of how much energy is used over a period of time o Horsepower = cars o Electrical power = watts ▪ One watt = one joule per second ▪ Electrical power consumed by a device is equal to the current multiplied by the difference between the voltage going out of the device ▪ If the voltage difference isn't known, power can also be calculated by multiplying the current by itself and then multiplying the result by resistance

Voltage

a measure of the amount of work that a group of charged particles will do if allowed to flow in an electric circuit • Charged particles have the potential to do work + packed tightly can create a charge collection o Often referred to as electrical pressure o The amount of voltage is dependent on the tightly packed charged particles of batteries or charge collection o Measured in joules per coulomb or volts

Nucleus

a membrane-bound structure that contains genetic material of a cell o A storage compartment for DNA ▪ Replication = duplication of DNA ▪ Site of transcription = DNA turned into RNA ▪ Surrounded by a nuclear envelope: a double membrane comprised of an outer membrane and an inner membrane ▪ Shields the nucleus and its contents from unwanted guests ▪ Nuclear pores: small openings in the nuclear envelope where the inner and outer membranes come together ▪ Each pore is lined with proteins, creating a nuclear basket on the nuclear side of the membrane ▪ Only large proteins with a specialized amino acid sequence, known as NLS or nuclear localization signal, are allowed into the nucleus through the nuclear pore → with the right signal, will be directed as import proteins that carry NLS-protein ▪ Requiring chemical energy → pore must stretch to accommodate ▪ Chromatin: DNA packaged with the help of specialized proteins ▪ Nuclear Lamina: nucleus protection and organization of the chromatin ▪ Attaches to the nuclear envelope and chromatin to help maintain the shape of the nucleus ▪ Nucleolus: an area of the nucleus that is the starting site of ribosomal synthesis from rRNA and proteins

The Kinetic Molecular Theory

a model used to explain the behavior of matter o Properties of liquids: ▪ Definite volume but indefinite shape ▪ Relatively compressible ▪ Particles have more energy than solids, but less energy than gases ▪ Liquids can flow o Properties of solids: ▪ Definite shape and volume ▪ Very compressible ▪ Particles have relatively little energy ▪ Solid particles vibrate in place ▪ Solids often have crystalline structures o Substance's kinetic energy is related to its phase

Carbon Sink

a natural environment that absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Photon

a nearly massless particles carrying a small amount of energy —> used to quantify, or measure the amount of, the energy in light and other electromagnetic waves

Cytoskeletan

a network of thin fibers o Can provide support and shape for a cell, anchor a cell in one place or allow a cell to move, helps structures move independently within your cells, can position cell structures in specific places within the cell, and move cell structures from one end of the cell to the other o Comprised of three different types of fibers: microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments

Cell Division

a process in which a mother cell divides and gives rise to two new cells ▪ M Phase = Mitosis → the chromosomes are divided in preparation for cytokinesis ▪ Cytokinesis: the process in which the cytoplasmic contents of the cell are divided

Wind

a process of movement of air that occurs due to the uneven heating of the Earth's surface ▪ Different parts of the Earth heat at different rates depending on factors like the amount of water present, snow cover, and vegetation ▪ Wind speed is measured with an anemometer and units of measure is in miles per hour

Photosynthesis

a process that converts energy from sunlight into food in plant cells • Each plant is made of many plant cells performing photosynthesis o Inside each are small structures called chloroplasts → structural sites for photosynthesis

Cell Wall

a protective layer surrounding the cell on the outside of the plasma membrane ▪ Can be up to 800 times thicker than the plasma membrane ▪ Composed largely of cellulose ▪ Cellulose: a polysaccharide sugar that provides strength to the cell wall ▪ Cell wall becomes bigger as the cell itself gets bigger ▪ Purposes are: protection, strength, and shape

Polar Ice Caps

a region of land at the North and South Pole of the planet that is covered with ice o Polar ice caps and glaciers hold more than ¾ of Earth's freshwater and provide feeding and resting platforms for polar bears, seals, and marine birds • Melting of the polar ice caps is caused by the overall increase in global temperature o Sea levels can raise due to melting and become less saline o Provide survivable environments for some organisms and help maintain even temperatures throughout the world

Environmental Sustainability

a responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality

Food Chain

a sequence of organisms that feed on each other • Producer: an organism that gets its energy from an abiotic source • Consumer: an organism that gets its energy from other organisms • Trophic Levels: the levels of a food chain where organisms obtain their energy • Food Web: a combination of food chains that are interconnected to create a network of wedding relationships o Autotrophs: first level of producers • Herbivores: plant-eating animals • Carnivores: animals that only eat other animals • Omnivores: eat both plants and animals • Detritivore: an organism that feeds on waste products or dead organic material

Scientific Method

a set of procedures that scientists follow to gain knowledge about the world • Key elements: o Scientists propose the problem that he or she wants to solve o A well-conceived question usually leads to a hypothesis → a potential answer to the question or a prediction of results o Experiments are ordered investigations that are intended to prove or disprove a hypothesis → scientists make observations during the experiments o Observations are crucial for collecting data → post-experiment and collection of data is in, analysis may begin → involves comparing the results of the experiment to the prediction posed by the hypothesis was correct o Conclusion: a statement of whether the original hypothesis was supported or refuted by the observations gathered ▪ Conclusions sum up the information provided with the analysis • Scientific Method: 1. Question 2. Hypothesis 3. Experiment 4. Observation 5. Analysis 6. Conclusion

Mineral

a solid, inorganic, naturally-formed substance that has a crystalline structure and specific chemical composition

Rock

a solid, inorganic, naturally-formed substance without a particular atomic structure or chemical composition

Photon

a speck of energy that comes from the sun o Many photons band together to form electromagnetic waves

Pollutant

a substance that pollutes the air, water, or land o Describes things in the environment that do not belong o Can be used for undesirable levels of sound or light as well

Solar Flare

a sudden and tremendous eruption in the solar chromosphere o Release tremendous amounts of energy and can disrupt long-distance radio communications on Earth

Sunspot

a temporary dark spot on the photosphere layer of the sun that is caused by magnetic activity

Hurricanes

a tropical spinning storm with wind speeds above 74 mph • Hurricanes develop from tropical winds over the ocean → mostly move vertically and create thunderstorms but can move horizontally and start spinning o Tropical depressions = winds less than 39 mph o Tropical storms = 40 to 73 mph winds o Hurricanes = exceeding 74 mph winds • Water condensation from the air releases heat = providing energy + generally most of the rain o As the air rises, it sucks up surface level air and creates the low pressure eye of the storm • Categories of hurricanes range from Category 1 to 5 → 5 being the strongest category

Specific Gravity

a unitless measure and it is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume water

Natural Selection

agent which determines a differential rate of reproduction

Convection Current

air in the atmosphere cools as it expands, it sinks to fill the space the warm air left behind → circulating warm air to rising and cool air to sinking o Convection currents create wind → horizontally moving air o Pressure Gradient: the pressure difference between two locations o Pressure Gradient Force: the force that actually moves air

Wave-Particle Duality

all matter has properties of both particles and waves

Ecosystem

all organisms and all abiotic factors within a geographic location o Abiotic factors: nonliving environmental factors like climate, elevation, soil type, and sources of water o Habitat: an area that is suitable for a particular organism to live o Niche: the role that an organism plays in its ecosystem ▪ Predator: an organism that hunts and kills other animals for food ▪ Prey: organisms that are being hunted by predators

Population

all organisms in a particular geographic area that belong to the same species

Cell Cycle

all the events that can occur during the lifetime of a cell o Two different states: dividing and not dividing ▪ Dividing = cell division ▪ Not dividing = interphase

Mendel's First Law

all traits are associated with heterozygous or homozygous genes → genes are associated with a specific chromosome → alleles sort independently during meiosis

Virus

an acellular, parasitic particle consisting of protein and nucleic acid o "Acellular" refers to the fact that viruses are not made of cells o Cannot reproduce on their own o Bacteriophage: a virus that infects bacteria ▪ Will infect a specific strain or species of bacteria but will not infect any other organism infections → can recognize and kill human bacterial infections without destroying our own cells ▪ All viruses are surrounded by a capsid or viral envelope made of proteins ▪ Can be made from different types of proteins and it can come in all different shapes, increasing the variety of these viruses ▪ All viruses target a specific protein or carbohydrates on the surface of the bacterial host cell wall that it is able to infect ▪ Contain nucleic acid within this capsid ▪ Tail fibers → aid in injecting the viral nucleic acid into the bacterial cell ▪ Recognizes a specific host and attaches to the bacterial cell wall

Probability

an event occurring is a ration that states the likelihood of an event happening o Use the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes over the number of total outcomes

Global Warming

an increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere near its surface, either from natural or human causes, they may result in a change in global climate patterns

Singularity

an infinitely small, hot area of infinite pressure and density o Defy our laws of physics because they did not appear in space → space began inside them o Nothing existed before the singularity → no space, time, matter, or energy

Hydrogen Bond

an intermolecular force between a hydrogen atom in one polar molecule and a small and very electronegative atom of another polar molecule ▪ Bonds occur when a hydrogen in one molecule is chemically bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as O, N, or F

Phenotype

an observable characteristic of the organism determined by the genotype

Experiment

an ordered investigation that attempts to prove or disprove a hypothesis ▪ Rule #1: experiment must show that a hypothesis is supported or not supported ▪ Rule #2: results of an experiment must be measurable and objective ▪ Rule #3: experiment must be repeatable by other scientists

Landform

any natural surface feature of the earth o Mountains, hills, valleys, canyons, and alike

Matter

anything that has mass and volume o Physical properties can be determined without changing what it's made of o Chemical properties can only be determined by changing its composition ▪ Mixtures and pure substances are two types of matter ▪ Mixtures are made of two or more substances that are physically mixed and can easily separated without changing what the substance is made of ▪ Pure substances can be further divided into elements and compounds ▪ Elements only consist of one type of atom ▪ You can chemically combine two different elements = compound

Estuaries

areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the sea o Enriched with nutrients washed downstream by the rivers, which makes them very productive ecosystems and active breeding grounds for many types of fish, shrimp, and other aquatic animals o Gateway to freshwater breeding grounds of still other marine animals such as salmon o Popular sites for human development and are where pollutants dumped upstream end up

Moraine

as the temperature of the ice increases and begins to melt it, the rock debris that is left behind from the glacier

Prokaryotic Cells

do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle (no mitochondria) ▪ Include two groups: bacteria and archaea ▪ Have a smaller, circular DNA genome → don't need a nucleus ▪ DNA is housed in the nucleoid → no membranes, no a separated compartment, or a structure at all, but rather an area

Lytic Cycle

bacteriophage will replicate and cause the bacterial cell to burst, or lyse, to release newly assembled phage → after injection, a phage will direct degradation of host DNA → bacteriophage will completely take over the cell machinery to replicate its nucleic acid, transcribe viral RNA and translate viral proteins → release of the viruses by lysing the bacterial wall so that the new viruses can go on to infect more hosts

Atom

basic unit of matter o Made up of three smaller parts = subatomic particles ▪ Proton = has a mass of one and a positive charge ▪ Neutron = has a mass of one and a neutral charge ▪ Atomic nucleus = center of the atom ▪ Electron = has a negligible mass and a negative charge ▪ Surround the atomic nucleus as an electron cloud o Atomic Number: number of protons, gives the atom its identity o Element: a pure substance that consists of only one type of atom

Solar nebular hypothesis

belief that all structures of the universe began as small fluctuations or changes in the density in small areas of the universe o States that the solar system began as a cloud of interstellar dust and gas, known as a nebula, that started to spin and condense into a solar system ▪ Small changes in density attracted gas and dark matter ▪ Dark matter: matter that makes up a majority of the universe, but is something we cannot see o Proto-galaxies = first galaxies by attraction of matter

Codominance

both alleles are dominant o Mixture of the two alleles are present in the phenotype

Carbon Cycle

carbon cycling through the global environment o Carbon in the atmosphere is about 0.038% carbon dioxide and can be removed by: ▪ Photosynthesis —> where plants take in CO2, water, and sunlight to create sugars for energy, and oxygen emerges as a by-product ▪ Released back into the atmosphere through respiration —> where organisms use oxygen to generate energy from nutrients and produce carbon dioxide as waste ▪ Released by combustion —> the process of burning something ▪ Fossil fuels can be produced if carbon is forced into the ground over long periods of time ▪ Marine plants can utilize photosynthesis ▪ Marine organisms can take up dissolved Carbon molecules and use that along with calcium in the seawater to make calcium carbonate —> major component of shells and skeletons of marine organisms ▪ Becomes limestone rock —> the largest storage reservoir of carbon on the earth

Ribosome

cell structure that performs translation or protein synthesis o Composed of rRNA and proteins within the cytoplasm until they receive an mRNA message to translate ▪ Can be free roaming or be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum o Translation → protein synthesis by creating a chain of amino acids linked together by polypeptide bonds o Composed of two different subunits: large and small → both are composed of rRNA and protein ▪ Exist separately in the cytoplasm until the small unit recognizes and binds to a specific sequence of an mRNA message and combines with a large to form a complete ribosome ▪ Structures allows the mRNA message to be translated by holding the mRNA and tRNA molecules in the right place at the right time ▪ Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid ▪ Responsible for matching the correct tRNA with the mRNA sequence ▪ There are A, P, and E sites ▪ A = amino acid site ▪ P = polypeptide site ▪ E = exit site

Pedigree

charts of family histories that show the phenotypes and family relationships of the individuals using symbols to represent different family members o Squares = males o Circles = females o Filled in = genetic conditions o Proband: the first affected family member that seeks medical attention • Carrier: an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele and does not exhibit the trait

Autosomes

chromosomes in the genome that are not sex chromosomes

Radio Telescopes

collect long-wavelength light to investigate diverse things o Usually large, dish-type antennas o Built far away to avoid interference from radio and TV

X-Ray and Gamma Ray telescopes

collect their light in shorter wavelengths o X-Ray telescopes help astronomers study the sun, supernova, and other stars o Gamma Ray telescopes help astronomers study supernovas, pulsars, and black holes

Taiga

commonly known as coniferous forests or a forest composed of evergreen conifers o Support an extremely large biomass, most of which is in massive trees o Support large populations of many species of insects, spiders, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals o These forest are just about the only places where bears are still abundant in California o Between the elevations of 3,000 to 8,000 feet in the Sierra, the forests include species like ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and giant sequoias —> the most massive organisms on Earth and are only found on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range

Microfilaments

composed of actin protein ▪ Function to keep cell shape ▪ Play a crucial role in muscle cell contraction → essential to the ability of your skeleton and muscle systems to work together

Eukaryotic Cells

contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus ▪ Can be single or multi-celled

Igneous Rocks

crystalline solids that form directly from cooling magma ▪ Magma is molten rock made by the partial melting of rocks in the earth's interior under conditions of high temperature and high pressure → magma reaches the earth's surface to be called lava → flows are quiet, but can be violent ▪ Extrusive or Volcanic rock are formed at the surface of the earth → named after the fire god, Vulcan ▪ Intrusive or Plutonic rocks are formed before it reaches the surface → named after the god of the lower world, Pluto

Deforestation

cutting down or clearing of trees from a wooded area o Trees are cut down for the usage as fuel or timber for carpentry or building o Trees and forests act as a carbon sink → absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis o Harmful effects of deforestation → soil erosion is more likely to occur or the washing away of soil during wet / rain periods o Tree roots absorb water from the ground and return water vapor back to the atmosphere

Tornadoes

dangerous spinning funnel clouds that form from thunderstorm clouds o Great Plains is known to be Tornado Valley o Classify tornadoes by damage dealt → The Enhanced Fujita Scale classifies tornadoes as EF0 to EF5 → Zero being the weakest and 5 being the strongest ▪ It includes wind speeds in classification

Chaparral

dense, evergreen, and drought-resistant shrubs

Genotype

describes the DNA sequence associated with a locus o Locus: a specific location on a chromosome o Can refer to a specific physical location on the chromosome that's not associated with the gene

Photoelectric Effect

describes the way electrons are excited and emitted from matter when they absorb the energy from light

Convergent Boundaries

destructive boundary → where two plates are moving towards each other and colliding o The pressure and friction is great enough at these boundaries that the material in the Earth's mantle can melt and both earthquakes and volcanoes can occur o Subduction = two plates meet, one goes down and the other stays above ▪ Subduction zone is the area where two plates are sandwiched on top of each other ▪ These kinds of plates are: oceanic and continental ▪ Oceanic = made mostly of basalt and other mafic rocks ▪ Continental = made of granite and other felsic rocks o Two oceanic plates colliding can form ocean trenches and/or volcanoes → the volcanoes can lead to the formation of islands o Oceanic and continental plates colliding will force the denser oceanic plate to subduct beneath the continental plate → underwater trench on the oceanic side, volcanoes and mountains on the continental side

Population Density

determined by a number of factors, including the amount of habitat, food, water, and shelter that are available, rates of predation, disease, and reproduction rate within the population ▪ Density-dependent factors: reproductive rate and tea mounts of habitat, food, water, and shelter are available ▪ Density-independent factors: population-limiting factors that are not affected by population size

Macronutrients

elements required by all organisms in relatively large amounts o All living organisms are mainly composed of the same four elements: oxygen (65%), carbon (18- 19%), hydrogen (9-10%), and nitrogen (3.5%) o Other macronutrients include: phosphorus, calcium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium

Nuclear Energy

energy created from nuclear reactions o Nuclear reaction = a reaction that changes the nucleus of an atom ▪ Fission = when large nuclei are split into smaller fragments ▪ Fusion = when small nuclei are put together to make a bigger one

Kinetic energy

energy of an object is the energy its contains due to movement • The amount of kinetic energy of an object is dependent upon two variables: mass and speed or velocity o Kinetic energy = ½ mass x velocity^2 o Kinetic energy is proportional to both the mass of the object and the square of its speed ▪ Small changes in speed will result in larger changes of kinetic energy

Mechanical Energy

energy possessed by an object due to its motion or its position o Can take the form of kinetic energy due to an object's motion o Can take the form of potential energy due to an object's position

Thermal Energy

energy possessed by an object or system due to the movement of particles within the object of the system o Heat → transfer of thermal energy from one object or a system to another o Geothermal Energy → comes from the Greek word "geo" meaning Earth and "therm" meaning heat ▪ Energy comes from the the rapidly moving particles within the Earth's core, where temperatures can reach 5,000 degrees Celsius ▪ Can take advantage of the heat generation as a renewable energy source to generate electricity

Radiant Energy

energy possessed by vibrating particles o The sun creates waves that travel through space and time → electromagnetic waves ▪ Contain both electrical and magnetic properties that allow them to travel through space, even though space is void of matter o Radiant energy is referred to solar energy ▪ Each type of electromagnetic wave is defined by its wavelength → the distance between the waves ▪ Frequency = the speed at which waves move → expressed in hertz ▪ Electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies carry more energy ▪ From highest to lowest energy: gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infra-red, microwaves, and radio waves

Sustainable Energy

energy produced from a renewable source --> energy captured from the sun, wind, moving water or energy crops, which are known as biofuels

Potential Energy

energy stored in an object when work is done on that object o Work is done when a force moves an object some distance to a new position o Potential energy can be stored in chemicals → chemical potential energy ▪ Chemical potential energy is related to the arrangement of the chemicals ▪ Gasoline is an example

Electrical Energy

energy that is stored in charged particles within an electric field o Electric fields: simply areas surroundings a charged particle → charged particles create electric fields that exert force on other charged particles within the field ▪ Positive objects create electric fields that repel other positive objects ▪ Negative objects create electric fields that attract positive objects o Current: movement of a charged particle through a wire = electricity o Electric Potential: the ability to move a charged particle ▪ Measured in volts

Chemical Energy

energy that is stored in chemicals such as sugar or gasoline o Chemical bonds: forces that hold the chemicals together → energy is needed to hold these chemicals together o Energy Transformation: energy is changed from one form to another o Exothermic Reaction: energy is released from the reaction and can be used to do work o Endothermic Reaction: energy is required to build the bigger molecule from the smaller components

Dependent Events

events in which the previous attempts affect the outcome of subsequent events o Each event is dependent upon what happened in the previous attempt

Independent Events

events that do not affect the outcome of subsequent events o Each situation is separate from previous events

Climate

examines similar factors as weather but is an average of the weather conditions over seasons, years, decades, and more

Dominant Trait

expressed through the heterozygous state ex. AA or Aa

Tundra

extremely cold environments with very short growing seasons that can barely support small plant growth o Found in mid-latitudes at very high elevations and is called alpine tundra —> most tundra is found in arctic regions where topsoil thaws just long enough for plants to grow o Increased elevation mimics the effects of increased latitude —> the higher you travel in elevation the more changes to the ecosystem you should see toward higher latitudes o This effect allows for a high stratification of biomes on the slopes of tall mountain ranges

Extreme Desert

extremely cold temperatures and a complete absence of plant growth at elevations of 12,000 feet and similar to polar ice caps

Sustainable Agriculture

farming techniques that protect the environment o The method of farming can be detrimental to the environment --> industrial agricultural methods are heavily reliant on chemical fertilizers and pesticides and put high demands on soil and water resources

Temperate Grassland

farmland o Fertile soils and frequent winter rains provide enough water and nutrients to support rapid growth of grass species in the winter and spring before the soil dries up o Invasive grass species die in the dry, hot summers o Temperate climate, seasonal drought, occasional fires, and grazing by large herbivores

Domain Archaebacteria

first prokaryotes to live in extreme environments o Thermophiles → "therm" means heat + "philos" means lover o Halophiles → "halo" means salt + "philos" means lover o Methanogense → combination of carbon dioxide and hydrogen to make methane = marshes, swamps, and sewage treatment facilities

Tropical Rainforest

forest in the tropics that receive over 100 inches of rainfall per year o Most types of forest can support large populations of plants and animals; tropical rainforests support the greatest number of species of any other type of biome on the planet —> due to the combination of tropical climate and high, year-round rainfall providing optimal growing conditions for the largest number of plant species ▪ The high number of species can support a high number of animal species o The warm, wet conditions in the tropical rainforest cause rapid decomposition of any detritus and with sunlight and water being plentiful, any nutrients released into the soil are rapidly used by the fast-growing vegetation o Nutrients will quickly recycle through the ecosystem

Temperate Deciduous Forests

forests in temperate climates that are characterized by broad-leaved deciduous trees o Found in mid-latitudes in areas that get significant rainfall in the warm summer months —> can support fast-growing species like birch, hickory, maple, and sycamore trees o Winters are too cold for leaves to survive —> trees lose their leaves and enter a dormant phase to survive the winter o Trees that lose their leaves all at once in a seasonal cycle = deciduous trees

Voluntary simplicity

form of sustainable consumption that involves a conscious decision to minimize the use and accumulation of goods and services o Include using less energy and using alternative energy sources

Metamorphic Rocks

formed from pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks, and even other metamorphic rocks ▪ Metamorphism: the transformation of one rock into another

Sedimentary Rocks

formed from sediments or debris transported by liquid water, ice, or wind that become compacted and cemented together ▪ Detritus or Detrital sedimentary rocks are accumulations of detritus → source is detrital sedimentary rocks come from weathered rock from another form ▪ Chemical sedimentary rocks are derived from material carried in solution to lakes and oceans → limestone and calcite are examples

Range

geographic limits within which a population or individual lies

Savanna

grassland interspersed with trees o Sometimes found in temperate climates, usually in areas that are transitional zones between grassland and forests —> mostly found in tropical regions of the world where the climate changes in a season pattern from cool and dry to dry and then to warm and wet before starting the cycle again the following year o The Serengeti National Park is famous around the world for supporting large animals such as giraffes, elephants, rhinos, zebras, wildebeest, cheetahs, leopards, and lions

Exponential Growth

growth of a population where the number of individuals multiples with every successive generation

Heterozygous

has two different alleles ex. Aa

Homozygous

has two of the same alleles ex. AA

True Breeding

homozygous pairs reproducing

Biogeochemical cycle

how an element cycles through organisms and the environment

Mantle plumes

isolated columns of magma

Freshwater Biomes

lakes, ponds, streams, and rivers o Endemic: only found in one particular area

Natural Capitol

land, air, water, living organisms, and natural resources of the earth that produce value to people o Economic "capital" refers to wealth in the form of some type of asset o Some components of natural capital include mineral deposits, energy resources, farm land, forest timbers, and fisheries o Hidden components include water filtration, flood protection, and maintenance of biodiversity

Glaciers

large ice masses o Move slowly through internal flow + basal sliding ▪ Internal Flow: when pressure and gravity on the ice in a glacier cause it to move downhill ▪ Basal Sliding: when an entire glacier moves because its base is slightly melted o Types of glaciers: ▪ Continental glaciers: also known as ice sheets → envelop everything in sight with a layer of ice ▪ Alpine glaciers: densely packed snow and ice found on top of mountains and valleys and between the two ▪ Hanging valleys: caused by alpine glaciers → formed when a glacier carves out a deep valley and the melts ▪ Tidewater glaciers: alpine glaciers → that move downhill and meet the ocean o Glaciers act as a frozen reservoir for most of our fresh water on Earth

Microtubules

largest of the fiber types ▪ Two types of proteins: alpha and beta tubulin ▪ Dimer = one alpha and one beta ▪ Composed of many dimers → 13 dimers make up one microtubule ▪ Has a plus and a minus end of each microtubule, is shaped like a paper towel roll (hollow interior) and has the ability to grow or shrink (adding or losing dimers) ▪ Function to support the cell shape + assist cell division ▪ Flagella: long, snake-like whips that drive cell movement ▪ Cilia: multiple short, hair-like structures that beat to move liquid around a cell

Types of RNA

mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA ▪ mRNA: messenger RNA → a code that can be read by the cytoplasmic structure called the ribosome during translation ▪ A process that creates proteins from mRNA ▪ rRNA: ribosomal RNA ▪ tRNA: transfer RNA → used during the process of translation ▪ All are created by the process of transcription within the nucleus

Carrying Capacity

maximum stable population size that can be sustained over a long period of time o Logistic Population Growth: type of growth where the growth rate slows as the population reaches its carrying capacity

Organelles

membrane-bound compartments within a cell → nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi, and endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria

membrane-bound structures where cellular respiration occurs ▪ Outer Membrane: selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the mitochondria → comes complete with integral membrane proteins and pores for transporting molecules ▪ Inner Membrane: folds inward to form these extra surfaces for cellular respiration ▪ Creating more space in a small area ▪ Does not have pores or channels → very permeable ▪ Cristae: folds created by the inner membrane ▪ Contains proteins and molecules used for making chemical energy ▪ Matrix: interior of the inner membrane ▪ Contains enzymes for cellular respiration as well as its own ribosomes and DNA needed to create some of the proteins important for this process

Intermediate Filaments

mid-sized fibers of the cytoskeleton made from any of several fibrous proteins twisted together ▪ Diverse role in structure and support within the cell ▪ One specialized group of intermediate filaments has an important role in the nucleus → where they can make up nuclear lamina ▪ Provide support to the nuclear lamina and aid in regulating nuclear processes ▪ Extend from the nuclear envelope by helping the nucleus keep its position within the cell

Multiple Alleles

more than two different types of alleles or three or more alleles possible

Nitrogen Cycle

nitrogen cycling through the global environment o Most abundant element in the atmosphere (78%) o Very unreactive with other elements and it cannot be used directly as a nutrient by plants or animals the way oxygen and carbon can be used o Can be converted into forms usable by plants and animals, either by lightning or bacteria —> once converted to usable forms, nitrogen is able to cycle the rest of the way through the ecosystem o Nitrogen Fixation: special bacteria can convert nitrogen gas in the atmosphere directly into ammonia —> important for plant nutrition ▪ Conversion is performed by cyanobacteria in the soil or by a bacteria that lives in the roots of certain plants known as legumes, such as soybeans or alfalfa ▪ Assimilation: legumes have nodules on the roots that house these nitrogen-fixing bacteria rhizobium —> once nitrogen is split into nitrates or fixed by bacteria, plant roots can absorb nitrogen compounds

Lysogenic Cycle

nucleic acid will integrate into the bacterial genome → prophage step, the phage of DNA that is integrated into the bacterial DNA, resulting in duplication until the organism is no longer hospitable and triggered into the lytic cycle

Three Rules for Chart Problems

o 1. Orient yourself to the x- and y-axes → understand o 2. Identify the trends of the chart → apply o 3. Answer questions on your own → evaluate

Three Rules for Table Problems

o 1. Scan the table before reading the question → understand o 2. Verify the concepts of the table → apply o 3. Answer the question on your own → evaluate

Factors that Determine Climate

o A circulation of air in the atmosphere ▪ The atmosphere circulates air in patterns or in a band caused by the heating of the Earth by the sun and the Earth's rotation ▪ Prevailing winds move from east to west = trade winds ▪ Prevailing westerlies are dominant in the United States o Heat distribution ▪ Large bodies of water along with ocean currents greatly influence a region's climate by holding and redistributing heath through the water + adding moisture to the air and influencing the strength and direction of the wind ▪ Ocean currents move heat around from areas that are warmer to areas that are cooler, adding energy and moisture to new regions o Continents and landforms ▪ Mountain ranges display the orographic effect —> when the cooler air will hold less moisture than warmer air —> the opposite side, air can sink again allowing it to warm and absorb moisture by producing fewer clouds, more sun, and less precipitation ▪ The drier side of the mountain is called rain shadow

Anthropocentric

o Anthropo = human o Centric = center o A person with this viewpoint would be more likely to see nature and its resources as things available for man to use

Gregor Mendel

o Austrian monk who studied pea plant genetics in the 1800s o Mendel's experiments provided quantitative data that revolutionized understanding the inheritance of traits o Mendel's law helped explain chromosome-based inheritance of traits ▪ Also, credited with finding dominant and recessive traits

Chemistry Lab Equipment

o Balance → used to determine the mass of a substance o Mortar and Pestle → grind a substance into a fine powder o Beaker → come in many shapes and sizes that usually have volume markings on them ▪ Never use for precise measurements → use Erlenmeyer Flasks o Erlenmeyer Flasks → containing and mixing of solutions o Volumetric Flask → used for preparing standard solutions o Graduated Cylinder → tool for measuring the volume of a liquid o Burette → precisely measuring the volume of a liquid o Evaporating dish → very shallow and provide a lot of surface area for the liquid to turn into gas → leaving the solid behind o Hot Plate/Bunsen Burner → used to heat a substance o Ring Stand → a support for your equipment, to not hold o Crucible → a container that has the ability to be heated to very high temperatures o Test Tube → containing different substances and carrying out reactions o Desiccator → keeps a sample dry

Osmosis

o Cells transport water across their cell membranes through the process of osmosis o Hypertonic environment → an environment with less water around them and more solutes

Mercury

o Closest planet to the sun and smallest planet in the solar system → 5% the size of Earth ▪ Grayish in color + no moons + comprised mostly of iron and nickel and known to be one of the densest planets with a very thin atmosphere ▪ Heat does not stay in or out of the atmosphere ▪ Each day lasts as long as 58 days and 15 hours on Earth and only 88 days in a whole year

Components of the Water Cycle

o Condensation: when water vapor in the air turns back into liquid and forms clouds o Precipitation: when that liquid water falls back to the Earth ▪ Infiltrate: when water seeps into the soil ▪ Runoff: when water flows across the surface of the ground o Evaporation: when water vapor comes from liquid surface water such as streams, lakes, rivers, and oceans ▪ Turns water from liquid into gas o Transpiration: when water vapor comes from liquid water excreted by plants ▪ Plants breathe by exchanging carbon dioxide for oxygen through small openings in their leaves during photosynthesis ▪ Stomata → leaves with small openings • Places that are warmer, drier, and windier will experience more evaporation and transpiration o Warm air energizes liquid water faster than cool air, drier air has less moisture • The water cycle is not ran in a circular form but rather caught in a web

3 Interior Layers of the Sun

o Core = very center of the sun where fusion occurs ▪ Extremely high temperature and pressure → 15 million degrees celsius ▪ Four hydrogen nuclei are fused into one helium nuclei releasing energy as photons o Radiative Zone = zone directly outside of the core ▪ Emits radiation and will take millions of years for photons to exit o Convective Zone = exterior of the inside layers ▪ Photons produced by fusion in the core maker their way to the surface of the sun through convection

Domain Bacteria

o Countless roles including decomposition and recycling of nutrients, digestion, and disease o Often involved in symbiotic relationships → positives and negatives ▪ Contribute to the responsibility of about half of all human diseases ▪ Antibiotics are used to treat and combat against bacterial infections

Air Pressure

the amount of pressure exerted by the air in a particular air mass ▪ Determined by the amount of air that is pushing down on you from the atmosphere ▪ Also called barometric pressure —> air pressure is measured using a barometer and units are typically inches of mercury

Types of natural selection

o Directional selection: individuals with a trait at one end of a phenotypic spectrum are most fit o Disruptive selection: individuals at either end of the phenotypic spectrum are most fit o Stabilizing selection: individuals in the middle of the phenotypic spectrum are most fit • Heterozygote advantage = a case in which the heterozygous genotype has a higher relative fitness than either the homozygous genotype • Balanced polymorphism: a situation in which two alleles of a gener are maintained in a population because heterozygous are more fit than their homozygous counterparts

Ecocentric

o Eco = nature o Centric = center o A person with an ecocentric viewpoint would more likely to see elements of nature such as trees, animals, and plants as having value in-and-of themselves simply because they are part of an ecological community

Types of Weathering

o Heat, cold, rain, climate, pollution, acid rain, water, ice, and waves o Mechanical weathering: when rocks are broken down by physical agents such as ice, wind, or water o Chemical weathering: when rocks are broken down by chemical reactions

3 Exterior Layers of the Sun

o Photosphere = emits light in our visible wavelengths ▪ Approximately 300 miles thick and temperature has cooled to 5,500 degrees Celsius o Chromosphere = a red layer of the sun that is 1,000 miles thick ▪ Emits the red color of the sun in the visible spectrum ▪ Temperature rises greatly rather than drops ▪ Only visible during solar eclipses o Corona = the sun's atmosphere that has a temperature of 1,000,000 degrees celsius ▪ Typically cannot see this layer due to the photosphere being so bright ▪ Only be seen during solar eclipses and looks like a spiky white ring

7 Major Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

o Radio waves —> television and radio stations emit to transmit data o Microwaves —> used to heat food in microwave ovens —> increase in thermal energy + used in wi-fi technology (at low intensities) o Infrared radiation —> just below the red part of the visible spectrum —> emitted by things that are warm or hot, including animals and people o Visible light —> range of light frequencies to which the human eye is most sensitive o Ultraviolet light —> known as UV rays and the source of sunburns o X-rays —> can pass through substances in a way that allows us to use them for diagnostic imaging o Gamma rays —> emitted naturally from things undergoing radioactive decay

Types of Galaxies

o Spiral: thin, dense, highly organized disks of gas and stars that rotate very fast ▪ Fragile and mergers with other galaxies can quickly destroy them ▪ Three main parts: bulge, disk, and halo ▪ Bugle = spherical structure found in the center of the galaxy ▪ Disk = made up of dust, gas, and younger stars + has spiral arms ▪ Halo = loose, spherical structure located around the bulge and some of the disk o Elliptical: all bulge no disk ▪ Range in shape from nearly spherical to greatly elongated football shapes, and in size from smallest to biggest known galaxies ▪ Do not have spiral arms and have little to no star formation ▪ Stars are random in orbit ▪ Made of old stars and have little to no dust and have black holes at the center ▪ Believed to be the most evolved form or type of galaxy in the universe o Irregular: a galaxy that does not have a clearly defined shape ▪ Contains large amounts of gas and dust and has very young stars ▪ Account for a very small percentage of known galaxies

Law of Segregation

o The alleles of a given locus segregate into separate gametes o Homozygous dominant (BB) o Heterozygous (Bb) o Homozygous recessive (bb) o Meiosis is to separate homologous chromosomes into gametes

Earth

o The largest and densest of the inner planets and is the only place in the solar system that life exists o The atmosphere protects the planet from dangerous radiation and helps keep valuable sunlight in ▪ Providing the ability for life to survive ▪ Only planet with a large satellite → the moon

Electromagnetic Spectrum

o The more energy an atom absorbs, the more energy absorbs and the farther out it will go o Electromagnetic radiation = the source of the energy → a form of energy that travels through space

Coral Reefs

occur in tropical marine environments where sunlight can reach the ocean floor or any other solid structure that corals can attach to o The most productive biomes on Earth on a per-acre basis o Fish, corals, and other animals are abundant and include many of the most brightly colored species in the world o Most of the producers in coral reefs are symbiotic dinoflagellates that live within the corals themselves ▪ Dinoflagellates: single-celled organisms that are capable of photosynthesis

Prokaryotes

organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles o Small and unicellular o Simple structures → three different types ▪ Cocci = spherical ▪ Bacilli = rod-shaped ▪ Spirochetes = spiral o Autotrophic prokaryotes ▪ Photoautotrophs = photosynthesis ▪ Chemoautotrophs = chemically produce food through chemosynthesis

Free electrons

outer shell electrons available to connect with other atoms

Valence Electrons

outermost electrons o Inner electrons in an atom are usually tightly held by the nucleus → typically will not react o Outer electrons are the key players in all chemical reactions o Lewis Dot Diagrams = show symbols of atoms with their valence electrons ▪ Records the differences based on available electrons in the P, S, and D blocks ▪ Octet = an atom has eight valence electrons ▪ S and P orbits that are completely filled with electrons = extremely stable o The row of an element will indicate the energy level of the outer electrons

Dispersion

pattern of spacing of individuals within a population

Standing wave

phenomena that occur when waves are contained and reflect back on themselves through the medium —> combination of reflection and constructive interference produces a wave that appears to be standing in place

Ecomorphs

populations that have recently evolved physical variations to adapt to specific o Grass-bush: have very slender bodies and long hind limbs, feet and tails, which them perfectly adapted to climbing on narrow, vertical surfaces o Trunk-ground: generally have the longest hind limbs, making this epics excellent jumpers and sprinters that area able to avoid predators in the relatively open areas that they are found in o Trunk: tend to be somewhat small species that have flattened bodies and fairy average-sized limbs —> these species reside almost exclusively on the trunks of trees and fence posts and are usually grayish in color, which serves as camouflage o Twig: hunt for good by creeping along narrow branches and twigs, searching for insects hidden in crevices and underneath leaves —> vey slender bodies and long, narrow heads, suited to picking insects out of narrow spaces o Trunk-Crown: small-to-medium size arboreal spices that can be found at a wide range of heights on just about any type of surface —> coloration of these species is generally green, but some species have purple or blue markings o Crown-Giant: most distinguishable by their large size and a spiky crest that runs down their back, but they do have large, powerful heads, which allow them to add fruits and small vertebrates to their diet

Nitrification

process by which ammonia is converted to nitrite and then to nitrate

Nitrogen Fixation

process of creating ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen

Series Circuit

provides one path for the electrons to flow through the resistance o Electrons flow through the circuit because they are trying to get from the negative end of the battery to the positive

Acid Rain

rain that has been made more acidic by the addition of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere

Excess Reactant

reaction left over when the reaction is complete

Optical Telescopes

reflectors or refractors that use light in the visible wave range to show objects

Dispersive Media

refract every frequency of light in a different way o Prism —> takes white light and separates it into all the colors of a rainbow o Dispersion: the separation of waves of various frequencies due to their differences in refractive angles —> the reason we can see the color spectrum when passing white light through a prism, crystal, or even a front door peephole

Tsunamis/Tidal Waves

results of earthquakes o Can form in a few ways: ▪ An earthquakes could trigger a massive landslide near a body of water ▪ Underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions ▪ Earthquakes that occur underwater

Peer Review

scientists critique each other's work and decide whether it meets the standards of the scientific community

Migration

seasonal movement of organisms over long distances

Trace Elements

several necessary elements that are found in small amounts o Most abundant trace element is iron --> others include fluorine, zinc, silicon, rubidium, copper, iodine, boron, selenium, manganese, and cobalt

Metallic Character

shiny, silvery, good conductor of heat and electricity, and able to bend without cracking o Key points are how the electrons are attached to the nucleus define the metal o Elements that have a weaker hold on their electrons are going to have more metallic character ▪ Metallic character decreases from left to right across the periodic table and increases as you move down a group

Weather

short-term atmospheric conditions like temperature, air pressure, wind, and humidity

Theory

statement that is generally accepted as a summary for a hypothesis or a group of hypotheses ▪ Also known as an accepted hypothesis

Half-Life

the amount of time it takes for half of a sample to react o Can range from a portion of a second to thousands of years depending on the identity of the starting isotope

Newton's First Law of Motion

states that an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion with the same velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force o Unbalanced force is an external force that changes the motion of an object o Law of Inertia is referred as Newton's first law ▪ Inertia = resistance to change in motion o Friction: a force acting in the opposite direction of motion when two objects come into contact with each other

Thunderstorm

storms that produce thunder and lightning o Can come without warning and come from dark, cloud-filled skies o When an updraft and downdraft work together = storm cell → the fully developed thunderstorm cloud

Characteristics to Classify Animals (4)

symmetry, body cavity, tissue, and vertebral column ▪ Symmetry has 2 categories: bilateral and radial ▪ Bilateral = split in half ▪ Radial = multiple places split in half ▪ Body tissue has 3 main layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm ▪ Ectoderm = outermost layer ▪ Endoderm = innermost layer ▪ Mesoderm = middle layer ▪ Vertebral column has two key groups: invertebrates and vertebrates ▪ Invertebrates include mollusks and nematodes ▪ Mollusks have a soft body and protective shell → snails, sea slugs, oysters, and squids ▪ Nematodes are simple worms → hookworms, roundworms that often cause illnesses in humans ▪ Arthropods are more complex invertebrates that have segmented body, hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages ▪ Echinoderms are "spiny skin" like starfish and sea urchins ▪ Vertebrates are organisms that have a backbone ▪ Lampreys have a body plan and mouth → parasites ▪ Cartilaginous fish developed a jaw and mineralized skeleton including sharks and rays ▪ Bony fish such as trout, sunfish, perch, and tuna do have skeletons made of bone and are more advanced developmentally ▪ Amphibians developed legs such as frogs and salamanders ▪ Evolution of the amniotic egg → an egg with its own source of food is an advantage to reptiles such as turtles and snakes ▪ Ability to produce milk led to mammals → nutrient-rich beverage increased care of young ▪ Have shared characteristics such as fur or hair, highly efficient respiratory and circulatory systems, and being warm-blooded

Cellular respiration

synthesis of ATP by cells o ATP: adenosine triphosphate o Exergonic reaction: energy released as a result of the reaction

Foothills

temperate savanna —> mostly grassland interspersed with trees and some stands of chaparral

Boiling Point

temperature that a substance changes from liquid phase to the gas phase

Electronegativity

the ability an atom has to attract other electrons o Atoms that have high electronegativities will attract more electrons and may even steal from other atoms o Atoms with low electronegativities will share the most → may lose their own electrons

Electromagnetic Induction

the ability of a charging magnetic field to induce a voltage in a conductor o Michael Faraday = Faraday's Law → the voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns in the coil and to the rate at which the magnetic field is changing ▪ Increasing the number of turns in a coil and increasing the rate of change of the magnetic field = an increase in the induced voltage ▪ The magnetic field can be changed by varying the strength of the field or by creating relative motion between the field and the conductor ▪ The magnetic field must be changing in some way to induce a voltage in the conductor ▪ Used in data storage and power generation

Mutual Inductance

the ability of a current-carrying conductor to induce a voltage in another conductor through a mutual magnetic field o Mutual induction allows us to transmit electrical energy without physical contact between conductors o Allowing one voltage to be transformed to another voltage in a device = transformer ▪ There is a primary coil, connected to an alternating current source, induces a voltage in the secondary coil ▪ Voltage ration between the primary and secondary coils is equal to the ratio of turns in each coil o The current is inversely related to the voltage = transformer is the same as the power leaving the transformer ▪ Direct current does not produce a varying magnetic field → does not work with transformers

Conductivity

the ability of a material to conduct electrical energy o Best conductors are metals o Worst conductors but best insulators are glass, ceramic, rubber, and some plastics o Good electrical conductors are also good heat conductors

Newton's Second Law of Motion

the amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object o Net force = the sum of all forces acting on an object in a particular direction ▪ Net force = 5 N (newtons) to the left o Acceleration is a change in velocity ▪ A = f (net) / m ▪ A = acceleration ▪ F (net) = the net force acting on the object ▪ M = mass of object o Force = f (net) = m * a

Ionization Energy

the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom o To become ionized, an atom loses an outer electron

Temperature (in context of weather & climate)

the amount of heat contained in an object —> determines the speed of the molecules in the air ▪ More heat = rising temperature ▪ The higher the elevation = the cooler the air is ▪ Measured in Fahrenheit or Celsius

Specific Heat Capacity

the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance o Temperature: the average amount of kinetic energy o Specific Heat Capacity or Specific Heat = Heat Energy / (mass of substance * change in temperature) o Specific Heat Capacity of Water = 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius

Humidity

the amount of water vapor in the air o The higher water vapor amount = more humidity o Relative humidity: amount of water vapor in the air relative to what the air can hold ▪ Saturated: when the air contains the maximum amount of water vapor possible ▪ Dew occurs when the air is saturated → morning frost-like water of condensation ▪ Dew point = the temperature at which saturation will occur o Clouds are formed when saturation of the air in the sky instead of the ground ▪ Clouds provide rain and snow → essentials sources of water for lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater

Electrical Resistance

the amount that an object impedes an electric current —> the flow of electrons + measure in Ohms • Resistivity: a property of the material an object is made of, whereas resistance is affected by several other characteristics of the object o Dimensional Factor encourages or discourages the flow of electrons o Temperature Factor causes the resistance to either increase or decrease ▪ Increasing temperatures = increasing resistance

Covalent Bond

the atoms are going to share electrons o Can occur with more than one electron for bonding

Principle of Superposition (waves)

the basic rule that tells us how to find the resulting wave from the interference of two different waves

Diffraction

the change in a wave's direction as it travels between or around barriers o Waves actually bend around objects that they encounter in their path or bend through openings in between two barriers • Infrasound: sound waves with frequencies less than 20 hertz • Ultrasound: sound waves with frequencies more than 20,000 hertz

Refraction

the change in the direction of a wave when it passes from one medium to another o Light wave traveling through air travels at a certain speed o Light wave traveling through glass travels at a different speed o When a light wave travels from the medium of air to the medium of water, its speed changes and it actually bends —> refraction ▪ Angle of incidence: the angle between the incident ray and the normal line ▪ Normal is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the surface ▪ Angle of refraction: angle between the refracted ray and the normal line

Eutrophication

the ecological process that occurs when excess nutrients are added to a body of water —> can occur naturally and over a long period of time allowing the organisms living in the body of water time to adjust to the change gradually and maintain balance

Tidal Energy (Tidal Power)

the energy obtained from the rise and fall of tides —> as tides rise and fall, a massive amount of water moves toward and then away from the shore —> turbines placed in the path of this moving water spin as the water passes by and these spinning turbines are connected to generators that create electricity o Tidal Turbines —> utilize turbines with short but strong blades that spin as the tides move and then transmit their energy to an electricity generator o Tidal Barrages —> special dams that take advantage of the difference in height between low and high tides —> built across an estuary or bay

Precipitation

the falling of water back to the ground after condensing in the atmosphere o Occurs as heavy downpour, light drizzle, snow, sleet, and hail as forms of precipitation o Can only occur after condensation → water turns from a gas to a liquid o Updraft: warm air rising up into the atmosphere → helps a cloud hold onto its water particles o Downdraft: cool air falling in the atmosphere o Fog = ground level cloud

Mechanics

the field of science designated for the study of moving objects o Motion = movement of an object o Inertia = tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion ▪ All objects have inertia thus resist changes in their motion ▪ Tendency of an object to resist change in its velocity o Rest = zero velocity o Force is any influence that causes an object to change its shape or motion o Equilibrium = all forces are balanced

Current

the flow of charged particles through a conducting medium o Direct Current: the electrons flow in one direction o Alternating Current: pushes the electrons back and forth, changing the direction of the flow several times per second o Units of Current = Ampere or amp

Standard Deviation

the measure of how closely all of the data in the data sets surround the mean o Helps identify a normal distribution of data by comparing the distance of the average of each data point's variance to the mean o Normal Distribution: data represented when the majority of the data is found to the average of the set o The variance of a data set is the average of each distance from the mean squared o Steps to finding the standard deviation: ▪ 1. Find the mean of your data set ▪ 2. Subtract the mean from each of the data points ▪ 3. Take each of the differences and square them ▪ 4. Find the variance ▪ 5. Calculate the square root of the variance → standard deviation

Interference

the meeting of two or more waves traveling in the same medium

Erosion

the movement of broken down rock

Interphase

the non-dividing state during a cell's life

Greenhouse Effect

the normal trapping of the earth's heat in the lower atmosphere, due to the conversion of light into heat as it strikes the earth's surface o Visible light, as shortwave radiation, passes through the atmosphere and is converted to infrared radiation we know as heat o Some rays escape back into space, while some stay in the atmosphere

Tides

the rise and fall of ocean waters o Occur because the earth and the moon are attracted to each other through the pull of gravity —> gravitational pull of the moon causes the ocean to bulge out toward the moon, pulling it to its highest level = high tide ▪ The earth is also pulled toward the moon, but with less strength —> this pulls the earth away from the water on the far side of the earth = high tides on both sides of the earth —> two high tides as the earth rotates daily

Convectional lifting

the rising of warm air and sinking of cool air → cumulus clouds and if grow in size they can become storm clouds

Life History

the sequence of events in an organism's life that related to its survival and reproduction ▪ One theory that attempts to explain why organisms have such different life histories is the r/K selection theory ▪ Became popular in the 1970s and 1980s and basically categorized organisms as being either ▪ R-selected species —> short-lived species with high growth rate that produce a large number of offspring, each of which has a low probability of survival to adulthood ▪ K-selected species —> long-lived species with a slower growth rate that produce a small number of offspring into which the parents invest a lot of resources to ensure a high probability of survival to adulthood

Magnetic Field

the space around a magnet where other magnets will experience a force • A compass can show us the direction of a magnetic field o Field Lines = represent the direction of a magnetic field → convention, point away from the north pole and point towards the south instead o Spacing of the field lines indicates the relative strength of the field o Lines are most closely spaced at the poles of the magnet where the field is strongest and are spaced farther apart as we move away from the poles

Electric Force Field

the space surrounding a charged particle where a force will be experienced by other charged particles • Scientists use field diagrams to represent the electric force field surrounding a charged particle o When the field lines point away from the particle, the diagram represents a positive charge o When the field lines point toward the strength of the field at which is strongest near the particle and becomes weaker further away

Population Genetics

the study of genetic variation within a population

Taxonomy

the study of naming and classifying organisms • Carolus Linnaeus developed binomial nomenclature → a system that uses two names to identify an organism o Morphology = what an organism looks like o Levels of classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species ▪ Mnemonic device to remember: "Kings Play Chess on Fat Guys' Stomachs

Desertification

the transformation of once fertile land into desert o Land can turn dry and barren due to droughts, shifts in climate or aggressive agricultural or grazing practices o Lead to vegetation loss → accelerating soil erosion

Sustainable Consumption

the use of products and services in a way that minimizes the impact on the environment so that human needs can be met not only in the present but also for future generations • In most developed nations, consumption patterns are not sustainable --> rely too heavily on natural resources and create too many harmful emissions

Biodiversity

the variability of life forms within a given ecosystem o Important for proper functioning of all types of ecosystems and plays a role in recycling nutrients and providing healthy soil o A biologically diverse ecosystem is a stable ecological community

Wave Parameters

the ways in which we measure waves —> characterized by its period, frequency, speed, and wavelength o Period: the time it takes a wave to complete one cycle o Frequency: the number of cycles that are completed in a certain amount of time —> symbolized as f + measured in cycles per second = hertz o Amplitude: the distance between the midline of a wave and its crest or trough —> the larger amplitude, the more energy a wave has o Speed: the distance a wave travels in a certain amount of time o Wavelength: distance per cycle

Weathering

the wearing away of rock by wind, water, or any other natural agent

Geological Time Scale

timeline of geological records o Eon → first principal subdivision + largest division of geologic time scale ▪ Major eons: ▪ Precambrian eon ▪ The formation of the Earth to the time when multicellular organisms first appeared ▪ Phanerozoic eon o Era → divisions within eons ▪ Paleozoic era ▪ Mesozioc era ▪ Cenozoic era → started about when the dinosaurs went extinct o Period → division of geologic history that spans no more than one hundred million years ▪ Triassic period ▪ Jurassic period ▪ Cretaceous period ▪ Quaternary period

Greenhouse Gases

trap heat in the atmosphere o Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons o Greenhouse gases are necessary to regulate the temperature, but a rise in one of them can lead to enhanced greenhouse effect —> the greenhouse effect is magnified by the rise in concentration of a greenhouse gas o The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing

Solar Energy

type of radiant energy that travels in waves from the sun to other parts of the solar system o Most of life relies on solar energy directly or indirectly o Solar cells: batteries that capture and hold solar energy o Converting solar energy into electricity is expensive o Not easily stored and when the sun is not shining the energy source is not available

Enviornmental Health

understanding all of the physical, chemical, biological and cultural hazards from natural and human-made sources o Physical hazards come from physical processes o Chemical hazards come from a variety of natural and human-made sources o Biological hazards are the result of organism interactions in the environment o Cultural hazards come from behavioral choices and other social aspects of life

Refractor telescopes

use concave lenses to refract light and make objects appear big and bright o Helps astronomers see stars, planets, and moons o Requires a lot of light to see objects

Reflector telescopes

use one mirror or a combination of mirrors to reflect light and form an image to the viewer o Design is meant to allow astronomers to see things way out in space that don't emit much light o Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a reflecting telescope and currently the largest telescope ▪ Launched into space by the space shuttle in 1990 ▪

Isotopes

variations of the same element o Same number of protons o React the same way o The number of neutrons are different → mass because different

Deserts

very little rainfall, averaging less than 12 inches of rain per year o Can occur at all latitudes o Deserts can have a variety of soils, plant life, and animal life o Animal density is not very high in deserts, but even so, insects, arachnids, lizards, snakes, mammals, birds, and even some amphibians can all be found in the Australian desert ▪ Each of these animals have their own methods for conserving water and making use of specific food sources

Electromagnetic waves

waves of energy that move toward the Earth and provide heat and light

Orographic lifting

when an air mass is lifted over an obstacle o Warm air is lifted and as it rises it will cool and expand o Rainy side = windward o Dry side = leeward

Chemical Bond

when an atom interacts with another atom o Molecule: chemical bond links two atoms together

Local Extinction

when one species is outcompeted by another so effective throughout the entire local habitat, that it comes it extinct in that area

Competitive Exclusion

when one species outcompetes another in a part of its habitat so well that the second species is excluded from that part

Niche Differentiation

when similar species with similar niches become specialists in specific areas and create more than one specific inch, which allows both species to coexist o Fundamental niche: each species, which contain all of the resources that a population is theoretically capable of using o Realized niche: which contains only the resources that a population actually uses

Constructive Interference

when the crests or troughs of two interfering waves meet, their amplitudes add together

Interspecific Competition

when two or more species in a community are competing for resources • Clumped dispersion patterns can occur when resources concentrated in specific areas of habitat, and the organisms, in turn, become concentrated around these resource rich areas —> results of social interactions

Ionic Bond

when two positively and negatively charged ions are brought together by their electrostatic charge

Open Ocean Biome

where the water is deep and land is far away o Least productive due to being nutrient poor o Photosynthetic phytoplankton, which include cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, and other similar organisms, do live out her in the open ocean o Dead organic matter falls to the seafloor and takes its nutrients with it

Doppler Effect

• Actually frequency: the true frequency of a wave, irrespective of external factors • Apparent frequency: the frequency perceived by an outside observer • Doppler effect: the apparent upward or downward shift in frequency due to the movement of a wave source • Shock wave: a very abrupt disturbance in a medium o Sonic boom: when waves compound on each other to create one giant shock wave • Blue Shift: an increase in a light wave's apparent frequency due to the wave source approaching the observer • Red Shift: a decrease in a light wave's apparent frequency due to the wave source retreating from the observer

Air Masses

• Air Masses = large parcels of air with distinct characteristics o Continental air masses = found over land ▪ Produce dry conditions o Maritime = over water ▪ Produce wet conditions o Classified based on region: arctic, polar, and tropical

Weather Variables

• Air Pressure: the collision of molecules and weight of air pressing on its surroundings o Influenced by temperature because as air warms, the molecules start moving around more o The more molecules bump into each other, the more heat is generated • Temperature: how warm or cold air is • Density: how many molecules are packed into a certain space of air o Adiabatic Processes = air parcel temperature changes without adding or removing heat from outside the parcel of air ▪ Windward side = as warm, most air rises up the side of the mountain ▪ Leeward side = blows over the mountain and comes back down, becoming compressed ▪ Air Masses: huge parcels of air that cover large portions of Earth's surface ▪ Fronts: when air parcels meet ▪ Updraft: rising air ▪ Downdraft: downward moving air

Evidence for the Mechanism of Continental Drift

• Alfred Wegener developed the theory of the Continental Drift o In 1948, a scientist was exploring some islands in the Atlantic Ocean, and he found that they actually were the highest points along a submerged mountain range made of surprisingly young volcanic rock —> led to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge o Plates: giant pieces of lithosphere that all fit together o Magnetic Reversals: as magma cooled to form new lithosphere, the natural iron oxides in the rock act as tiny magnets and align themselves with the magnetic field of the earth o Seafloor Spreading: formation of lithosphere to be identical as the lithosphere splits in separation

Alfred Wegener's Theory of Continental Drift

• Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist o Evidence to support his theory suggested by the scientific paper that described the locations of identical plant and animal fossils on very different continents ▪ The fossils included mesosaurus (freshwater reptile), lystrosaurus (land reptile), cynognathus (land reptile), and glossopteris (tropical fern) o Theorized "Pangea" = One earth ▪ Large geologic features such as maintain ranges on separate continents often lined up closely ▪ Rock strata from Africa and South America matched when placed together

How Magnetic Fields are Created

• All magnetic fields are created by moving charged particles • Stationary charged particles do not generate magnetic fields o Electromagnet: a magnet that relies on an electric current to produce the magnetic field ▪ A wire carrying a current generates a magnetic field all around the wire by wrapping the wire into a coil, the magnetic field becomes stronger in the center of the coil ▪ The addition of a ferromagnetic core in the center of the coil dramatically increases the strength of the magnetic field o Ferromagnetic materials contain randomly configured magnetic domains → align under the influence of a magnetic field ▪ The alignment of these domains unifies their individual magnetic fields into one strong field ▪ Varying the current in the wire causes varying degrees of alignment = the overall strength of the electromagnet ▪ The ability to electrically control the magnetism of an electromagnet has led to practical applications and uses

Magnetic Force

• All magnetic forces are the result of moving electrons o Atoms are surrounded by moving electrons o Atoms in a material are aligned, their individual magnetic fields unify to create a larger magnetic field = permanent magnet • Some materials with naturally misaligned atoms can be magnetized by another magnet o Depending on the material, when the magnet is removed, the object will either lose its magnetism or retain enough magnetism to act as a permanent magnet • All magnets have both a north and south pole → dipoles o Impossible to create a magnet with one pole o Similar poles repel each other o Opposite attract each other

New Alternative Energy Sources

• Alternative Energy: electricity that is generated in ways that do not use up natural resources or harm the environment Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) = a way of generating electricity from the temperature difference between different layers of sea water o Two types: closed and open systems o A low boiling-point material is vaporized by the heat, and rises to push a turbine, before cooling again and repeating the pattern o Is not very efficient but can operate for 24 hours • Hydrogen Fuel Cells = create electricity through chemical reactions inside them → battery-like o The fuel cell is provided with continuous flow of hydrogen o The form of power generation is extremely efficient → produces water as a byproduct

Evolutions of Animals

• Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that do not have cell walls, get their nutrients by ingestion, and are capable of movement o Cell walls help limit movement but animals have muscles and nerves to help promote movement o Most animals reproduce sexually and some are capable of asexual reproduction ▪ Involves the formation of gametes (egg and sperm) and union of these two cells ▪ Sperm is capable of movement if composed of flagella → the egg does not move

Aquifer Depletion and Overdrawing of Surface Waters

• Aquifer depletion and overdrawing surface waters have negative economical and environmental impacts o The largest aquifer in the world is the Ogallala aquifer in the Great Plains + one of the largest rivers in the Colorado River ▪ Aquifers: underground water reservoirs o Each water resource supports natural ecosystems and provides irrigation for farm crops, drinking water, electricity, recreation, and more • Much of damage done is irreversible o The Ogallala aquifer will not be able to recharge itself during our lifetime o Colorado River runs to the gulf of Mexico as a dry, subtle waterway but was once home to a strong, flowing river

Early Atomic Theory

• Aristotle believed that matter could be divided forever • Democritus believed that we would eventually get to the smallest particle → the atom o John Dalton proved Democritus theory o J.J. Thompson discovered electrons o Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus o Robert Milikan discovered the electron's charge

Diagonal Relationship in the Periodic Table

• Atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity trends typically move downward tend to be the exact opposite of the trend moving across o Move downward = increase in value o Move across = decrease in value

Avogardro's Number

• Avogadro's Number = mole o Mole is a large number = 6.02x10^23 o AMUs = 1 gram

Industrial Revolution

• Began in the late 18th and 19th centuries → a period of significant economic development marked by the introduction of the power-driven machinery o Cotton gin = a machine used to separate cotton fibers and their seeds o Coal replaced wood and other fuel sources + used to make iron o Steam engine = an engine that used steam to perform work • Major increase in population and increase in living standards meant depletion of natural resources • Used of chemicals and fuel in factories resulted in increased air and water pollution and an increased use of fossil fuels

Biomass for Renewable Energy

• Biomass is organic materials, including plants and animal wastes • Biomass Energy: energy derived from organic materials • Energy Crops → crops grown to be used as fuel, not food • Co-firing: burning two forms of fuel simultaneously • Gasification: the princess of converting organic material into gas • Fermentation: the process of breaking down carbohydrates using bacteria, yeasts, or enzymes • Biofuel: fuel made from biomass o Ethanol can be mixed with gasoline and used for our transportation needs • Remains to be carbon neutral due to the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere is the same that is absorbed → it is NOT carbon free • High initial costs without the inclusion of storage and transportation

Life Cycle of Black Holes

• Black holes form from stars of a specific size at the end of their life o When a star runs out of fuel in its core, it collapses and its density becomes greater o When a star starts big enough, it will collapse, making its density very strong, nearly infinite • Singularity: an infinitely dense point of zero volume o Event horizon surrounds singularities ▪ Event horizon → thought of as a line of no escape in the black hole from which nothing passes over it can ever leave • There is no theoretical limit to the size of black holes • Black holes can accrete → grow as they gather matter into them

Fossil Fuels, Greenhouse Gases, and Global Warming

• Burnings fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere • Immediate result of these human activities is that in the past 200 years, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has dramatically increased • Greenhouse Gas: a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs infrared radiation from the Earth and slows rate of heat loss o Major greenhouse gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane • Global Warming: an increase in the average worldwide temperature caused by higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere o Polar Ice Caps are melting and glaciers around the world are receding

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

• Chemical Reaction = when one or more substances are changed into one or more different substances • Endothermic Reaction = system gains heat as the surroundings cool down • Exothermic Reaction = the system loses heat as surroundings heat up • Enthalpy Change: the amount of energy as heat that is lost or gained by a system

Cladograms and Phylogenetic Trees

• Cladograms and phylogenetic trees are used to illustrate relationships between organisms and evolutionary relationships for organisms with a shared common ancestor o Only Phylogenetic trees have branches that represent evolutionary time and amount of change o Clade: a group of species used in cladograms, which consists of one ancestor and all its descendants ▪ Three major types are: ▪ Monophyletic: one clade ▪ Paraphyletic: all of the descendants of an ancestor minus one or two small groups ▪ Polyphyletic: groups with multiple origins

Types of Stars

• Class O: very hot, bright, and look bluish → very rare o Some of the brightest and most massive stars • Class B: very bright and blue → short lived and only a few exist • Class A: white or bluish-white • Class F: white • Class G: yellowish white → Sun is a class G star and more common • Class K: orangish stars that are slightly cooler than the sun → common as well • Class M: cannot be seen with the naked eye and are red dwarfs → can be giants, supergiants, and hotter brown dwarfs → most common star altogether

Cloud Formation

• Clouds form in all kinds of shapes and sizes → ten types of clouds o High clouds are clouds at high altitudes above 6,000 meters ▪ Cirrus = wispy hair ▪ Cirrocumulus = look like curly hair ▪ Cirrostratus = sheet-like clouds o Middle clouds are clouds at mid-level altitudes = 2,000 to 6,000 meters ▪ Altostratus = sheet-like clouds ▪ Altocumulus = puffy clouds o Low clouds are clouds at low altitudes of 2,000 meters or lower ▪ Stratus = gray sheet-like ▪ Stratocumulus = lumpy, gray → not much rain ▪ Nimbostratus = dark, looming clouds o Vertical clouds are clouds that form vertically instead of horizontally ▪ Cumulonimbus = dark and stormy

Common Chemical Reactions

• Combination reaction = A + B = AB • Decomposition reaction = AB = A + B • Single Replacement = AB + C = AC + B • Double Replacement = AB + CD = AD + CB • Combustion = AB + O^2 = AO + B

Water Conservation

• Consumptive use: when water is used and not returned to its source • Non-Consumptive use: when water is used at the source or only temporarily removed • Water is often used inefficiently for agricultural irrigation → plants take up less than half of water consumption o Drip irrigation = a method that can be up to 90% efficient for watering crops o Climate appropriate planting = planting crops that are comfortable for the current climate planted in and will flourish o In homes, installing flow faucets, toilets, and washing machines can reduce our individual water usage o Watering at night for your landscape and/or lawn helps reduce waste o Reclaimed water = water that is used for activities that don't require purified water • Sustainably = having a supply of fresh, clean water for both human consumption and the environment

Water Storage

• Dams, dikes, and levees are structures built along waterways to prevent the continued flow of water o Create reservoirs → provide flood prevention, inexpensive and no-emissions hydroelectric power, a water supply for drinking and irrigation, and new recreational opportunities o Dams: obstructions placed along a waterway to stop the flow of water o Dikes + Levees = raised mound of earth along riverbanks that hold water behind them

The Periodic Table

• Demitri Mendeleev created a organized system for the elements in the late 1800s o Consisting of around 60 elements or so at the time → discovered at the time o Horizontal rows = period → arranged in increasing atomic number and atomic weight ▪ Seven rows and two island periods below o Vertical rows = groups or families → may share similar traits ▪ Total number of groups or families is 18 ▪ Group 1: alkali metals → soft and silvery and react violently with water to form alkaline solution ▪ Group 2: alkaline earth metals are shiny and silvery white in color ▪ Group 17: halogens all very reactive and poisonous ▪ Group 18: noble gases are all colorless, odorless, and extremely unreactive ▪ Prime candidate for gases in light bulbs o Metals are found on the left side of this line → beginning with Baron to Silicon to Germanium to Arsenic to Antimony to Tellurium (all beneath these elements) ▪ Good conductors of both heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile ▪ Malleability and ductility refer to the substance's ability to be deformed without cracking o Nonmetals are found to be right side of the line ▪ These elements are brittle in their solid form, dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity, and have much lower melting and boiling points than metals ▪ Metalloids: found on the staircase line itself → baron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium

Dispersal, Colonization, and Island Biogeography

• Dispersal: the spread of organism to new areas —> key to their reproductive success • Refers to the actual process by which organisms spread • Dispersion: the pattern of spacing of individuals within a population o Describes the pattern in which organisms area already spread within a population • Colonized: started a population in a habitat where the species was not already present • Island Biogeography: an ecological theory that estimates the number of species that can live on an island based on its size and proximity to a mainland source of species o Immigration: a one-time migration of an organism or group of organisms into an area

El Nino and La Nina

• ENSO cycle = El Nino Southern Oscillation Cycle of El Nino = The unusual warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean ▪ Develops when the winds that normally blow warm Pacific surface water form east to west weaken ▪ Kelvin waves are a result of Rossby waves = giant, slow-moving waves heading toward land ▪ Kelvin wave = cooler water that cancels out the warm water from El Nino → the returning wave o La Nina = the unusual cooling of this part of the Pacific o Both are naturally occurring and happen about every 3-5 years

The Origin of Life on Earth

• Earth development meant: o Small organic molecules, like amino acids were made o Small monomers combined to form larger and more complex polymers o Polymers are grouped together and protobionts were formed ▪ Protobionts: small droplets with membranes that are able to maintain a stable internal environment → precursors to cells o Simple protobionts evolved to pass on genetic information → replicating molecules that passed on genetic information were the first cells • Oparin hypothesis of the conditions of early Earth says that Earth formed through a series of reactions that made simple compounds gradually more complex o Atmosphere was reducing according to Oparin o Primordial soup: organic-rich oceans • Miller and Urey tested Oparin's hypothesis → creating a device to see if life can be created from non-living things o The device used sparks to simulate lightning and created an atmosphere containing hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water vapor to resemble Earth's early stages o Resulted in the creation of organic molecules, such as amino acids and hydrocarbons

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

• Earth spins on its axis → creating a variety of weather patterns and conditions o Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have three circulation cells → help distribute heat and air across Earth ▪ Hadley cell = warm steady breezes of the trade winds → begins to cool even more around 30 degrees North and South latitudes and falls back towards Earth ▪ Horse Latitudes = air coming & creates the opposite situation from air leaving, an area of high pressure and our next windless strip ▪ Ferrel cell = home to the westerlies (wind blows from west to east) ▪ Polar cell = 60 degrees North and South latitudes ▪ Home to the easterlies (wind that blows from the east to west) ▪ Meeting with the Ferrel cell → warm, moist air create a polar front

Evolution of Fungi

• Fungus = mushrooms, yeast, and mold are eukaryotic, non-motile organisms that are heterotrophic o Originally lived in lakes and soils as small, simple organisms with a few complex structures ▪ Molds such as the mold that grows on bread that is left out for too long ▪ Root-like structures called hyphae to anchor themselves to whatever they live on ▪ Sac fungi such as truffles and morchella has visibly distinctive parts that looks like fuzz ▪ Fungus are organisms like mushrooms and shelf fungi that have distinctive structures for growth and reproduction

States of Matter

• Gas = no definite shape or volume o Easily compressible + very low density and diffuses easily • Liquid = definite volume but no definite shape o Incompressible + diffuses easily o Unique quality called surface tension • Solid = definite shapes and volumes o High density and are incompressible o Diffuse very slowly, if do • Plasma = no definite volume or shape o Contain so much energy that the electrons in the atoms are set free → enables the plasma to conduct energy

Formation of Earth

• Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago from a nebula cloud and dust formed from the Sun • Placed within the Milky Way Galaxy → formed in a perfectly ordinary place in the universe o Solar systems and planets within them form from the spinning disks of matter ▪ Clumps of matter build up and create planetesimals = small, irregular-shaped body formed by colliding matter ▪ Growing larger by colliding and combining with other bodies of matter with the potential to gain its own gravity → collecting more matter ▪ Some began to orbit the sun and that is what makes the difference between a planetesimal and planet ▪ Planet: an astronomical object that orbits a star and does not shine with its own light o Earth has three layers → during its first eons of creation, Earth was violent with continuous bombardments of meteorites and comets = helped shape how Earth is today and brought water in the form of ice + carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, and ammonia o Earth's interior was dense solid and liquid iron that began to cool and contract leading to a cooler exterior and hotter interior = core to mantle to crust (interior to middle to exterior) o The atmosphere contained mostly water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ammonia until bacteria provided the ability for the atmosphere to hold oxygen ▪ Water vapor became clouds and formed droplets to begin the first ever rain on earth ▪ Ice from comets led to the creation of oceans and lakes → at first freshwater until chemical continuously leaked into the water diluting the solution o Most of the Earth was covered in water but due to the earth being broken into pieces on the crust pressure and heat from the molten interior of the planet pushed solid portions above the water to form land

Electric Charge

• Electric Charge possessed by electrons and protons is responsible for the form of energy called electricity o Protons have a positive charge o Electrons have a negative charge • Ion: atoms that either give away electrons or accept more elections with relative ease • Conservation of Charge: that charge is neither created nor destroyed but only transferred • Static electricity: the stationary accumulation of charge on an object that can result in a spark —> rapid transfer of electrons between objects

Electromagnetic Waves

• Electromagnetic spectrum = a wide range of different electromagnetic waves o Electromagnetic wave = special type of wave that can travel without a medium o Both electric and magnetic components o Don't need a fluid, or a solid, or even air to help them travel from one place to another o Can travel across the great vacuum of space • Electromagnetic spectrum are broken into regions o From lowest to highest frequencies: ▪ Radio waves to microwaves to infrared radiation to visible light to ultraviolet to X-rays to gamma rays o Electromagnetic waves can be found by dividing the speed of light by the wave's frequency ▪ EM waves travel at the speed of light but inversely proportional to wave frequency ▪ Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional

Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency

• Energy Conservation: the act of saving energy by reducing a service • Energy Efficiency: saving energy, but keeping the same level of service • Energy Audit: an assessment of energy use in a home or business to evaluate energy consumption o Identifies places within the structure where energy is being lost and provides suggestions to improve energy efficiency o Examine leaks, evaluate insulation, inspect heating and cooling systems

Mass Energy Conversion

• Energy involved in a nuclear reaction can be calculated using = E = mc (squared) o E = Energy o M = mass o C = speed of light (3.0 x 10 (to the 8 power) m/s o If the mass is measured in kilograms then the amount of energy obtained from that amount of mass would be represented in joules o Substance gains mass = gains energy → substance loses mass = loses energy • The mass-energy conversion typically deals with low amounts of mass and high amounts of energy • Alpha particle = helium nucleus o Ionization → energy required to remove an electron o Nuclear binding → energy required to separate the nucleus into its individual pieces ▪ The higher, the more stable the nucleus = requires more energy to split • Mass Defect: the difference between the mass of a nucleus and its pieces o Pieces = nucleons → protons and neutrons

Environmental Planning & Decision Making

• Environmental Planning: the process of evaluating how social, political, economic, and governing factors affect the natural environment when considering development o The goal is to com up with a win-win situation for society and the environment ▪ Must consider these factors: ▪ The current status of the natural environment ▪ Vision —> involves setting goals and measurable objectives and takes into consideration the rules, regulations, laws and needs of society ▪ Implementation —> putting the vision into action and considers the materials, personnel, and technology that may be needed to carry out the plan o Environmental Decision Making: the process of evaluating the ways humans go about making choices that impact the natural environment ▪ Involving energy, natural resources, and even outdoor recreational areas are all a part of the planning process

Floods

• Flooding = when water covers land that is normally dry o A cyclical process that occurs over a large area of land o Flash Floods → can lead to larger floods but are typically short-term, localized floods ▪ Come from intense storms and the overflowing of small rivers and creeks o Storm Surges → common result from hurricanes and can be detrimental to coastal areas ▪ Similar to a large pile of water moving across the ocean with the hurricane

Conditions of Fossil Preservation

• Fossil Preservation: the process by which the remains of an organism are transformed into rock or impressions within sedimentary rock • Rapid Burial → a plant or animal that is buried in mud, silt, or other protective substances very shortly after death • Hard Part → organisms are more likely to survive long enough to be fossilized o More information on denser, harder pieces of the body rather than soft, less dense • Natural elements can affect the decomposition rate of organic matter

Phase Changes

• Freezing = substance change from a liquid to a solid • Melting = substance changes back from a solid to a liquid • Condensation = substance changes from a gas to a liquid • Vaporization = substance changes form a liquid to a gas • Sublimation = substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without going through the liquid phase • Deposition = substance changes directly from a gas to a solid without going through the liquid phase

Darwinism Evolution principles

▪ Populations, rather than individuals, evolve ▪ Evolution is possible because genetic variation exists within a population ▪ Individuals with different genotypes in the population reproduce at different rates

Properties Of Water

• Hydrogen bonds can help explain why the properties of water is an essential part of life • Ordered, unbroken hydrogen bonds in ice cause water molecules to be farther apart than they would be in the liquid state → lowered density of ice relative to water explains floating • Specific Heat: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of substance one degree Celsius o It takes extra energy to break down hydrogen bonds between water molecules → HIGH specific heat • Cohesion and Adhesion explain capillary action → the ability of water to rise against the forces of gravity in a small tube o Polar nature of water molecules = stickiness of water to itself → cohesion o Water molecules can form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules → adhesion o Polar solvent: dissolves things well → water is known as the universal solvent

Pangaea

• In 1911, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener found additional evidence to support a theory that all the continents move around the earth's surface o Fossil and rock evidence proved to show similar evidence in various locations o Wegener published a book called The Origin of Continents and Oceans proposing a new radical theory → continents were connected at one time in Earth's history and have drifted to their present location ▪ Continental drift states that continents are moving at a very slow pace ▪ Wegener's model proposed a supercontinent → a giant landmass made up of many or all the continents ▪ In 1927, Pangaea was given name to the supercontinent theory → means whole earth ▪ Tectonic plates have been discovered to support the theory → continents are on large plates on earth's crust ▪ The movement of these plates led to plate tectonics → pushing, pulling, and sliding plate movements o Lurasia was considered the northern part of Pangaea → later creating North America, Europe, and Asia o Gondwana was considered the southern part of Pangaea → later creating South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica

Constructive and Destructive Interference

• Interference: the meeting of two or more waves traveling in the same medium • Constructive Interference: when the crests or troughs of two interfering waves meet, their amplitudes add together • Deconstructive Interference: when the crest or trough of two interfering waves meet, one amplitude subtracts from the other • Principle of Superposition: the basic rule that tells us how to find the resulting wave from the interference of two different waves • Standing wave: phenomena that occur when waves are contained and reflect back on themselves through the medium —> combination of reflection and constructive interference produces a wave that appears to be standing in place

How Introduced and Invasive Species Alter Ecological Balance

• Introduce species: species that are living outside of its native environment and was brought there by human activity • Native species: species that are naturally found in an area and were not introduced by humans • Ecological balance: the condition of equilibrium among the different species in an ecosystem • Locally extinct: when a species ceases to exist in a local area • Invasive species: non-native species whose introduction into an area has caused economic or ecological harm

The Kinetic Molecular Theory: Properties of Gases

• Kinetic molecular theory: model to simplify a gas and describe it as ideal o Ideal gas particles move rapidly and randomly o No volume or no intermolecular forces o When they collide, they do not lose or gain any energy → their speed is directly proportional to their temperature

Mars

• Known as the red planet due to the rust of iron-rich materials that form the planet's surface o Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus, at only 10% Earth's mass o The atmosphere is thin and astronomers believe that water that once existed but leaked into space o One day on Mars is 24 hours and 37 minutes on Earth and one year takes 687 Earth days o The average temperature is negative 55 degrees Celsius o The planet has two small moons that are thought to be asteroids captured by Mars' gravity ▪ Mars has canyons that are thought to be where the water once lied and perhaps once held life ▪ Huge volcanoes are located on Mars and the largest is called Olympus Mons

Law of Conservation of Energy

• Law states energy cannot be created or destroyed o Closed system = a system in which no matter or energy is allowed to enter or leave o Open system = allows matter or energy to enter or leave the system o Friction: heat generated due to moving objects in contact with each other

Sound

• Longitudinal waves: waves that travel by compressions and rarefactions in the air, water, or other mediums o Cannot travel through a vacuum • Medium: material that carries and transports • Temperature increases the speed of sound —> warmer particles generally move at a faster rate • Wave equation = v = lambda * f

Energy Basics

• Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space • Energy: the capacity or ability to do perform work o Work: the movement off mass when a force is applied to it o Energy can be transferred from one system to another ▪ System: a collection of objects organized into a whole ▪ Energy transfer = from one system to another ▪ Measured in joules ▪ Types of energy are thermal and mechanical ▪ Thermal energy: the internal energy of a system as a result of its temperature ▪ Mechanical energy: energy of its location or motion

Optical Properties of Minerals

• Mineral Luster: the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral o Not the same as color → overall sheen of a surface o Shiny = metallic luster o Dull = submetallic luster o Nonexistent = nonmetallic luster ▪ Glassy/vitreous luster looks like glass → pollucite ▪ Earthy luster looks clay-like or dull → ceramics, cosmetics, and even paper ▪ Pearly luster appears like the mother of pearl → stellerite ▪ Silky luster like satin cloth is used for wallboard construction → gypsum ▪ Greasy luster has the appeal to oil → nepheline • Light transmission → ability to transmit light is another convenient property used in identification o Opaque = cannot transmit light o Transparent = light and image can be transmitted through a mineral o Translucent = light but not an image can be transmitted through • Streak is its appearance in a powdered form and can be seen by rubbing it across a piece of porcelain

Structures of Chloroplasts

▪ Thylakoids: small disk-like compartments composed of membranes that are the sites of sunlight-dependent photosynthesis ▪ Surrounded by the stroma ▪ Contain numerous integral and peripheral membrane proteins ▪ Chlorophyll: a pigment or compound that absorbs a specific wavelength of energy from sunlight to use in photosynthesis ▪ Responsible for making chloroplasts green ▪ Stroma: inner liquid portion of the chloroplast ▪ Both stroma and thylakoids contain important molecules for photosynthesis ▪ Grana: stacks of thylakoids

Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism: the relationship between two species that benefit together from the relationship o Host: the larger organism in a symbiotic relationship upon or inside of which the smaller organism lives of o Symbiont: smaller organism in symbiotic relationship lives in or on the host o Mutualistic relationship occurs between multicellular organisms and microorganisms • Parasitism: an association between two different species where the symbiont benefits and the host is harmed o Vectors: organisms that transmit disease-causing pathogens to other species of animals • Commensalism: association between two different species where one species enjoys a benefit and the other is not significantly affected • Amensalism: an association between two organisms of different species where one species is inhibited or killed and the other is unaffected o Through direct competition for resources o When one species uses a chemical to kill or inhibit the growth of other species around it

Conservation Biology, Habitat Fragmentation, and Metapopulations

• Natural habitats become fragmented by human activities • Conservation biologists main goal is to maintain at least some natural habitats of all types in an attempt to preserve healthy populations of as many different species as possible • Metapopulation Theory describes a way in which several small and somewhat isolated populations in a patchy environment can ensure the survival of the species in a larger general area —> most dependent on the existence of metapopulations —> groups of local populations that are connected by immigration o Influences the decisions that conservation biologists make o Wildlife corridors: routes that animals can use to migrate between different patches of natural habitat

Life Cycle of Neutron Stars

• Neutron star: a small, dense star made mostly of neutrons • White dwarf: a star, about the size of our sun, at the end of its life that has run out of energy and collapsed • Pulsars: rotating neutron stars o Have enough energy to spin and emit radiation → humans see it as a blinking star

The Bohr Model

• Niels Bohr created to the Bohr model of the atom in which a small, positive nucleus is surrounded by electrons located in very specific energy levels o A wavelength is a numerical way of measuring the color if light o Each element is going to have its own distinct color when its electrons are excited or its own atomic spectrum

Nitrogenous Bases

• Nitrogenous Bases are shaped like flat rings stacked on top of each other in the middle of the DNA strand o Function is to spell out the sequences of genes o Four total Nitrogenous Bases: ▪ Adenine: A → 2-ring structure, making it a purine and pairs with Uracil ▪ Thymine: T → is a pyrimidine and bonds with adenine ▪ Guanine: G → bonds with Cytosine and is a part of DNA and RNA + purine as well ▪ Cytosine: C → part of DNA and RNA and bonds with guanine + pyrimidine o Purines = shaped like a double ring o Pyrimidines = shaped like a single ring

Fusion, Fission, Carbon Dating, Tracers, and Imaging

• Nuclear Chemistry → a field of chemistry that deals with the use of radioactive isotopes and other nuclear reactions o Nuclear reactions provide extreme amounts of energy o Nuclear Fusion occurs when two or more atoms fuse together to form a single, heavier atom ▪ "Heavier" atom that is produced is actually lighter than the two individual pieces = mass has been lost or emitted ▪ In a fusion reaction, massive amounts of energy are emitted ▪ Currently no feasible way to harness this energy from fusion to power infrastructure o Nuclear Fission occurs when a heavier atom splits into smaller pieces ▪ Usually the pieces are smaller atoms but neutrons are often released ▪ Triggered by a very heavy atom being hit by a neutron = more unstable ▪ Causation to split and possibly eject neutrons ▪ Chain reaction may occur → domino effect → keeping the reaction going for a long time o Carbon is an essential element to living organisms that are constantly exchanging carbon ▪ Carbon-12 is the most common isotope → some of the carbon atoms are Carbon-14 ▪ After death, Carbon-12 remains and the radioactive Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to turn into nitrogen ▪ Carbon-14 has a half life of about 5,370 years → the more Carbon-14 there is, the more recent artifact is o Radioactive tracers = radioactive elements released in and out of the body can be diagnosed especially in locations where they should not be → more accurate diagnosis if so

Nuclear Reaction

• Nuclide = atom → represented in one of two ways: either as 228 88 Ra (superscript = mass number + subscript = atomic mass) or Radium-228 (mass number) o Alpha particle = +2 charge o Beta particle = -1 charge o Positron = +1 charge o Gamma ray = 0 charge • Nuclear Fission: when the nucleus of a large atom is split into two or more fragments • Nuclear Fusion: when two small atoms combine to form a larger, more stable nucleus

Properties of Ocean Water

• Ocean water has a high salinity o Salinity: the amount of salt dissolved in water o High concentration of sodium chloride, ocean water contains chemicals such as magnesium, sulfate, calcium, and potassium with dissolved gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide • Ocean waters range in temperature and have high heat capacity o High Heat Capacity: there is more energy required to change the temperature of water o Freezing point is about 28 degrees Fahrenheit is lower than that of freshwater due to the higher salinity o Density: relative weight of water with a constant volume → depends mainly on the temperature and salinity o Cold, salty water is denser and sinks to the bottom of the ocean below less dense water layers that float on top

Passive & Active Solar Heating

• Passive Solar Heating: method that takes advantage of the existing heat generated by the sun to heat living spaces o Efficiency of passive solar heating is improved by positioning a building in a way that captures the most sunlight o Thermal mass = material's ability to absorb, store, and release heat • Active Solar Heating: uses mechanical and electrical equipment to enhance the conversion of solar energy to heat and electric power o Solar collector: a device used to absorb solar energy → found on rooftops of homes and other buildings

Chemical vs Physical Changes to Matter

• Phase Change is the transition from one state of matter to another o Melting = adding energy to a solid o Freezing = losing energy to a solid o Vaporization = heat a liquid into gas o Condensation = cooling a gas into a liquid • Physical Change does not affect the composition of a substance • Chemical Change involves a transformation into a new substance

Solar Panels

• Photovoltaic solar cells = devices that are directly convert light from the sun into electricity • Solar Panel = photovoltaic cells connected together o When light particles hit the silicon atoms within the solar panels → the electrons get dislodged, and flow in a continuous pattern to provide an electric current • Solar Thermal Energy = collects the sun's light → heats a fluid such as water to result in steam to be used to run a generator that creates electricity • Solar thermal electric generation may use parabolic troughs o Parabolic troughs = solar thermal collectors used to collect the sun's radiation

Dwarf Planets of the Solar System

• Planets = bodies large enough to have cleared the neighborhood from other objects • Small solar system bodies = any object that isn't big enough to be rounded by its own gravity o Dwarf planets are everything in between o Eris was discovered in January of 2005 and appeared to be larger than Pluto and initially the 10th planet ▪ Became a dwarf planet by the IAU o Ceres has a dual designation of a dwarf planet and asteroid field ▪ Smallest dwarf planet and is surrounded by asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter ▪ Originally named as an asteroid in 1802 and resurfaced to become a dwarf planet during the 2006 Pluto planet debate o Haumea is located beyond Neptune/s orbit in the Kuiper belt ▪ ⅓ of the mass of Pluto and was discovered in 2004 o Makemake is located in the Kuiper belt as well and discovered in 2005 ▪ It is ⅔ the size of Pluto

Evolution of Plants

• Plants = trees, flowers, and ferns are eukaryotic, non-motile organisms that use photosynthesis to get energy o Ancestors are most likely plant-like protists → small, unicellular, aquatic eukaryotes capable of photosynthesis o Originally did not contain vascular tissue → not able to move food and water from one part of their structure to another ▪ Examples include liverworts, hornworts, and mosses and live in moist environments ▪ Two types of vascular tissues: xylem and phloem ▪ Have the ability to move water and food throughout plants ▪ Expanded living environments ▪ More than 90% of plants are vascular including ferns and horsetails ▪ Plants developed seeds → used for reproduction ▪ Examples are conifers, daffodils, and apple tree

Water Pollution

• Polluted: contaminated from sources such as runoff, toxic chemicals, and sewage leaks o Point source: the pollution comes from a single source of origin o Non-Point source: when it comes from multiple sources over a large area • Both surface and groundwater may become polluted o Groundwater may also becomes polluted directly from underground sewage leaks • Water pollution may be difficult to detect → not always visible o Scientists monitor water quality through a variety of tests to determine if water is contaminated or not

Water Treatment

• Potable water = clean water that is safe for drinking o A lack of clean drinking water kills hundreds of people each day and may force people to walk great distances for water o Septic systems: separates waste from water in septic tanks ▪ Urban areas use primary, secondary, and tertiary treatments ▪ Primary: when the water flows through settling tanks or clarifiers and the contaminants are physically removed ▪ Secondary: when wastewater is aerated → highly effective ▪ Tertiary: wastewater is disinfected with chlorine and ultraviolet light before being released back into the environment o Treatments are alike to purifying water, same basic steps -Treated wastewater ends up in streams, lakes, and rivers

Predator & Prey Interactions

• Predator: an animal that hunts and kills other animals for food • Prey: animals that are hunted and killed by predators o Defensive strategies: ▪ Camouflage: the ability of an organism to blend in with its surroundings ▪ Warning Coloration: bright or distinctive markings that serve as warning to would-be predators ▪ Batesian mimicry: where a harmless animal mimics a dangerous or unpalatable animal ▪ Mullerian mimicry: where two or more dangerous or unpalatable species all resemble one another ▪ Coevolution: when two species evolve in a coordinate fashion by adapting to changes in each other

Ocean Circulation Patterns & Effect on Climate

• Prevailing winds = winds that blow predominantly from a particular direction o Flow across the ocean surface pushing the water in large circular ocean currents = ocean gyres ▪ Gyres are directed by the Coriolis Effect → created by the rotation of the Earth that causes rotation in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere o The circulating waters transfer heat the the air affecting climate of nearby land masses o Upwelling = the rising of cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface • Thermohaline Circulation is the largest ocean circulation pattern and is directly related to temperature and salinity o This current moves a massive amount of water and distributes heat along its way → influencing global climate • Circulation pattern begins in the cold, salty waters near Iceland → moves toward Antarctica → moves along the bottom of the world before splitting into branches that travel into the Indian and Pacific oceans o Branches rejoin as they turn west and get drawn back up to the polar regions where they begin

Evolution of Humans

• Primates are mammals with: o Forward-looking eyes, hands and feet capable of grasping, large brains, and complex social behaviors o Earliest primates lived in trees → using the branches and vines with tails to maintain balance ▪ Closest living organism is the lemur to the early primates → split into two groups: ▪ Old World primates = Africa and Asia ▪ New World primates = South America ▪ Hominoids are a group of primates including gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans that evolved from the Old World primates o Humans are bipedal primates that are capable of language, symbolic thought, and both the creation and use of complex tools ▪ "Bipedal" means walking on two feet → most primates are quadrupeds (walk on four feet) ▪ Have proportionally larger brains than other primates allowing for complex language, symbolism, and creativity o There are more than 20 different species of extinct hominins closely related to humans have been identified ▪ Oldest distinct hominin is around 6-7 million years old ▪ Australopithecus lived about two to four million years ago → bipedal, human-like hands, teeth, and a small brain ▪ Homo indicates a closer genetic relationship → Homo habilis (lived 1.6 to 2.4 million years ago and was nicknamed "handy-man" for the use of advanced tools ▪ Homo erectus was the first hominid to move out of Africa and lived 200,000 to 1.8 million years ago ▪ Dead end ancestor is the Neanderthals, who lived 30,000 to 200,000 years ago but are now extinct ▪ Homo sapiens are humans and the oldest human fossil dates to 160,000 to 195,000 years ago ▪ Ancestors originated from Africa and migrated elsewhere around 50,000 years ago

Evolution of Protists

• Protists are eukaryotic, mostly unicellular and mostly aquatic o Types of Protists: ▪ Protozoa: Animal-like: heterotrophs and get their nutrients by ingesting food ▪ Protophyta: Plant-like: autotrophs and get their nutrients by performing photosynthesis ▪ Fungus-like: heterotrophs and get their nutrients from absorbing food ▪ Externally digest food and then absorb nutrients o Endosymbiosis → the idea that one cell engulfs another cell ▪ Diatoms → always unicellular and have glass-like cell walls ▪ Can be used in nanotechnology ▪ Dinoflagellates can live in both marine and freshwater environments ▪ Can cause red tide → when small dinoflagellates produce toxins that kill fish and other organisms ▪ Many have mutualistic relationships (both organisms benefit with the relationship) ▪ Euglena can be autotrophic or heterotrophic → or even both at the same time

Star Formation

• Protostar: a developing star not yet hot enough to do fusion in its core • Brown Dwarf: a protostar that never grew big enough to do fusion in its core • Main Sequence Star: a regular star in the middle of its life • Red Giant: a large, cool star near the end of its life • White Dwarf: the glowing core of a large-size star at the end of its life • Red Supergiant: A massive, cool star near the end of its life • Neutron Star: a large-size star at the end of its life cycle made mostly of neutrons • Black Hole: an object that is so dense not even light can escape it

Four Quantum Numbers

• Quantum Numbers describe a specific aspect of an electron o Principal Quantum Number indicates the size of the orbital or energy level o Angular momentum quantum number indicates the shape of the orbital o Magnetic quantum number indicates the orientation or position of the orbital o Spin quantum number indicates the spin of the electron → represented as either +½ or -½

Reflection

• Ray: a straight line through space that indicates the path of a wave o Incident ray: the ray that initially comes down from the sun o Reflected ray: the ray that travels away from the reflective surface • Law of Reflection: the relationship between the angles of our incident and reflected rays —> equal to are the angles of incidence and reflected

Balancing Nuclear Equations

• Reactants are shown on the left hand side of an equation • Products are shown on the right hand side of an equation o Nuclear equations are written to symbolize the changes that take place in the nucleus during a nuclear reaction o Arrow represents that a change is going to take place o Method of math is algebra for solving the nuclear equations

Methods of Geological Dating

• Relative dating is a method where scientists compare different layers of rock to determine an ordered sequence of events in geologic history o Cannot tell the actual age of a rock, only older or younger than another rock • Stratigraphic succession is an observation of rocky layers that are built up and changed over geologic processes o Fossil succession is a method where scientists compare fossils in different rock strata to determine the relative ages of each • Numerical dating describes the number that can be applied to how long something has been around o Radiometric dating is a method of using radioactive decay to determine the age of rocks

Relative Dating

• Relative dating requires an extensive knowledge of stratigraphic succession o Principle of Original Horizontality → all rock layers were originally horizontal o Law of Superposition → the oldest rock layers are furthest toward the bottom, and the youngest rock layers are closest to the top o Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships → rock formations that cut across other rocks must be younger than the rocks that they cut across o Inclusions: strange irregular patterns → foreign bodies of rock or mineral enclosed within another rock o Unconformities: discontinuous layers of rock

Resonance

• Resonance: changes in amplitude —> affects the transmission of sound and light o Occurs when the amplitude of an object's oscillations are increased by the matching vibrations of another object • Resonant Frequency: objects, charged particles, and mechanical systems usually have a certain frequency at which they tend to vibrate —> natural frequency • Transmission: the passing of light waves through an object o An object with no resonance would exhibit zero absorption and 100% transmission

Understanding & Assessing Threats to Environmental Health

• Risk Assessment: the decisions and strategies used to minimize the assessed risk o Often times dealt with government agencies o Economic, social, and political issues play a role in risk assessment o Can involve numerous steps • Epidemiology: the large-scale comparisons of groups exposed to a hazard, which allows scientists to understand the effects of toxicants on large groups of people • Cost and benefits must be weighed → difficult to see long-term health costs and how they may outweigh short-term economic goals

History of Life on Earth

• Scientists determine how old fossils are relatively and specifically → Carbon-14 is used to determine these ages of rocks • Earth's history is divided into three major eons: Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic o Archean and Proterozoic eons together = Precambrian → gradual appearance of simple life o Phanerozoic eon started with the Cambrian explosion → massive increase in the number and diversity of life on Earth ▪ Paleozoic era increased diversity of life and the movement of organisms from water to land and ended with mass extinction ▪ Mesozoic era is best known as the Dinosaur Age and ended with mass extinction ▪ Cenozoic era has increased in diversity of mammals

Color

• Selective Absorption: the tendency of an object to absorb some frequencies of light more than others • Pigments: special chemicals inside of living things to make their bodies appear a certain color o A chemical that alters the color of light wave by selectively absorbing one or more light frequencies o Melanin is used to make the colors black, brown, and tans in the feathers of birds and the hair of mammals —> same pigment used in humans • Color: the perception of a visible light wave's frequency

Speed & Velocity

• Speed: a matter of how fast an object is moving regardless of the direction o Measure of how fast objects move o Rate of change in distance with respect to time o Speed = distance / time • Velocity: a matter of how fast an object gets somewhere with respect to direction o Measure of how fast an object gets somewhere o Rate of change in displacement with respect to time o Velocity = displacement / time o Distance and displacement are the only difference between speed and velocity • Distance refers to the total amount of ground covered by an object in motion • Displacement refers to the net change in position of an object in motion • Scalar quantity = distance → distance is fully described by magnitude alone with no reference to direction • Vector quantity = displacement → displacement is fully described with both magnitude and direction

Law of Entropy

• Spontaneous process: a process that occurs without the need for additional energy • Heat: unusable energy • Entropy: amount of unusable energy in a system → amount of randomness or chaos in a system

Agriculture Revolution

• Started in Great Britain during the early 18th century and spread to the rest of Europe and America in the 19th century → period of significant agricultural development marked by new farming techniques and inventions that led to a massive increase in food production o Brought experimentation with new crops and new methods of crop rotation o Invention of the plow = a device that contains blades that effectively break up the soil o Seed drill = a machine that plants seeds in uniform rows and then covers them o Reaper = a machine for cutting and harvesting grain • Transformed forests and previously undisturbed land into farmland, destroyed habitats, decreased biodiversity and released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere • Extensive plowing, along with an increased used of pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation, led to increased soil erosion, degraded soil quality, and increased pollutant runoff into waterways

Parts of the Atom

• Subatomic particles = smaller particles that make up atoms o Protons = determines what type of element it is ▪ Atomic number = number of protons ▪ Atomic Mass Unit = amu o Neutron = located inside the nucleus with protons ▪ Isotopes = same number of protons, but different number of neutrons ▪ Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons o Electron = located in a large electron cloud outside the nucleus ▪ Almost has no mass ▪ Determines if an element or compound is reactive

Supernova & Supergiant Life Cycle

• Supernova → occur at the end of a star's life o A star is born in the solar nebula and can enter one of two pathways → depending on size ▪ Average star → becomes a red giant (planetary nebula) and ends as a white dwarf ▪ Massive star → red supergiant and goes supernova to become a black hole or neutron star (depending on the size) ▪ Grows into adulthood as a main sequence star → direction depends on the size at its youth ▪ Small to medium sized become red giants and big become red supergiants o Supernova are stars that are eight times or more massive than our sun ▪ An explosion that occurs when the star runs out of fuel and fusion stops ▪ Without outward pressure from the fusion in the core there is nothing to counteract the inward pressure of gravity

Industrial Ecology

• Sustainable ecosystems are environments that are able to support itself without outside help • Industrial ecology is the study of industrial systems aimed at identifying and implementing strategies that reduce their environmental impact o Industries such as manufacturing and energy plants, extract raw materials and natural resources from the earth and transform them into products and services that meet the demands of the population o Find ways to use fewer natural resources and find new uses for waste materials or byproducts o Multidisciplinary field that combines aspects of economics, engineering, sociology, technology, and environmental science • Goal is to find new industrial systems that use fewer natural resources o Achieved by defining and implementing systems that reduce the consumption of raw materials, such as goal, oil, and water o Generate less waste o Works to decrease atmospheric emissions by finding ways to capture and reduce emissions of harmful gases o Works to decrease water pollution by finding uses for wastewater

Stages of the Sun

• The sun is the closest star to the earth o Sun's life began about 4.6 billion years ago o Started in a nebula ▪ It would take 100,000 years to reach it o Eventually flattened and spun into a disc and became hot enough to perform nuclear fusion o The rest of the material that did not settle in to the center of the disc formed the planets, moons, asteroids, and other parts of the solar system • Once nuclear fusion started, our sun was big enough and bright enough to be a main-sequence star o This stage is very stable time for the sun → pressure of gravity forcing everything toward the center of the sun is equal to the force of the energy from fusion that the sun is doing in its core pushing outward → sun is burning hydrogen fuel in its core = sun's energy increases ▪ In a billion years, the sun's energy 10% more than it is today ▪ Causing an extreme greenhouse effect on Earth and all the water in our atmosphere will dry up ▪ In 3.5 billion years, the sun will be 40% brighter than it is today and all oceans and glaciers and snow on Earth will evaporate → nothing will be able to survive ▪ In 6 billion years, the sun will run out of fuel ▪ No energy will be pushing out of the core to become unstable and collapse under its own weight ▪ As the core gets hotter from the not pushing out the core the other layers of the sun will grow and engulf Venus and Mercury → entering red giant phase

Planets of the Solar System

• The terrestrial planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars • The solar system consists of 8 planets → divided into two parts: inner and outer planets o Outer planets = gas giants → composed mostly of gas, with no solid surfaces and only liquid cores + dozens of satellites and rings composed of particles if ice and rock o Inner planets are small, dense, and composed mostly of rock ▪ Have few or no moons and no rings circling them

Calculating Reaction Yield

• Theoretical Yield = ideal reaction yield → maximum amount of product that can be made from the amount of reactants you started with • Actual Yield: measured amount of a product from a reaction • Percent Yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100%

Evidence for the Big Bang Theory

• This theory is the most prevalent of the origin of the universe ▪ The universe is forever expanding → red-shift ▪ Light travels to Earth from other galaxies → as the light travels to Earth, distance begins to increase over time ▪ This is similar to the Doppler effect of sound waves ▪ Edwin Hubble was able to calculate the velocity of Andromeda ▪ Cosmic microwave background radiation = the faint background radiation that astronomers pick up with sensitive radio telescopes ▪ Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson attempted to detect microwaves from outer space but detected background radiation instead ▪ Abundance of different elements in the universe ▪ Elements were created in one of two ways: lighter elements were created at the very beginning of the universe and heavier elements created with the stars, planets, and galaxies ▪ Scientists attempted to predict the relative amounts of these heavier elements and succeeded

Types of Radioactive Decay

• Three types of nuclear decay that radioactive particles undergo: alpha, beta, and gamma decay o Each type emits a particle from the nucleus o Alpha = high energy helium nuclei containing two protons and two neutrons ▪ Heaviest of the three particles o Beta = a neutron in the nucleus transforms into a proton and releases an electron ▪ Requires aluminum to shield it o Gamma Ray = no mass and require lead to stop

Transparent and Opaque Materials in Electromagnetic Waves

• Transparent: when light passes through it without being dispersed or scattered • Transmission: the passing of electromagnetic waves through a material • Transparency —> caused by the transmission of light waves —> if vibrational energy of a light wave is passed through the object, then the object appears clear • Reflection: change in a direction of a wave when it strikes a surface • Opaque: materials that do not allow transmission of light waves o Opacity: reflection of light waves off the surface of an object

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

• Transverse wave: the particles of the medium move perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel • Mechanical wave: a disturbance that travels through a medium • Longitudinal waves: the particles of the medium move parallel to the wave's direction of travel o Compression: the density of the wave medium is highest - closer together o Rarefaction: the density of the wave medium is lowest - further apart • Longitudinal waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases while the transverse waves can only travel through solids

Vibrations, Waves Energy & Motion

• Vibrations: oscillating motions around a fixed position o An object exhibits a motion that repeats itself over the same path in a periodic fashion o Wave: a disturbance that travels through a medium from one place to another ▪ All waves are caused by some type of vibration ▪ Wavelength: portion of the wave between two successive crests ▪ Crests = positive displacement ▪ Troughs = negative displacement ▪ Amplitude: the distance between the midline of a wave and its crest or trough

Nature of Light

• Visible Light Spectrum: one form of electromagnetic radiation —> all of the color frequencies o Visible light region: the range of light frequencies to which the human eye is most sensitive o Pure Spectral Color: only produced by a single frequency or single wavelength of visible light o White light: a mixture of all light frequencies in the visible spectrum

Understanding Weather Fronts

• Weather Fronts = when two air masses meet o Cold Front: when a cold air mass moves into the area of a stationary warm air mass ▪ Sharp rising of warm air creates thunderstorms along the front, while behind the front, skies are clear o Warm Front: when a warm air mass moves into the area of stationary cold air mass ▪ Warm air rises slowly and gradually over the cold air mass, creating gray skies and drizzle o Stationary Front: a stalemate of air o Occluded Front: when a cold front overtakes a warm front

How Magnetic Forces Affect Moving Charges

• When a charged particle moves relative to a magnetic field, a force will be experienced → except when traveling parallel to the field • Sign of the charge, the direction of the magnetic field and the direction the particle is traveling will all affect the direction of the force experienced by the particle • The force is always in a direction that is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the particle's direction of travel • The strength of the force is directly affected by the magnitude of charge on the particle o The strength of the magnetic field and the speed of the particle through the field o Increasing any one of these factors will increase the force experienced by the particle o Direction plays a role in the strength of the field ▪ At a maximum when the particle moves perpendicular to the field and decreases as the direction of travel becomes more parallel ▪ A particle traveling exactly parallel to a magnetic field will not experience any force at all

Wind Energy

• Wind is created because the sun unevenly heats the surface of the earth • Wind Energy = energy from the wind that can do work and create electricity o Capturing wind energy is used by wind turbines → machines that convert the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy → generated into electricity o Wind Farms = areas of land that contain large groupings of wind turbines ▪ Offshore Wind Farms: built on bodies of water o Low operating costs, clean and green energy, no greenhouse emissions o Inconsistent and unpredictable, initial cost barrier to installation, generate disturbance by sound, and disrupt the scenery, and blades can kill birds and bats that fly into the turbines

Venus

• With the exception of Earth's moon, it's the brightest object in the sky o Known to be Earth's twin → 80% of Earth's size + few craters, an indication that their surfaces are young, and their densities and chemical compositions are similar ▪ Evidence shows that Venus once had water but was boiled away with extreme heat o Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system → temperatures over 400 degrees Celsius ▪ Atmosphere is a thick cloud of various gases, including carbon dioxide ▪ Venus' surface is hotter than Mercury's ▪ Length of the day is 243 Earth days and 224.7 Earth days equates to one year on Venus ▪ A day on Venus is longer than its year and rotates backwards

Kingdoms (6)

▪ Archaebacteria = ancient bacteria → "archae" means ancient ▪ Prokaryotic and unicellular organisms ▪ Eubacteria = true bacteria → "eu" means true ▪ Prokaryotic and unicellular but have different genetic compositions than their ancient predecessors ▪ Protista = eukaryotic organisms → plant-like, animal-like, and fungi-like ▪ Fungi = not capable of photosynthesis → consume food ▪ Eukaryotic and heterotrophic ▪ Plants = capable of photosynthesis → defining characteristic ▪ Eukaryotic ▪ Animals = largest kingdom → eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic