Ethics Final Exam Review

Ethical egoism

focus is on the "general happiness", or, the "sum total" of a community's happiness.

Normative ethics

gives us guidelines or norms, such as "do not lie" or "do no harm", regarding which actions are right and which are wrong.

Metaphysical Determination

raises questions as to what extent we can hold people morally responsible for their actions

Metaphysics

is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of the nature of reality, including what it means to be human.

Rationalism

is the epistemological theory that most human knowledge comes through reason rather than through physical senses.

Ethical egoism

is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. Actions whose consequences will benefit the doer can be considered ethical in the sense.

Cognitive theories

maintain that moral statements can be either true or false

Universalist theories (cognitive)

maintain that objective moral truths exist that are true for all humans, regardless of their personal beliefs or cultural norms.

Ethical Subjectivism (Relativist)

maintains the moral right or wrong is relative to the individual person and that moral truth is a matter of individual opinion or feeling

Principles of Utility/Greatest Happiness Principle

"Actions are right or wrong, to the extent that they tend to increase or diminish the general happiness."

Utility (Bentham)

"The property in an object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness, or to prevent the happening or mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness to the party whose interest is concerned"

Moral Goodness vs. Moral Rightness (Kant)

"goodness" applies to an action which is done out of good will "rightness" merely applies to an action that conforms to law, but does not necessarily imply anything about the motivation.

Gifts of Nature

"talents of the mind" - intelligence, wit, judgement "qualities of temperament" - courage, resolution, perseverance

Mary Wollstonecraft

(Response to Rousseau) Argued that men and women are intellectual and moral equals. Claimed that to promote two different moral systems, one for women and one for men, makes a mockery out of virtue. Argued that moral truths must be the same for everyone. Concluded that Romantic Sentimentalism provides an incomplete description of morality; our feelings and sentiments need to be held up for critical reflection.

Excusing

- granting an exemption or pardon from wrong doing.

Emotivism

1. People agree about what is morally right and wrong. 2. People do not agree on a set of objective standards for resolving moral differences. 3. There is no convincing evidence that such moral standards exist. 4. All moral statements are expressions of a person's feelings. 5. Opinions are neither true nor false. Conclusion: Therefore: All moral statements are meaningless.

Ethical Subjectivism

1. People agree about what is morally right and wrong. 2. People do not agree on a set of objective standards for resolving moral differences. 3. There is no convincing evidence that such moral standards exist. 4. All moral statements are personal opinions. 5. Moral truths exist, but are not based on universal standards. Conclusion: Therefore: Individual feelings must provide the standard of moral truth.

Ethical (or moral) Skeptism

1. People agree about what is morally right and wrong. 2. People do not agree on a set of objective standards for resolving moral differences. 3. There is no convincing evidence that such moral standards exist. Conclusion: Therefore: We cannot know with certainty whether or not objective moral standards exist.

Four typical excusing reasons

1. The person was not aware at the time that what they were doing was wrong. 2. The person was misinformed about the nature and consequences of their actions. 3. The person had no control over the situation. 4. The person has made appropriate amends for their wrongdoing. *Cultural relativism is not an excuse.

Two characteristics of Consequentialism

1. The rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the consequences or the action that makes it right or wrong. 2. No action is intrinsically right or wrong; it is only the consequences or the action that makes it right or wrong.

Student Relativism (Stephen Satris Article)

A phenomenon or perhaps a cluster of phenomena manifested in statements. Student relativism is not relativism, it is not a position at all, it aims to avoid questions and issues.

Competent Judges Test (Mill's)

A qualitative measure of pleasures -When we speak of qualitative aspects of pain and pleasure, we are proposing that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and valuable than others. - on a theoretical level, this idea of quality of pleasure makes it necessary to come up with an impartial or unbiased measure of quality - Mills comes up with what it now referred to as "The Competent Judges Test"

Moral Community for Kantian Deontologists

According to Kant only beings that are rational and autonomous are members of the moral community. Autonomous - means being a self-legislator Kant did not believe that animals were members of the moral community. (Some Kantians believe animals are a member of moral community)

Critiques of Ethical Subjectivism

According to ethical subjectivism, moral belief is akin to taste. The majority of people who commit horrendous acts (excepting sociopaths) attempt to justify them by appealing to generally accepted moral principles and sentiments. "what is often interpreted as disagreement about basic moral principle is instead disagreement about the application of these principles in particular situations" Ethical subjectivism is based on the incorrect assumption that we cannot be mistaken in our moral beliefs. In real life, we regard acting on certain feelings and desires as immoral. Ethical subjectivism is disastrous for the weak and defenseless. Respect is a universal principle.

Divine Command Theory

According to this theory, what is moral is relative to god. There are no universal moral principles that are binding on all people.

Ethical Schools associated with Rand, Bentham, and Mill

Bentham - act utilitarianism, legal positivism, liberalism Rand - Objectivism Mills - Empiricism, utilitarianism, classical liberalism

"Unity of all Reality"

Budda rejected metaphysical dualism, emphasizing the unity of all reality rather than differences. Which is the metaphysical view of reality for all beings and on not taking more than one needs.

Skepticism

By refusing to accept beliefs until they can be justified, philosophers adopt an attitude of skepticism, or doubt, as their starting point. The skeptic is always curious and open-minded.

Propinquity/Remoteness

Closeness in space or time

Moral Community

Cultural relativism defines moral community in ethnocentric terms, which means there are no universal or natural human rights, but only those rights granted to an individual by his or her society or culture. Those who receive the protection and support of the community. Those situated outside of the moral community do not receive full moral and legal rights and protections. Those situated at the margins receive reduced consideration of their rights in relation those who define the norms.

Criticisms of Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is illogical Cultural relativism does not work in a pluralist society Cultural Relativist confuses custom with morality People act more morally when other are not around Cultural relativism does not correctly describe how we make moral judgments There are moral values that seem to exist in all or most know societies Cultural relativism is divisive (tending to cause disagreement or hostility between people) and creates an us/them mentality.

Hedonistic Calculus

Deemed necessary: Bentham's Greatest Happiness Principle" "Actions are right or wring to the extent that they tend to increase or diminish the general happiness" Bentham comes up with what is called his hedonistic calculus - a measure of "the sum total" of a community's happiness. That is, this is a quantitative measure of a community's happiness.

Certainty/Uncertainty

Degree of assurance that one's expectations will be met

Relativist Moral Theories

Ethical subjectivism is a form of ethical relativism.

Fecundity

Tendency that a pleasure will produce more pleasure

Romantic Sentimentalism

Focuses in on the inner person Claims that humans are, by nature, good Draws on philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who is not an ethical subjectivist, but who believes that culture and society corrupts the natural inner goodness of human beings. We discover a pure goodness by examining or getting in touch with "pure inner feelings"

Jean-Jacques Rousseau & "The Law of the Heart"

For Rousseau the natural goodness of humans can be distorted by society. Theory is a universalist theory whereby if given the proper upbringing, everyone would share the same moral sentiments. (Sympathy, compassion, generosity, forgiveness)

Behaviorists

Freud - humans are governed by powerful unconscious forces and that even our most noble accomplishments are the result of prior events and instincts. Watson and Skinner - believed that human behavior is determined by past events in our lives. Existentialism - we are defined only by our freedom Buddists - Karma - is an ethical principle or universal force that holds each of us responsible for our actions and the consequences of our actions, not only in this lifetime but in subsequent lifetimes.

Prima Facie Duties (Ross)

Future-Looking Duties Beneficence - the duty to promote happiness and do good deeds to that end. Nonmalficence - the duty to do no harm and prevent harm when possible Duties based on past obligations Fidelity - duties that arise from past commitments and promises Reparation - duties that stem from past harms we've caused Gratitude - duties based on past favors and unearned services On going duties Self-improvement - the duty to grow in knowledge and virtue Justice - the duty to give each person equal consideration

Philosophical Ethics (Moral Philosophy)

Goes beyond the limited concept of right and wrong. Ethics, as a philosophical discipline, includes the study of the values and guidelines. Rather than simply accepting the customs or guidelines used by one particular group of culture, philosophical ethics analyzes and evaluated these guidelines in light of accepted universal principles and concerns.

Cultural Relativism (Goes beyond that)

Goes beyond the mere observational description to the conclusion that if two cultures have different customs they also have different basic moral standards.

The idea of Justice as Fairness

To indicate that the principles of justice arrive at are agreed upon within an initial situation that is fair.

Three possible motivations behind human action, and their definitions, according to Kant

Good will - the subtle determination to do one's duty, which leads to morality Self-interest - rational calculation, which leads to prudence (cautiousness), whose end is happiness. Inclination - dependence of the desires on sensation, which indicates want.

No grounds for judging other cultures

If morality is nothing custom, we have no grounds for judging the moral practices of another culture or another time. Consequentially, provided there are no disagreements of fact, or in relation to definitions of key terms - if two cultures disagree about what is morally right, then there is no rational means for continuing the discussion. This typically leads to political force, violence, and other irrational means of gaining dominance over others.

Universality vs non-contradiction

In logic, or the consideration of valid arguments, a proposition is said to have universality if it can be conceived as being true in all possible contexts without creating a contradiction.

The Original Position

Instead of thinking of the original contract as one into which we each enter individually, by consenting to a particular form of government , Rawls set up a hypothetical situation which would yield, assuming to the principles of rational choice theory, a set of principles of justice which all people would assent to if they were a free and equal person whose relations with respect to one another were fair.

Justice as a primary virtue of social institutions

John Rawls is famous for stating that justice is the first virtue of social institutions, that is, of all virtues of social institutions, justice must take priority. If social institution is not found to be just it must be changed.

Self-realization/self-actualization

Many philosophers define their life goal in terms of self-realization also known as self-actualization and enlightenment. Self-realization is closely linked to the idea of moral virtue. Self-realization is an ongoing process, people who are self-actualized devote their lives to the search for ultimate values.

Opinion

Merely states a person's beliefs, unsupported by a rigorous consideration of reasons or facts.

Higher order versus lower order pleasures

Mill proposes that people who have the opportunity to experience both sensual pleasures and the pleasures associated with the higher (rational) faculties will prefer the pleasures associated with the so-called higher faculties. This, we refer to Mills' hierarchy of pleasures, with the rational pleasures, and the sensual pleasures at the bottom as lower pleasures.

Qualitative

Mill's competent Judges test Some pleasures can be intrinsically better than other even if their quantity is the same Qualitative can't be measured by a number

Nazi Germany & Adolf Eichmann

Okay to do what he did because it was their culture.

Clyde Klyckholn's Theory on Moral Values

One of the twentieth century anthropologists to claim that there are basic, transcultural moral standards recognized by all cultures, and which are binding upon members of the moral community.

Difference between how an action appears and what its actual moral worth may be, for Kant

Only actions done out of respect for the moral law have moral worth It is not enough to act merely in accord with the moral law for an action to have moral worth. Exp. A mother raising her children because she loves them, her action is in accord with the moral law but does not have moral worth.

The Categorical Imperative

Our will is grounded in the structure of our faculty of practical reason Our will fulfills duties, or obligations, which arise from reason in the form of necessary laws (or imperatives), thought to be no more escapable than say, physical laws of nature such as the law of gravity Thus, we get what Kant refers to as the categorical imperative

Types of Duties

Perfect Duties - These duties must be followed no matter what. They are also called "strict" duties. A contradiction indicates a perfect duty. Imperfect Duties - These duties must be met, but with some latitude as to how and when it is done. A contradiction in the will indicated an imperfect duty. Duties to others Perfect duties: Self: Do not commit suicide Others: Do not make false promises. Imperfect duties: Self: Develop you talents Others: practice altruism (the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.) Conflicting Duties - Since moral duties for most deontologists are prima facie (A prima facie duty is a duty that is binding (obligatory) other things equal, that is, unless it is overridden or trumped by another duty or duties. Another way of putting it is that where there is a prima facie duty to do something, there is at least a fairly strong presumption in favor of doing it.), if two or more duties conflict we must make a judgement call given the particular situation at hand.

Metaphysical Materialism

Physical matter is the only substance. While, materialists do not have to deal with the mind-body problem, they have a difficult time explaining the phenomenon of consciousness and intention.

Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" Morale

Plato compared his republic or public to prisoners who have been chained and left in a cave since childhood. We hear the sounds of the outside world as echoes. If a prisoner was unchained and leaves the cave, even though frightened, he may be out in the light and freed of the shackles of everyday opinion, he then begins to see and learn about wonderful truths. He returns to the cave to share his knowledge, it is painful, he is ridiculed for his beliefs. He can leave and return to the light, stay and forget his new beliefs or stay and continue sharing his new found wisdom. The last option according to Plato, is a true philosopher.

Gifts of Fortune

Power, riches, honor, health and "the general well-being and contentment with one's condition which is called happiness"

The Kitty Genovese Syndrome

Refers to an attitude of moral indifference to another person's distress. Associated with ethical subjectivism.

Ruth Benedict and the Modern Version of Cultural Relativism

Ruth Benedict, in her book, Patterns of Culture, argued against some of the assumptions found in social Darwinism by pointing out that Darwin's evolutionary theory does not support the added thesis of moral progress. (To claim so is to actually commit the fallacy of equivocation)

The moral community for utilitarianism

Since pleasure and pain constitute the standards for good and bad consequences, any being who can experience pleasure or pain is included in the moral community of utilitarianism. Being who can feel pleasure and pain are said to be sentient. Thus, the moral community of utilitarianism consists of all sentient beings.

The Social Contract Theory

Social contract theory comes out of the Natural Rights Tradition, which claims that all human beings have rights as a matter of their birth, apart from and prior to any consideration of their membership in a political or civil community.

No way to account for moral progress, or social, under a theory of cultural relativism.

Social reformers hold some form of the belief that there is a moral standard that transcends the visitudes of society and cultural norms. Thus, some believe that laws and norms are binding only if they respect the human dignity of all individuals. Under a theory of cultural relativism, there is no way to distinguish between a social reformer and a common criminal. Though, in practice, most people do make such a distinction (which may weaken the claim of cultural relativist.)

The Socratic Method

Socrates' approach to philosophy, consists of a didactic (intended to teach, particularly in having moral instruction as an ulterior motive) dialogue using questions and answers

Social Darwinism - Spencer

Spencer believed that humanity evolves culturally over time from "ignorant savage" cultures to "higher, intelligent and morally civilized" Christians - which, accordingly, was what nature (or god) intended

Purity

Tendency that a pleasure will not cause pain as well

What are the first and second principles of justice and what are their purposes and primary role?

The Equal Liberty Principle - (takes priority) each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others The Difference Principle - social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: 1. Reasonably expected to be everyone's advantage, and 2. Attached to positions and offices that are open to all

Anthropocentrism

The belief that adult humans are the central or most significant reality of the universe.

Extent

The number of sentient beings affected by the action

The two practical principles contained with the categorical imperative

The principle of universifiability The principle of non-contradiction

"act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

The principle of universifiability is stated in the imperative. This principle is to rule out making an exception for your own actions.

"Act only on maxim whereby you can at the same time (and without contradiction) will that it should become a universal law"

The second principle is contained within the act of willing (since the will is governed by reason) Thus, we might change the above wording slightly (as indicated) to draw out this aspect of the will

The Veil of Ignorance

The veil of ignorance stipulates that no one knows their particular station in life. That is, no one knows his or her own: Class position or social status Natural assets and abilities Conception of the good Psychological propensities The particular circumstances of their own society Their generation They Do Know General laws and theories about human societies like political affairs and the principles of economic theory, the basis of social organization; the laws of human psychology, and so on.

There are two traditional subdivisions of ethics

Theoretical ethics (metaethics) and normative ethics

"Good without qualification"

There are other things which we might conventionally call "good". such "gifts of nature and gifts of fortune", yet these are not considered "good without qualification" for Kant

The Natural Rights Theory

These natural rights, as they are called, stem from our human nature, are thought to be inalienable (they cannot be taken away). Oftentimes they are also referred to as human rights, since all humans, by nature, are said to hold them.

While the above gifts are good and desirable in many respects, they are not "good without qualification" Why not?

Thus, the good will is said to make use of such gifts, but not to the extent that we call them "good", we mean that they are useful and desirable, but not good in the unqualified sense. They are morally good in a qualified sense; they are morally good when the good will makes use of them.

Naturalistic fallacy

To argue "what is the case" to "what out to be" is to engage in the naturalistic fallacy, which does seem to be a form of irrelevancy as well, but has its own particular name.

Irrelevant Conclusion

To change the original topic to focus on a different issue is to commit the fallacy of irrelevant conclusion

Psychological Egoism and Ethical Egoism

Utilitarianism grounds standards of good and bad consequences form the theory of psychological egoism. Good = pleasure Bad = pain Utilitarianism is NOT ethical egoism

Appeal to Ignorance

We argue that a certain position is true because it hasn't been proven false or that it is false because it hasn't been proven.

Equivocation

a key term shifts its meaning during the course of an argument.

Psychopath

a person suffering from chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior. An unstable aggressive person.

Sociological Relativism

a theory of descriptive ethics which is a branch of sociology concerned with what is the case. Merely, points out, through observation, that there is disagreement among cultures about moral values.

Cultural relativists

argue that morality is created collectively by groups of humans and that it differs from society to society. Each society also defines who is and is not a member of the moral community. With cultural relativism, each circle or moral system represents a different culture.

intrinsic

belonging naturally; essential

Retributive Justice

belongs to the judicial or penal system, rather than private judgement. Involves punishment for wrong doing

Noncognitive theories

claim that there are no moral truths and that moral statements are neither true nor false but simply expressions or outbursts of feelings. If moral statements are neither true nor false, there is no such things as objective moral truths.

Universalist Ethics (moral objectivism)

concept in which the ethical implications of an action applies universally to anyone, regardless of circumstances. Is not the same as moral absolutism

Emotivism (not commonly accepted)

is a noncognitive theory.

Hedonism

is a school of thought that argues that pleasure and happiness are the primary or most important intrinsic goods and the proper aim of human life.

Maxim

is a subjective principle of action which expresses our plans of action, that is, it is your own personal rule of action, which is expressed formally to include 1. The action you desire to take as well as 2. The underlying motivation for that action

Tolerance

is a universal moral principle that cannot be supported by a particular premise, such as "I feel tolerance is right." "Live and let live"

Autonomous moral agent

is an independent self-governing thinker (auto=self; nomous=law)

Paternalism

is characterized by the belief that some can know what is best for another even more than that person him or her self. Actions that override the judgement of another with regard to their own well-being, are considered paternalistic. It is a common attitude toward children (perhaps legitimately), as well as (illegitimately) adult women, and the lower classes.

Cynicism

is closed-minded and mocks the possibility of truth, especially in ideas that go against the mainstream. Cynicism denies rather than analyze.

Theoretical ethics

is concerned with appraising the logical foundations and internal consistencies of ethics systems. Theoretical ethics is also known as metaethics; the prefix meta comes from the Greek word meaning "about" or "above"

Distributive Justice

is concerned with the fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of a society

Intuitionism

is immediate or self-evident knowledge, as opposed to knowledge inferred from other truths.

Epistemology

is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of knowledge, including moral knowledge. Epistemology deals with questions about the nature and limits of knowledge and how knowledge can be validated. There are many way of knowing: intuition, reason, feeling ,and experience are all potential sources of knowledge.

Manifest Destiny

manifest destiny under explanations for differences in moral practices under religious beliefs may also account for differences in moral practices. *The U.S. and the religious doctrine of Manifest Destiny led to the imperialistic expansionism of the U.S. in the early and mid-nineteenth century.

Factual beliefs

may account for differences in moral practices

Situational factors

may affect the moral application of universal principles and sentiments.

Religious beliefs

may also account for differences in moral practices

Ethical Subjectivism

morality is a matter of individuals opinions or feelings.

Metaphysical Dualism

reality is made up of two distinct and separate substances The material or physical body and the nonmaterial mind, which is also referred to as the soul or spirits. (through reason) Body (material) - subject to casual laws Mind (nonmaterial) - has free will

Quantitative

refers to something precisely measured by a number. Equal intrinsic goodness in quantity, intensity and duration

Relativist theories (cognitive)

state that morality is different for different people

Determinism

states that all events are governed by casual laws: There is NO FREE WILL. Humans are governed by casual laws as are all other physical objects and beings.

Intensity

strength, degree, or fore of a pleasure or pain

Cultural Relativism

the basis of morality is formed by societal or cultural norms.

Moral absolutism

the belief that there are moral norms or principles that should always be obeyed

Utilitarianism

the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. The right or wrong of an action, is a function of the consequences of that action. The ends justifies the means (treat oneself with no higher regard than one has for others)

Duration

the length of time the sensation endures

Empiricism

the theory that most human knowledge comes through experience of the five senses.

Ethical Relativism

the view that humans create, either individually or collectively, standards of right and wrong.

Act Consequentialism

we consider an individual act in our estimation of consequences. For example, we would consider he consequences of "this" act (of promise breaking, stealing, or lying, etc.)

Rule Consequentialism

we focus on actions, considered as general rules or practices, in our estimation of consequences. Thus, we would consider the consequences that would ensure if everyone, for example, were to break promises, or steal, etc.