EX221 Chp 3

Effectiveness in Sports Organizations

-As an example of organizational effectiveness within intercollegiate sport, Wolfe and Putler (2002) examined the perceptions of stakeholders (e.g., faculty members, student-athletes, potential students, college students, members of the athletic department, and alumni) regarding the priorities of intercollegiate athletic programs. -These priorities included win-loss record, graduation rates, violations, attendance, gender equity, number of teams, and finances. -In the sport for development and peace (SDP) context, Svensson, Kang, and Ha (2019) examined how leadership and organizational capacity influenced organizational performance and employee innovative work behavior. They found significant relationships between a shared leadership approach and perceived organizational outcomes of nonprofit SDP organizations. They also found that shared leadership positively influenced inclusion and participation in decision making by organizational members. These outcomes appeared to contribute to greater organizational effectiveness for SDP organizations and improved social outcomes for program beneficiaries.

How does culture manifest?

-Culture manifests in different ways throughout organizations, such as through stories and myths, symbols, language, ceremonies and rites, physical settings, and symbolic artifacts. -Stories and myths are narratives that can be based on truth, fiction, or a combination of the two. -Symbols consist of events, objects, or acts that convey meanings for the organization. Organizational logos, slogans, and mission statements are symbols. -Language refers to the terminology and jargon that organizational members use to communicate with each other. -Ceremonies and rites include social events and awards and recognition events that leaders organize. -These events often reinforce organizational values. -Physical settings include the office space and objects found in the organization. -Symbolic artifacts are items found in the organization's physical setting. Photographs of past successes; banners; copies of past marketing campaigns; and displays of awards, achievements, and products are examples of artifacts. -The setting and these artifacts are representative of the organization's values and assumptions.

Formalization Stage

-During this stage, rules and procedures are developed. -Job descriptions are created, and communication becomes more formal. -Top management executives invest their time in strategic planning and allow middle management the responsibility of managing the operations. -Decentralized units may be created, and incentive systems for managers may be introduced to enhance the effectiveness of the organization. -As the organization increases its levels of formalization and standardization, the crisis of too much red tape will surface. With systems and high levels of formalization in place, middle management may begin to experience some constraints in their ability to do their work within the organization. -Specifically, too much bureaucracy may paralyze employees and stifle innovation. The organization is large and complex and will require adjustments to reach the next stage.

The general environment includes the following elements that may not have a direct effect on the day-to-day operations of the organization but may nonetheless influence the organization:

-Economic conditions influence the way organizations operate. How do economic downturns affect sport organizations? For example, how and why does fan purchase behavior change during a recession? How do interest rates affect the organization's ability to acquire the inputs necessary for the fabrication of its products? -Technology has a powerful effect on most organizations. For example, how do computers, software, cellular phones, and the Internet help the organization reach more consumers, maintain more accurate records of inventory, communicate with suppliers, facilitate employee communication and coordination, and monitor purchasing patterns? How does technology help the organization develop more (and better) products? -The political climate affects organizations—including the introduction of policies and regulations or trade agreements designed to support a political agenda. For example, the 2020 renegotiation of the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) aimed to facilitate trade among the three countries over several years. -Social and cultural forces and demographic changes also affect organizations. The age structure, the level of education, and the standard of living of the population are examples of social, cultural, and demographic elements in an organization's general environment. Contemporary Sport Management (p. 63). Human Kinetics. Kindle Edition.

Organizational Environment

-Environments can be turbulent and uncertain. -To address these uncertainties, leaders of organizations devise strategies to divide labor by area of expertise so that the most qualified employees are in appropriate roles. -Organizations also use technology to support the ongoing production of goods and services. -according to Daft, organizations can manage the external environment by exerting power over other organizations. -For example, executives of professional sport organizations may wield some control over local government officials by requesting a share of the revenues from concessions and parking in a city-owned stadium.

Organizational effectiveness

-In other words, effectiveness focuses on results, whereas efficiency focuses on activities. -Cost-benefit analysis, return on investment (ROI), and budget compared with number of customers served are some concepts used to assess efficiency. -Achieving effectiveness is easier than achieving efficiency. In fact, managers and leaders of organizations rarely achieve efficiency. -For example, the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup was effective because members of the organizing committee achieved the objective of hosting the event. Despite the successful execution of the World Cup, a number of challenges and controversies affected efficiency. -The introduction of video assistant referee (VAR) increased technology costs and was criticized for unfairly influencing match outcomes. In addition, FIFA was criticized for its limited branding of the women's event, affecting overall visibility and reach.

Virtual network structure and outsourcing design

-In this design, leaders of the organization choose to outsource some of its operations to outside agencies. -For example, an organization may outsource manufacturing to another (or other) organization(s) as a way to decrease costs, to increase the production of goods, or to rely on required expertise to offer the best product. -While operating with the assistance of other organizations, the focal organization creates virtual networks for the production of goods and services. -For example, some NCAA Division I institutions outsource multimedia rights or marketing of their sport properties to their partner organizations because they recognize the expertise of marketing agencies. -Another example is the sport retailer Dick's Sporting Goods, which outsources its information technology (IT) needs to a private organization that specializes in IT. -In addition, a number of sporting goods organizations outsource their manufacturing to other organizations—often in other countries—as a strategy to increase productivity and reduce costs.

Collectivity stage

-In this stage, the leadership crisis has been addressed. The organization is now developing clear goals and establishing its direction. -Functional areas, departments, and a hierarchy of authority are created to help divide and assign the work to newly hired employees. -Also, formal communication mechanisms are being developed to help in the coordination of the work to be achieved and to address the rapid growth. -For progression into the next stage, the organization in the collectivity stage will go through a crisis termed need for delegation with control. -During this crisis, lower-level employees are limited in their ability to make decisions autonomously. -As they gain experience and expertise in their functional areas, they become increasingly frustrated with the strong top-down leadership. -During this crisis, leaders develop coordination and control mechanisms within the organization and provide employees with some level of autonomy and decision-making power.

Contemporary Approaches

-Instead of attending to parts of the organization (i.e., inputs, transformation, or outputs), the competing-values approach combines elements of all traditional effectiveness approaches through the value dimensions of focus and structure. -The dimension of focus is represented on a continuum from internal to external, whereas the dimension of structure is represented on a continuum from stability to flexibility. -An internal focus means that the organization values the well-being of its employees, whereas an external focus values the well-being of the organization. -A stable structure favors a task-oriented approach, and a flexible structure favors change and innovation in the organization. -With the competing-values approach, the assessment of an organization's effectiveness is based on its values with respect to the dimensions of focus and structure. -In this approach, a leader or manager acknowledges that the assessment or interpretation of organizational effectiveness depends on their position and experience, the interests they represent, and what values are favored for the organization. -The stakeholder approach is based on the premise that several groups, entities, and other organizations have an interest in the focal organization. -These stakeholders may assess organizational effectiveness differently. For example, suppliers to a firm may judge effectiveness by the quality and price of the products, whereas employees may consider wages and benefits when they evaluate organizational effectiveness. -Those who subscribe to the stakeholder approach and the competing-values approach believe that the organization must consider the values and interest of the various groups (stakeholders) in the organization and consolidate these interests and views to achieve effectiveness -As Daft explained, the stakeholder and the competing-values approaches address the complexities involved in determining whether an organization is effective.

Another example

-Lang and colleagues examined the adoption of professionalized practices in a Swiss national sport federation -The authors investigated the effect of the timing of self-regulated professionalization processes and its relationship to the organizational context. -They found that Pettigrew's framework was useful in understanding the contextual and process dynamics related to the implementation of new policy practices in the sport sector.

Organizational Culture

-Organizations consider this set of assumptions valid. -As a result, they promote them to new members as the appropriate and correct ways to act in the workplace. -Daft (2021) explained that organizational culture is "unwritten, feeling part of the organization... On the surface are visible artifacts and observable behaviors—the way people dress and act; office layouts; the type of control systems and power structures used by the company; and the symbols, stories, and ceremonies organization members share." -Below the surface, the organizational culture includes "underlying values, assumptions, beliefs, and thought processes operat[ing] unconsciously"

Describe inputs and outputs

-Organizations obtain inputs, such as financial resources, human resources, raw materials, expertise, and knowledge, from the external environment. -They then transform those inputs—through technology (e.g., using machinery or digital platforms) and the skills and abilities of employees—to produce outputs, such as goods and services sought by consumers. -An organization also produces other outputs, such as dividends for shareholders and salaries for employees.

Innovations can also be radical or incremental. Give examples

-Radical innovations break unwritten industry rules and are often due to technological change. -These innovations are highly disruptive and can transform an organization or industry. -For example, smart technology has significantly altered the sport business landscape. -By comparison, incremental innovations are small and evolutionary but can add value and have competitive advantages. -Mikasa Sports developed an indoor volleyball with 8 (rather than the usual 18) panels to improve players' control. -Mikasa volleyballs became the official balls for many leagues and competitions, including all FIVB worldwide competitions and the 2012 London Olympic and Paralympic Games. In their study of innovation in community sport organizations, Hoeber and colleagues found that incremental innovations, such as the adoption of social responsibility initiatives and new organizational models, were much more common than radical innovations

relational coordination

-Relational coordination is "part of the very fabric and culture of the organization" -In an organization where relational coordination is well integrated within the organization, information is freely shared amongst members of different departments, and members interact continuously to share information and address issues as they come up.

How do sources of innovation vary?

-Sources of innovation vary. For example, new ways of doing things can arise accidentally or unexpectedly. The current curved design of hockey sticks was discovered during a Chicago Blackhawks practice in the early 1960s when forward Stan Mikita accidently broke his stick. -Mikita realized the slightly bent stick made the puck move through the air more effectively. -Another source of innovation is incongruity, which is the difference between reality as it actually is and reality as it is assumed to be. For example, clap skates were around for a long time but were not considered serious until an Olympic skater noticed junior skaters wearing them. -Innovations can also come from process needs. Moneyball player analytics were developed to facilitate the formation of a winning baseball team, particularly under financial resource restrictions. Other sources of innovation include industry, market, and demographic changes and new knowledge.

How do stakeholders play an important role in an organization's environment?

-Stakeholders are individuals or groups that can affect or be affected by the organization or business. -Daft (2021) defines stakeholders as "any group within and outside of the organization that has a stake in the organization's performance." -They include "owners and stockholders, employees, customers, creditors, management, government, union, community, [and] suppliers" -Even within the specific, task environment, there are primary stakeholders (i.e., those who engage in economic exchanges with an organization) and secondary stakeholders (i.e., those who affect or are affected by the actions and practices of the organization).

The following factors affect whether decisions are centralized or decentralized:

-The cost (in organizational resources) of the decision to the sport organization. The greater the cost, the more centralized the decision will be. -The timing (how much time a sport manager has to make the decision). The more urgent the decision, the more decentralized it will be. -The qualifications of employees. The greater the number of expert employees involved throughout the sport organization, the more decentralized the decision will be. ***Whether decisions are centralized or decentralized will affect the flow of information within the organization. People who are responsible for decision making will need to have the information to make the best possible decisions for the organization.

The next element of Pettigrew's framework is the context of change.

-The focus is on determining why the change occurred. Context includes two sections: the inner context and the outer context. -Inner context consists of internal elements at play within organizations, such as strategy, culture, and the structure of organizations. -Outer context includes general political, economic, and social forces at work within the organizational environment. -After content and context of change have been uncovered, the process of change needs to be examined. -The process of change can be assessed by asking how change has occurred. -In uncovering the process of change, leadership is a key component because change agents often contribute to the adoption of change within the organization. -When they can answer what, why, and how, leaders are in a better position to understand change in their organizations.

Traditional Approaches

-The goal approach focuses on the outputs of the organization. -The organization is considered effective if it achieves its organizational goals, such as maximizing profits, winning the game, successfully teaching sport skills to students, or healing patients -The resource-based approach focuses on the inputs of the organization. -With this approach, the effectiveness of an organization is assessed by its ability to acquire resources from the external environment and transform them into outputs. -The logic behind this approach is that without inputs or the ability to acquire them, an organization would be unable to produce outputs -The internal process approach focuses on the transformation side of the organization—the ability to process the inputs—while considering the internal well-being of the organization. -Focusing on the transformation of inputs into outputs helps ensure the organization's stability and long-term survival. -While traditional approaches contribute to understanding effectiveness, they neglect the complexity of the environment in which the organization operates (e.g., acquisition of various types of resources, multiple measures of success or effectiveness). -More contemporary approaches consider a multidimensional set of criteria

Horizontal Information Sharing and Collaboration

-This concept refers to the mechanism in place for information sharing and collaboration between departments within the organization. -Having these mechanisms in place provides a coordinated effort to ensure that all departments are united in working toward the objectives of the organization. -Horizontal information sharing and collaboration includes horizontal linkages where systems are put in place to ensure members of different departments (i.e., functional units such as manufacturing, engineering, marketing, purchasing, finance) work together effectively. -These linkages also require the use of cross-functional information systems, often in the form of computerized information systems. -Liaison roles are often created to facilitate exchanges between the departments. -This role is directly involved in coordination of the activities and fostering collaboration. -When several departments are involved, the liaison role may take the form of a task force or cross-functional teams in which members of different departments work together on innovative projects or on solving a particular problem within the organization.

Vertical Information Sharing

-This element refers to the need for the coordinated mechanisms to link the top and bottom of the hierarchy. -Daft (2021) discusses vertical "informational linkages to facilitate communication and coordination" -Organizational leaders must develop a hierarchy with a clear chain of command so that employees understand to whom they report. -In addition, they must develop rules and plans; formal procedures (e.g., job descriptions, policies) clarify who makes decisions and how decisions should be made, and plans (e.g., budget, strategy) guide the actions of employees. -Vertical information systems are also required to ensure that periodic reports, written information, and electronic communication are shared between managers and employees at all levels of the organization.

entrepreneurial stage

-This stage is based on the vision of the founder of the organization. -The founder is investing energy in all aspects of the organization (e.g., management, technical production, marketing, delivery of products or services) to ensure that the organization survives and grows. -As a catalyst for progression toward the next stage of growth, the organization typically undergoes a crisis identified as need for leadership. -During this crisis, the founder becomes overwhelmed with the quantity of work involved and with the increasing responsibilities within the organization. -As a result, the founder who created the organization needs help.

Elaboration Stage

-To address the increasing red tape, leaders and managers within the organization undertake collaboration and teamwork. -This collaboration occurs across different hierarchical levels, departments or divisions, and functions. -Leaders, managers, and employees work together to solve problems. -During this stage, formal systems may be simplified in favor of more collaboration among leaders, managers, and employees. -As the organization matures, it may experience the need for revitalization. A streamlining of operations may be necessary for the organization to respond better to a changing environment. Also, innovations provide the organization with new energy.

Here are some important questions about elements of the specific environment and stakeholders:

-Who are the consumers? What are their preferences? -Who are the suppliers? How easy is it for the organization to acquire its resources from suppliers? Does the organization deal with labor groups or unions for its workforce? -Who are competitors? For example, Nike, adidas, New Balance, and Asics are all competitors of Under Armour, but does Under Armour have other competitors? -Are clothing manufacturers that also produce leisure wear considered Under Armour's competitors? -What role does the government play in the environment? The government might be an element of the specific environment through its imposition of legislation and guidelines for the treatment of employees and consumers. Organizations must also provide details to government agencies for taxation purposes.

Contextualist approach

-approach acknowledges that change does not take place in isolation or in a brief time. -Understanding change is important, but it must be accomplished over the long term by considering three elements: content, context, and process. -To acquire a full understanding of change, one must first examine the content of change, which is best done by determining what has changed.

Ferkins and Shilbury (2012) explored strategic capability in national sport organizations (NSOs). In particular, they were interested in factors that constrained or enabled strategic function. They identified four dimensions that were considered integral to a strategically able board of directors:

-capable people (human resources), frame of reference (objectives and plan), facilitative board process (practices and structures), and facilitative regional relationships (partnerships). -Capable people is defined by individuals "who can think and act strategically, have knowledge of the sport, and can be inquisitive and impartial" -Frame of reference means that the organization clearly developed its strategy with the involvement and buy-in of all members of the board. -The facilitative board process includes a governance structure that is conducive to the implementation of the strategy, while facilitative regional relationships provide the context in which the organization can build better processes and partnerships to achieve its strategic direction.

Frontiera (2010) considered the influence that a leader such as an owner or general manager can have on supporting or changing the culture of a professional sport team. He found:

-found that leaders recognized dysfunctional culture—manifested in artifacts, such as substandard facilities—and made efforts to change culture by articulating a vision for the team or organization, clearly expressing values, changing personnel, hiring and developing employees, and engaging in explicit communication. -Frontiera concluded that cultural understanding is essential for sport leaders to guide and direct the organization to achieve goals.

What do economies of scope represent?

-represent savings originating from the maximization of resources used throughout the organization. -Scope refers to "economies by having a number and variety of products and services or by operating in a number and variety of regions, countries, and markets" -An organization that has a large scope is better equipped to realize economies by being able to serve more clients in more markets. -For example, Endeavor (an international talent and media agency representing professional athletes, artists, and entertainers) has a global presence in more than 30 countries that provide the company with a definite advantage over other marketing, representation, and sport event organizations. -Endeavor's scope allows the organization to serve more clients around the globe without expending considerable resources because it is already well established in many countries. In this way, Endeavor maximizes its resources.

What do economies of scale represent?

-represent savings that originate from the mass production of goods and services (i.e., increasing the scale of operations). -As an organization produces more goods and services, it can realize savings by buying raw material in larger volume and by maximizing the use of specialized labor or machinery in producing, distributing, and selling these products and services. -Economies of scale can result in improved efficiencies within an organization. A greater volume of production and distribution, for instance, enhances the skills of employees in carrying out those tasks. -For example, if your sport marketing agency occasionally undertakes market research for professional sport franchises, it will realize economies of scale when it conducts additional market research for other sport organizations. -The agency has already developed the survey tools and data management systems needed for market research. -Refining and customizing those tools takes less time than developing them from scratch. -In addition, as the employees of the agency undertake more market research contracts from various clients, they will become more knowledgeable, competent, and comfortable with conducting market research, resulting in greater process efficiencies.

How did Daft define organizational design?

-the features and traits of an organization that allow it to undertake various activities and achieve objectives. -Consider organizational design as the structural configurations that leaders use to arrange an organization's activities and operations to achieve goals. -In order to best design the organization, leaders must understand three things: the required work activities, the reporting relationships, and the departmental grouping options

What is organizational change?

-the process by which leaders of organizations adopt new ideas and behaviors to enhance operations, products, services, and programs. -To remain competitive, relevant, and viable, organizations constantly undergo change. -Sometimes, organizational change involves innovation or a novel way to approach problems. -Innovation leads to new or improved products, services, or processes that enable organizations to operate more efficiently and effectively. -The following sections discuss key frameworks of organizational change and innovation.

In the context of sport, several researchers have applied the work of Oliver (1990) on the organizational motives behind the creation of partnerships. Oliver uncovered the following six motives leading organizations to collaborate:

1) Asymmetry. An organization's choice to enter into partnerships to exercise power over another organization or its resources. 2) Reciprocity. The creation of partnerships to achieve common or mutual goals or activities. 3) Necessity. Partnerships created to respond to legal obligations or regulations set by another organization (e.g., government). 4) Legitimacy. The creation of partnerships to provide credibility or enhance reputation, image, or authority. 5) Efficiency. The need for an organization to improve its input-output ratio; partnerships may be created to decrease the cost of raw materials needed for producing goods and services. 6) Stability. The development of partnerships to reduce uncertainty and increase predictability for the organization.

The managers and leaders of organizations use strategies, or plans, to cope with the environment. A plan is a course of action or a direction in which to move the organization from one point to another. The development of a plan involves the following four steps:

1)Identifying the goals, objectives, and mission of the organization. The strategy must be congruent with the goals, objectives, and mission. 2)Determining the strategic objectives. This step involves assessing what the organization wants to achieve with the strategy and includes the SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis involves an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the organization and the opportunities and threats in the organization's environment. 3)Identifying the resources required to implement the strategy. Without adequate resources, the organization will find it difficult to implement the strategy. 4)Establishing a time line and identifying milestones. A time line is used for implementing the strategy, and milestones aid in assessing whether the organization is on target to achieve its objectives

How did Daft explain the environment?

As Daft (2021) explained, the environment is defined as "everything that exists outside the boundary of an organization and has the potential to affect all or part of the organization" (p. 148). definition: all elements outside of the organization's boundary that could potentially affect all or part of the organization

Pettigrew's contextual approach to organizational change has been applied to the sport context. Give an ex.

As an example, Thibault and Babiak (2005) used Pettigrew's framework to investigate changes in Canada's sport system. They were specifically interested in examining how and why the Canadian sport system changed to accommodate greater involvement from athletes. They found that increased representation by athletes on decision-making boards of sport organizations, greater funding of athletes, creation of national sport training centers, and creation of a forum for athletes to resolve conflicts between themselves and sport organizations or coaches all contributed to an athlete-centered sport system. The authors were able to understand the nature of the change that had occurred in light of the context in which Canada's sport system operated and the leadership role assumed by change agents to bring about the adoption of more athlete-centered change in the sport system

These motives for partnership creation were featured in research by Babiak (2007) and Turner and Shilbury (2010).

Babiak studied a training center for high-performance elite athletes and its network of partnerships. The training center's motives for developing partnerships with other nonprofit organizations, with public organizations, and with commercial organizations were varied, but these alliances contributed to the center's strategy to enhance the training environment of the athletes. Turner and Shilbury examined the development of partnerships between clubs of the Australian Football League and the National Rugby League with broadcasters. They found different motives for clubs to undertake strategic alliances with broadcasters. Furthermore, the authors discussed the effect of broadcasting technologies on the establishment of partnerships.

Carroll (1999) identified four dimensions of CSR:

CSR: economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary. His view was that in being socially responsible, organizations should engage in behaviors that serve the organization financially but that are within the boundaries of the law and morally ethical (an obligation to do what is right and fair), and they should be good corporate citizens by contributing to the community and improving the quality of life of those affected by the organization's activities. Porter and Kramer (2006) extended these concepts to consider the role of social responsibility as a source of competitive advantage for organizations and to consider that the capacity exists for companies to maximize their social agendas while at the same time advancing their business agendas. In this way, ethics and social responsibility are now being woven into the fabric and strategy of many organizational activities. In sport, these efforts are being examined by authors from many different perspectives including environmental responsibility, community involvement and relations, fan and customer perspectives, and philanthropy.

How did Daft define organizations?

Daft defined organizations as "social entities that are goal-directed, are designed as deliberately structured and coordinated activity systems, and are linked to the external environment" (p. 14). Coordinated actions lead to the creation of social entities (i.e., organizations) in which people work collectively to achieve goals. In essence, people work collectively because achieving goals is often easier when working together.

innovation

Discovering new ways of doing things can lead to growth and differentiation, and thus strategic renewal. Different types of innovations include product and process innovations.

How have sport management scholars expounded on the importance of dev critical thinking skills?

For instance, Frisby (2005) proposed that sport management educators become "versed in critical social science theories" so that they can help students become "strong critical thinkers who will make positive contributions to society" (p. 5). In a similar approach, Thibault (2009) applied critical thinking to her analysis of globalization and sport and encouraged academics and practitioners to consider the "inconvenient truths" of globalization for those without power. The clear implication is that, as a managers of the future, you will need exceptional critical thinking skills to make the necessary decisions to deal effectively and responsibly with the myriad challenges that you will encounter. This type of critical perspective may allow for different and more effective and appropriate organizational decisions to be made.

nonprofit organizations

In nonprofit organizations (also called volunteer or voluntary organizations), volunteer executives (boards of directors) are responsible for the strategy and management of the organizations. They may hire paid staff to assist in carrying out day-to-day operations, but the volunteer executives are ultimately in charge of making decisions and setting the strategic directions for the organizations.

Ethics in Sport Organizations

In recent years, ethical issues in sport have arisen involving performance enhancing drugs, gambling addiction and match fixing, social justice, violence in sport, overtraining of children involved in high-performance sport, eating disorders among athletes, recruitment violations within intercollegiate athletic programs, athlete hazing, and questionable behaviors from athletes, coaches, and referees on and off the court or field. Although rules, procedures, and codes of ethics are developed within sport organizations, those responsible for upholding the standards of the organizations do not always respect them. Managers and leaders of sport organizations are constantly facing situations, events, and issues that challenge their ability to make ethical decisions.

matrix design

In this design, product and function are both central to the operation of the organization. For example, in a company that produces many different products, a product manager will work with the production team as well as members of the various departments of the organization (e.g., design and engineering, manufacturing, marketing, finance). In this type of design, vertical and horizontal structures work together simultaneously

Geographic design

In this design, the focus is geography. Different regions of a country or the world may have specific and distinct needs that require organizational design based on location. Multinational corporations need to consider location and be sensitive to cultural elements, such as language, education, and religion, in their design

product innovation

Product innovations relate to the creation of new product designs or the development of new products. Examples of product innovations in sport include The Player's Tribune and wearable performance tracking technologies. Process innovations improve the efficiency or effectiveness of organizational processes. Patagonia's Common Threads recycling program for apparel is an example of a process innovation. In sport, process innovations may relate to the game (recruiting, conditioning, and strategy of play) or the entertainment and viewership experience in person (e.g., stadium, arena, ballpark) and at home (e.g., television, streaming). Yoshida and colleagues found that sport event innovativeness, in terms of both product and process, affects consumer behavior. The greater consumers' perceptions of the innovativeness of the sport event are, the more likely they are to plan to attend in the future.

commercial organizations

The main goal of commercial organizations is to make a profit. Commercial organizations include professional sport teams and sport equipment manufacturers and retailers. Organizations that offer sport or sport-related services, such as sport agencies, private golf clubs, downhill ski and snowboard resorts, fitness clubs, tennis and racket clubs, and wall-climbing facilities, also typically operate as commercial organizations. Finally, sport broadcast and media companies that own and manage sport facilities and events tend to be commercial, for-profit businesses.

Centralized versus decentralized

These concepts refer to the hierarchical levels in the organization and who has authority to make decisions

public organizations

These entities include federal and state government agencies as well as regional and local government departments responsible for delivering recreation and sport programs and maintaining public fields, arenas, swimming pools, and parks.

holacracy team design

This design involves a self-management approach. It allows flexibility among employees in order to enhance opportunities for innovation within the organization. Autonomy is an important aspect of this design, and trust in employees' abilities to achieve organizational objectives must be central. In addition, power is shared in the organization. Highly functional individuals who work well in teams (rather than departments) with specialized skills (e.g., high-tech companies) may operate successfully in this type of design.

divisional design

This design is based on the outputs of the organization—the products they produce. Different units are organized by different products. In the context of sport organizations, adidas is an example of an organization that operates as different divisions based on their line of products—adidas, TaylorMade, Salomon, and Reebok.

managers and leaders should consider several approaches to evaluating organizational effectiveness:

Traditional approaches include the goal approach, the resource-based approach, and the internal process approach. Contemporary approaches include the competing-values approach and the stakeholder approach

How did Edgar Schein define organizational culture?

as "a pattern of basic assumptions—invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that have worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems"

Organizations undertake the process of developing a strategy to gain a competitive advantage over rivals. Organizations may achieve this advantage by ...

by acquiring scarce resources. For sport organizations, scarce resources may be financial resources, sponsorship opportunities, media visibility, participants or athletes, clients, members and fans, market share, equipment, or facilities. Access to these resources can lead to success in sport competitions, or it can lead to greater profits because of increased fan attendance at games or increased sales of sporting goods. Strategies are extremely important for leaders and managers because they outline the major direction and future activities of the organization. As such, strategies serve as road maps for organizations.

When leaders and managers at the top of the hierarchy handle the decision-making activities, the organization is ____

centralized

Daft (2021) identifies four foundational elements to structure:

centralized versus decentralized; vertical information sharing; horizontal information sharing and collaboration; and relational coordination.

Another framework for studying organizational change is the ______ approach developed by Pettigrew

contextualist

An extension of ethical considerations in sport organizations is the broader framing of ...

corporate social responsibility (CSR)

When decision making is delegated to levels throughout the organization, the organization is ___

decentralized

Olberding (2003) investigated the strategies of 33 Olympic sport organizations in the United States. He examined the following elements:

each organization's competitive position relative to other U.S. sport organizations, the domestic sport programs, the level of participation in the sport in the country, the costs involved in taking part in the sport, the level of visibility of the sport, the extent to which the sport was entrenched in the grass roots, the opportunities for competitions in the sport, and the new programs being developed within the organization.

By working collectively, however, organizations can achieve ...

economies of scale and economies of scope

The four stages of growth for organizations are...

entrepreneurial, collectivity, formalization, and elaboration.

Significant challenges of innovation

funding for innovation can be inadequate, new skills may be necessary, and decisions regarding who will lead projects and their scope and pace are complicated and sometimes contentious. Given these challenges, Kanter argues for the need to create a culture of innovation. In particular, organizations should use incentives and recognition to promote innovative behavior. Further, a climate of innovation can be fostered through celebrating failure, promoting transparency, and adopting slack time. Regarding specific innovations, a champion can facilitate adoption and implementation. These individuals or groups emerge, often informally, to promote particular innovations within the organization. Comeaux argues for the role of head coaches as champions of educational innovation for student-athletes to improve student learning.

The environment can be divided into 2 categories:

general and specific

organizational structure

identifies the formal positions and reporting relationships within organizations; specifies the grouping of individuals into functions, roles, and departments; and includes designs for effective communication, coordination, and integration of the work to be achieved within the organization

Where do most children dev sports skills?

in school physical education courses, intramural activities, and interschool competitions within the education system. They may also take advantage of community sports organized by local governments and nonprofit sport clubs. For highly skilled, competitive athletes, opportunities are available in college and university sport programs, amateur sport organizations, and professional sport organizations.

In their quest to achieve goals, organizations secure ___and transform them into ___

inputs, outputs

Other types of organizations provide opportunities for passive participation in sport. Give examples

media organizations (e.g., web-based, television, radio, print) keep people informed about sport. People can attend sport competitions in their communities, schools, and professional sport venues.

Each of these stages is punctuated by a respective crisis:

need for leadership, need for delegation with control, need to deal with too much red tape, and need for revitalization.

Organizational structure and design go hand in hand and vary extensively between organizations based on a variety of dimensions, such as...

organizational function, size, and scope. Possible designs include functional, divisional, geographic, matrix, virtual network structure and outsourcing, and holacracy team design.

Some research on strategy has focused on the development of...

partnerships (also known as interorganizational relationships or strategic alliances) with other organizations as a method to retain or gain a competitive advantage. All three types of sport organizations—public, nonprofit, and commercial—are increasingly involved in alliances with other organizations to capitalize on opportunities and access more resources; to increase programs, services, and products offered to members or clients; and to reduce uncertainty.

As identified in the CSM sport industry sectors model, there are 3 types of sport organizations:

public organizations, nonprofit organizations, and commercial organizations

efficiency

refers to the achievement of goals using minimal resources to produce outputs

How is critical thinking important in sport organizations?

sport leaders, managers, and employees with good critical thinking skills are better able to solve problems, make informed decisions, and develop comprehensive plans and strategies for the organization. Given the constant flux in the environment, sport managers must adopt a critical thinking approach whereby they can analyze and evaluate information, facts, evidence, assumptions, ideas, and implications.

A more recent study by Hindman and Walker (2020) explored how organizational culture affects women's experiences with sexism in professional sport. They investigated the effect of overt and subtle sexism on the professional and emotional consequences for women working in a men's professional league. They found:

that organizational culture supports and perpetuates sexism, which can be reflected in numerous ways including "background of the organization, physical artifacts, gender awareness, management style, communication and language, work ideology (the home-work divide), time management, informal socializing, and sexuality"

Effectiveness

the extent to which the goals are achieved

One framework of organizational change is the ...

the organizational life cycle or the model of organizational growth. This framework considers the various stages of evolution and revolution that an organization experiences as it evolves through its life cycle. Figure 3.2 provides a graphic illustration of the evolution and revolution stages as an organization grows.

functional design

this design helps organizations centralize functional expertise in one area. Employees with the same knowledge and expertise are grouped together into departments or units, such as finance, marketing, design, and manufacturing

True or false? Every organization also has an informal dimension. Formal and informal relationships operate simultaneously within a sport organization. Informal relationships among employees can take many forms, such as employees who have lunch together on a regular basis and discuss topics such as sports and company politics. Informal relationships are not officially acknowledged in the structure of the organization, but they are likely to compete with or support the formal organization. Although the formal organization cannot control informal relationships, encouraging a positive organizational culture will increase the likelihood of mutual support.

true

true or false? Typically, organizations are not completely centralized or decentralized

true; some decisions may be centralized (e.g., hiring and firing of employees, establishing the strategic direction of the organization), whereas others may be decentralized (e.g., purchasing organizational supplies, determining marketing strategies for products and services).