Exam 1

Which of the following is one of the six concepts of audience research when discussing how big of an audience does the message reach? A) Internal Audience B) Children's Audience C) Prime Time Audience D) External Audience E) Attentive Audience

E) Attentive Audience

All of the following are positive reasons to use experiments except: A) They are good for establishing causality B) They are relatively inexpensive C) They give the researcher a lot of control D) They allow us to make decisions about what "ought" to be E) They allow observation of people in natural settings

E) They allow observation of people in natural settings

What is meta analysis?

*A means of systematically integrating the findings from many empirical studies Used to provide a "big picture"

Pros of Longitudinal Research

*Can see change over time Rule out some alternate explanations

What is Triangulation?

*Multiple methodologies are used Combine results are more compelling than any single methodology Programmatic research increases creditability

Cons of Longitudinal Research

*Validity threats Historical events & Selection Bias *Time and cost

What is Magic Bullet Theory?

-Perspective of much early research (People are socially isolated, have uniform instincts, and not influenced by social ties)-Human nature and isolation = similar reception and interpretation-Direct, immediate, powerful, and uniform effects-War of the worlds example: But....not really uniform effects

What are Biocca's different definitions of "activity"?

1. Selectivity a. Planned use prior to exposure 2. Utilitarianism a. Satisfaction of a specific need 3. Intentionality a. Active progressing during use 4. Resistance to Influence Active resistance during processing 5. Involvement Caught up in experience during use

What are the three criteria for causality?

1.) Correlation 2.) Time Order 3.) No Third Variable Cause

What are the five categories central to the media-society debate?

1.) Ownership: should be plurality (not monopolized) 2.) Order: should assist in maintenance 3.) Expectations: should be fair, accurate, & complete. 4.) Values: should support dominant values of society 5.) Rights: should respect the rights of an individual

Which author became famous for his five question model of media effects: A) Harold Lasswell B) Walter Lippmann C) Paul Lazarsfeld D) Joseph Klapper E) Samuel Stouffer

A) Harold Lasswell

Which dichotomy is NOT one of the conflicting influences on organizations and individuals? A) Commerce vs. art. B) Liberal vs. conservative. C) Constraint vs. autonomy. D) Profit vs. social purpose. E) Routine production vs. creativity

B) Liberal vs. conservative.

What is hegemony?

A term used to describe the power of the media to covertly promote a particular ideology among the masses

The "Fourth Estate" refers to the notion that? A) The media is a public trust and should be free but self-regulated. B) The media should be heavily regulated by the government. C) The media should be owned by the elite of society. D) Media access should be free and available for all citizens. E) Media are property owners just like individuals.

A) The media is a public trust and should be free but self-regulated.

A model of communication based on principles of stimulus-response psychology is which kind of model? A) linear B) interactive C) transactional D) false E) reciprocal

A) linear

Which part of the culture-society relations typology would say that society has a big impact on culture, but culture does not impact society? A) materialism B) idealism C) interdependence D) autonomy E) regulation

A) materialism

What are the different critical perspectives of media content? What are their characteristic differences?

Ability to fulfill intended functions and domination of media established. Marxist says media contains images to ruling class. Audience uncritically consume these

Cons of Laboratory Experiments

Artifact-setting may affect a participant's behavior Experimental base

All of the following characterized 1920's Mass Society except: A) Interpersonal communication became more difficult B) Media became important information sources C) Trust became increasing important to social structure D) Social differentiation increased E) People had less-strong interpersonal ties to one another

C) Trust became increasing important to social structure

What are surveys?

Assess the measurable characteristic of a naturally occurring population

What is content analysis?

Assesses what is present in media Purely Descriptive

What are the four main types of audiences?

Audience as a group or public, gratification set as audience, the Medium audience, audience as defined by content

Nick wants to study the effect of violent media on children. To do this, he designs an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to two either view a violent movie or a non-violent movie, and then Nick measures the children's aggressive behaviors. What method of research is this? A) Content analysis B) Experiment C) Survey D) Meta-analysis E) Triangulation

B) Experiment

The goal of the behavioral tradition in audience research is: A) To obtain reliable estimates of size B) Finding media effects and media uses C) Concern with popular culture D) Identifying reflections of particular social-culture E) None of the above

B) Finding media effects and media uses

As a cultural theorist, you are concerned with the portrayal of homosexual men on network television. Specifically, you are concerned that the stereotype of the "effeminate gay man" that is glorified in shows like Queer Eye for the Straight Guy and Will and Grace is an unfair, negative representation of homosexual men. What is your specific concern? A) As people lose their individual cultures, mass society is ignoring gay men. B) Not all homosexual men are "prissy" and you worry that this representation is an unfair, negative stereotype of homosexuality as a subculture. C) You're worried that newer cable technologies are not as accessible to homosexuals as they are to other parts of the population. D) You're concerned that advertisers are unfairly marketing their shows in order to appeal to a homosexual base that may have more expendable income. E) None of the above.

B) Not all homosexual men are "prissy" and you worry that this representation is an unfair, negative stereotype of homosexuality as a subculture.

According to Lazarsfeld, opinion leaders receive information from the media and then pass it along to many others (i.e., many people thus learn indirectly from the media). This is known as what? A) Opinion leadership model B) Two step flow model C) Interactive model D) Transactional model E) Media flow theory

B) Two step flow model

The Payne Fund Studies focused on which of the following: A) the impact of widespread television adoption B) the impact of violent and sexually explicit film on children C) the impact of war propaganda in the U.S. and Europe D) the impact of comic book readership among children E) the impact of socialism on children's media usage

B) the impact of violent and sexually explicit film on children

What is the fourth estate?

Based on the theory of the free press, right to publish free of censorship is essential for a democracy, but what if profit motives of press owners promote self-interest

What is traditional content analysis?

Basic sequence (implement sample, categories, unitizing, coding, data analysis) Two main assumptions, frequency of occurrence will express 'meaning', link between the external object and reference will be clear Limits to traditional analysis, risk of imposing an incorrect meaning-system, imposing a meaning-system that says shooting someone is more violent than stabbing someone but viewers might think the opposite

Which of the following is not one of the questions in Lasswell's five question model of communication? A) Who? B) Says what? C) When? D) To whom? E) Through what channel?

C) When?

President Woodrow Wilson established this agency during World War I to engage in propaganda and censorship activities: A) Office of Technology Assessment B) Central Intelligence Agency C) Committee on Public Information D) National Security Agency E) Federal Radio Commission

C) Committee on Public Information

Ex-President Bill Clinton has just donated $3 billion to a world-wide initiative to curb global warming. Rupert Murdoch, the head of Fox News and an ardent opponent of Clinton and his green policies, does not want his news organization to cover the event. How would he flex his influence and promote his personal agenda? A) At the editorial meeting, Murdoch "called out" his editors, telling them that "this Clinton this is just a press party" and not to glorify it with a news story. B) As a content editor, Murdoch simply buries the story, placing it in the "not fit for print" pile of his desk. C) In the company's pre-existing editorial guidelines, the policy is "let the rain forest burn" and, thus, the story is bumped for coverage of a car bombing in Kabul. D) Murdoch doesn't really have much influence in the situation, and coverage of the event is up to his editorial staff. E) None of the above

C) In the company's pre-existing editorial guidelines, the policy is "let the rain forest burn" and, thus, the story is bumped for coverage of a car bombing in Kabul.

Which of the following types of communication is least likely to involve mutual interaction: A) interpersonal communication B) media communication C) mass communication D) All three are likely to involve mutual interaction. E) None of these are likely to involve mutual interaction.

C) mass communication

What media audience model is associated with Clausse?

Clausse's 5-layer model: demonstrates how most communication receives a small fraction of its potential attention and impact

What is information theory?

Communication is the intentional transfer of information Content should be judged by its efficient in reducing uncertainty Informative text, pictures, and narratives can be quantified to judge effectiveness

Mass Society Theory

Corresponds to the 'dominance' model of media power Media is controlled by a dominant elite Rupert Murdock - owns Fox News and many large media organizations all by himself Produce standardized content promoting own interests Strong influence on audience

Pros of Laboratory Experiments

Criteria for causality Research control Low cost Easy to replicate

Which theory of media-society relations claims that the media creates a false consciousness among the working class? A) Functionalism B) Mass Society theory C) Modernization and Development theory D) Marxist Theory E) Democracy

D) Marxist Theory

You were listening to the Mercury Broadcasting Company's rendition of War of the Worlds on Oct. 20, 1938. Unlike your neighbors, you knew the broadcast was purely for entertainment. Of the options below, all are reasons why you were not afraid except which one? A) You tuned into the radio broadcast at the beginning and hear the disclaimer B) You heard several inconsistencies in the broadcast and, thus, didn't trust it. C) You lived in Downer's Grove, New Jersey and were not aware of any commotion. D) Your radio, like most radios of the day, often malfunctioned and was not working that night; thus, you never heard the broadcast. E) You were skeptical of the radio broadcast, and checked the reports with other media outlets. Thus, you discovered that since no other news outlets were covering the "invasion" it must have been a hoax.

D) Your radio, like most radios of the day, often malfunctioned and was not working that night; thus, you never heard the broadcast.

Pros of Content Analysis

Describes what's on Helps identify areas of interest or concern

Cons of Survey

Does not show causality Poor data quality (self report)

Powerful Media Effects

Early scientists assumed powerful effects (Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle, Mass society allowed strong media influence, Payne Fund studies interpreted as evidence)

What is structuralism? What are its characteristic features?

Explores the nature of sign systems that regulate latent meaning of texts Suggests that signs evoke meaning by their use and associations within a culture Goal is to identify the 'cultural meaning' of medial contentSign composed of signifier plus signified --> signification --> referent (external reality), signification = process of giving meaning, using a sign to give meaning to a referent (some aspect of reality) Texts have meaning built-in by way of language, meanings depend on a wider cultural and linguistic frame of reference Sign-sytems can be 'decoded' using knowledge of culture and sign-system, this helps us identify 'cultural meaning' of media

Bernald Berelson

Five variables in generalization There is evidence that: some communication on some issues, on some people, under some conditions, has some effects

Limited Media Effects

Focus shifts to individual's post-depression. Interactivity in groups limited impact of media. Paul Lazarsfeld: 1944 election study People's Choice. Carl Holland: U.S. War Department research. Joseph Klapper: 1960, Effects of Mass Communications

What is the culturalist perspective?

Focuses on aspects of media including: producer practices, media content, and audience reaction

Pros of Survey

Generalizability Good for description

What is a model?

Graphic means of explicating and abstract process of communication

Modernization and Development Theory

Media can promote modernization and development, particularly in the developing world Media can disseminate, skills and technical know-how, progressive work ethics, democracy Media can aid educational, health, welfare programs

What were the trends leading to modern society?

Industrialization Urbanization Modernization

What defines mass communication?

Large scale distribution and reception process characterized by: OIAMS 1.) One-directional informational flow 2.) Impersonal source and anonymous receiver 3.) Asymmetrical source-receiver association (organized powerful source) 4.) Market (i.e. economic) exchange relationship 5.) Standardized message content

What are some of the characteristics of the modern mass media audience?

Larger, more dispersed , individualized and privatized

What are the types of theories of media-society relations?

Macro-theories: dealing with the media as part of the larger social setting Media institution theories: focusing on the workings of the media as organizations Audience theories: concerned with audience uses of media Mainly concerned with: power, social integration, social change Values will influence the perception of these categories

What are the four typologies of culture-society relations?

Materialism: society --> media Idealism: media --> society Interdependence: media <-- --> society Autonomy: society Media

Pros and Cons of Field Experiment

May raise ethical issues Does not allow for much physical contact

How does technology influence culture?

Media Logic, looks at the potential of the media to construct real events, pseudo-reality Cultivation, cultivation theory, media technology (television in particular) can only focus on some aspects of social life, it creates false perceptions of social life Postmoden culture, culture that's characterized by diversity, uncertainty, etc Global culture, one definition: "A mass media dominate society in which there is no originality but only copies of what has been done before"

Critical Political-Economic Theory

Media economics and technology concentrates ownership. Results in commodification of content and audiences, diversity of available information decreases, oppositional positions become marginalized Public interest is subordinated to private interests

Joseph Klapper

Media effect generalization, ordinarily, media is not a necessary or sufficient cause of change (change can occur without media, media doesn't cause change). Typically, mediating (moderating) factors result in media being an agent of reinforcement rather than change. When media does cause change, two things are likely: mediating factors are inoperative allowing a direct mass media effect, mediating factors themselves impel change. Media effects do occur in certain residual situations

Marxist Theory

Middle/ruling class controls media Media and other social institutions operate in owner's interest Media creates false consciousness among working-class Middle/ruling class monopolizes media to halt political opposition & preserves status quo

Transaction Model

Models that emphasize the interdependency of how messages are formulated, exchanged and interpreted Ex: OTA Transactional Model

Information Society Theory

New communication technology promotes social change characterized by: an economy based on the production of information as a commodity, the prominence of information related occupations, a greater volume of information flow, integration and convergence of activities (i.e. an information society)

Cons of Content Analysis

No evidence of media effect Incomplete picture (limited to category)

Theory of social responsibility concluded (fourth estate)

Ownership of the media is a public trust, large companies have the right to broadcast on certain frequencies, they are granted these frequencies as a public trust (pay for the right to do it). Press must be truthful, accurate & objective. Press should be free but self-regulated (free of censorship), means that the government should not control what messages are distributed but the industry itself should set up norms/guidelines/rules that everyone should follow Government should intervene only to protect the public interest

What are laboratory experiments?

Participants are studied in a controlled setting Cause is easier to identify

What are field experiments?

Participants are studied in real-life settings Behaviors are more natural

Carl Hovland

Pioneer Effects of military training films. *Experimental research about media effects on attitude change, first experiments in mass communication. At the end of WWII, the military came to him for help to help them develop persuasive messages and strategies to convince Americans to sacrifice things at home and go into war and kill people (found out it wasn't so easy to do)

Samuel Stouffer

Pioneer. *Pioneered the use of empirical (observable/scientific) research, emphasized control for audience traits, noted problems for measuring cumulative effects. Known for pushing communication scholars to use scientific research

Kurt Lewin

Pioneer. Dynamics of group communication "sweetbreads study"

Paul Lazarsfeld

Pioneer. Effects of radio. *"Opinion leaders", *Two-step flow model of media effect. People's choice study

Douglas Waples

Pioneer. Famous definition of communication "Who says what to whom by what channel with what effects" (Lasswell, 1948) *Added "under what conditions", this addition as been the focus of most mass communication research for the last 50 years and probably the next 50 years too

Harold Lasswell

Pioneer. Five-question model: helps organized different aspects of mass media effect research Content analysis, propaganda research, Freudian analysis 3 functions mass communications: to inform, to guide, to educate

Wilbur Schramm

Pioneer. Known as the father of mass communication study. Mediating Factors (or moderating), focus on different reactions to the same media. Selective process, selective exposure, selective perception, selective retention. Social categories perspective, similar populations have similar reactions, moderate to powerful media effects are possible. Why different people have different reactions to the same things

Perspective of 19th Century Beginnings

Powerful Media Effects Limited Media Effects Effects of Varying Levels

How is quality evaluated in research using a "media performance discourse" approach?

Quality of information is measurable Usually based on some notion of public interest such as: freedom and independence, content diversity, news objectivity, reality reflection or distortion

Research Outcomes for Survey

Research Outcomes 1.) Describe characteristics of population a. How concerned are you about the amount of violence depicted in movies, TV shows, etc.? Very Concerned, Fairly Concerned, Not Very Concerned, Not At All Concerned 2.) Establish associations or relationships between variables a. Positive- as x increases, y increases b. Negative- as x increases, y decreses

What is longitudinal research?

Research observing outcomes at more than one point in time Two types: Panel Study and Cohort StudyPanel Study Exact same sample (same people) Multiple points at time Ex: Huesmann (1986)- Compared TV watching to aggressive behavior Cohort Study Different sample (different people) Observe at multiple time points Ex: Sesame St study on readiness of Kindergarten

What are the major perspectives of mass communication research?

Social Scientific and the Culturalist

Communication Technology Determinism

Social change is a direct result of communication technological innovation The form, content or use of each new technology is biased, toward the manipulation of time or space These biases influence social change, bias toward oral skills, visual skills, or different mental processes Communication revolution leads to social change, those who harness these forms control production and distribution of knowledge

What characterized 1920's mass society?

Social differentiation increases Informal social controls weaken Communication becomes more difficult Media becomes important information sources Anomie: "Normless-ness"

Albert Bandura

Social learning theory Social cognitive theory Big impact on the study of mass media effects Best known for his research on children and exposure to media violence (Bobo study)

Functionalism Theory

Society is composed of interdependent institution(including media), all respond and contribute to needs of society Media contributes by: promoting order, control and stability. Maintaining and transmitting culture, norms, and values. Reducing tension by providing entertainment

Effects of Varying Levels

Strong or weak effect may occur under different context.

What characterizes the Payne Fund Studies?

Studies do not really show uniform effects. Still many saw overall effect as very strong

What are the six major concepts of reach?

The 'available' (or potential) audience The 'paying' audience The 'attentive' audience The 'internal' audience (attention to particular content) The 'cumulative' audience: % reached overtime The 'target' audience

What is commercialization?

The media becomes profits driven (at the expense of values like credibility, trustworthiness) and operates like any other business

What is meant by the term mediation?

The media's role in providing knowledge. Mediation creates relationships with objects not directly known. Provides versions of events not directly experienced, creates "contact" with actors, politicians, and others not otherwise accessible, cultivates particular perceptions of people, place and events

What 4 areas of concerns do cultural theorists deal with?

The notion of a mass culture Questions of gender and subculture The role of new technology Political-economic issues

What is commodification?

The process or treatment of media (content, audiences) as things that can be bought and sold with no disregard for its cultural value

What is characteristic of normative theory?

Value judgment concerning how media ought to operate Early scholar focused mostly on information media

What are the conflicting influences on organizations and individuals?

Two central issues; how much freedom does a media organization possess, and how much is possible within the organizational structure? How do media-organizational routines and procedures from selecting and processing content influence what is processed?

Why was the "War of Worlds" so important?

Used as evidence of powerful media effects. However, no all viewers reacted the same.

What is Lasswell's five-factor model of communication?

Who... <communication> control research ...Says what...<message> content research ...In which channel... <channel> medium research ...To whom... <receiver> audience research ...With what effect... <effect> effect research

What are the five media-organizational relations that organizations have with outside forces? How do those relations impact content?

With society With pressure groups With owners, clients and suppliers With an audience With internal to the organization itself

Linear Model

based on principles of stimulus response psychology Ex: Shannon Weaver Model

What can be said about the Payne Fund Studies?

interpreted as evidence of Magic Bullet Theory

Interactive Model

stressing feedback and exchange Ex: Schramm Interactive Model

How do structural features and organizational routines/practices affect media content?

structural features (e.g. size, function ownership) influence organization conduct, performance, and product Organizational routines, practice and goals can influence media content- often more strongly than personal or ideological factors