Exam 1

NSC 68

" National Security Council report 68 " 66 page top secret policy paper by the USNSC presented to Truman on April 14, 1950 " One of the most important statements of American Policy that launched the Cold War. " Provided the blueprint for the militarization of the Cold War from 1950 to the collapse of the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1990's. " Advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the US, the development of the Hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the US " A more aggressive policy than containment, called for the rolling back of Communist influence

Francisco Franco

" 4 December 1892 - 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator from 1939, after the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War, until his death in 1975. This period in Spanish history is commonly known as Francoist Spain. " His party was supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side was composed partially of communists and was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico, and other international brigades. " While officially remained neutral during the War, he gave military aid to the Axis powers.

Declaration of Four Nations

" Agreement signed by China, the U.S., Britain, and Russia " This agreement sent up the guidelines of power that would help to determine the postwar world

Operation Overlord

" Allied invasion of Europe in Normandy on June 6th 1944, typically referred to as D-Day " Gained the Allied powers a foothold into Nazi-controlled Europe " It began the Allied campaign to reach Berlin and official end the war in Europe

Walter Lippman

" American political commentator famous for introducing concept of a "Cold War"

appeasement

" Appeasement in an international context is a diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict.[1] The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of the British Prime Ministers Ramsay MacDonald, Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain towards Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy[2] between 1935 and 1939. " The Munich conference, during which Nazi Germany was allowed to occupy the Sudetenland, a primarily German area of Czechoslovakia, is considered a major instance of appeasement.

The china white paper

" August 1949, Truman Administration published this paper " Explained past US policy toward China based upon the principle that only chinese forces could determine the outcome of their civil war " The China White Paper, released by the Truman administration in 1949, aimed to absolve the U.S.government of responsibility for the loss of China to the Communists. However, instead of silencing domestic critics of the administration's China policy, it provided fuel for further criticism at home and an opportunity for anti-American propaganda in China, thereby hurting U.S. interests.

Operation Torch

" British and US landings in North Africa to defeat Erwin Rommel and stop the Nazi expansion " US favored invading Europe, but Roosevelt agreed to assist the British as they believed invading Europe at this point would end in disaster

cash and carry

" Cash and carry was a policy requested by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939, subsequent to the outbreak of war in Europe. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936. The revision allowed the sale of materiel to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation.[citation needed] However, the sale of war materials was not allowed

George Marshall

" Chief of Staff during World War II " Hailed a hero for his leadership and organization of the Allied military in the campaign to defeat the Axis powers " As Secretary of State, he formulated postwar European recovery program " This program was designed to help Europe rebuild a war-torn continent and modernize the economy

Blitzkrieg

" Developed by the Nazis during World War II " Attacking force utilizes a combination of mechanized infantry and armour with close air support to destroy the enemy's defense in a swift and intense manner

Easter Europe

" What came to be known as the "Iron Curtain" " Became a buffer zone between the USSR and the West (Capitalist Democracies)

Spheres of Influence

" Where one country influences another politically, economically, etc. despite having no formal authority in this area

arsenal of democracy

" During the Second World War (1939-45), the Arsenal of Democracy was the slogan used by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in a radio broadcast delivered on 29 December 1940. Roosevelt promised to help the United Kingdom fight Nazi Germany by giving them military supplies while the United States stayed out of the actual fighting. The president announced that intent a year before the Attack on Pearl Harbor (7 December 1941), at a time when Germany had occupied much of Europe and threatened Britain. " Nazi Germany was allied with Fascist Italy and the Empire of Japan (the Axis powers). At the time, Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a nonaggression treaty under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and had jointly affected the Invasion of Poland (1939), a Realpolitik deal that remained effective until the Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, in 1941. " Roosevelt's address was "a call to arm and support" the Allies in Europe, and, to a lesser extent, arm and support the Republic of China (1912-1949), in total war against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. "The great arsenal of democracy" came to specifically refer to the industry of the U.S., as the primary supplier of matériel for the Allied war effort. " The slogan "Arsenal of democracy" refers to the collective efforts of American industry in supporting the Allies, which efforts tended to be concentrated in the established industrial centers of the U.S., such as Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh, and other places.[1]

Mao Zedong

" Established the People's Republic of China (PRC) after defeating Jiang Jieshi in the Chinese Civil War 1949 - became the communist leader of the regime

The long telegram

" George Kennan, US ambassador in Russia " Provide his practical deduction from the standpoint of US policy " Addressed: " Stalin had given a speech calling for the destruction of Capitalism " There could be no peace with the USSR while it was opposed to Capitalism " The USSR was building up its military power

Iron Curtain speech

" Given by Winston Churchill " Beginning of the Cold War started as a "war of words"

Henry Cabot Lodge

" He is best known for his positions on foreign policy, especially his battle with President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 over the Treaty of Versailles. The failure of that treaty ensured that the United States never joined the League of Nations. " Was against the League of Nations because he wanted to maintain U.S. unilateralism " Asked Wilson for compromise but Wilson was too stubborn to budge

HUAC

" House Un-American Activities Committee " A group that investigated the "loyalty" of those who suspected of having communist ties after world war 2 " Wielded subpoena power as a weapon and called citizens to testify in high profile hearings before congress " The HUAC was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having communist ties.

Cairo conference

" In November and December of 1943, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Chinese President Chiang Kai-shek and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill " In Cairo, Egypt, to discuss the progress of the war against Japan and the future of Asia. In addition to discussions about logistics, they issued a press release that cemented China's status as one of the four allied Great Powers " Agreed that territories taken from China by Japan, including Manchuria, Taiwan, and the Pescadores, would be returned to the control of the Republic of China after the conflict ended.

Fall of china

" In US political ideas, this is the loss of China to Communism in 1949 " The Communist Party takeover of government from the American supported Nationalists let to heavy criticism of the Truman Administration

Charles Evans Hughes

" In the 1916 election, incumbent Democratic President Woodrow Wilson narrowly prevailed over Hughes, partly because Wilson won the support of many progressives. After Warren G. Harding won the 1920 presidential election, Hughes accepted Harding's offer to serve as Secretary of State. Serving under Harding and Calvin Coolidge, Hughes negotiated the Washington Naval Treaty, which sought to prevent a naval arms race

Vichy France

" Is the common name of the french state headed by Marshal Philippe Petain during WW2. It represented the unoccupied "free zone" in the southern part of metropolitan France and much of the French Colonial Empire " The Vichy regime sought an anti-Modern counter revolution. The traditionalist right in france, with strength in the aristocracy and among Catholics, had never accepted the republican traditions of the French Revolution. It demanded a return to traditional lines of culture and religion embraced authorianism, while dismissing democracy

Isolationism

" Isolationism is a category of foreign policies institutionalized by leaders who assert that their nations' best interests are best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance. One possible motivation for limiting international involvement is to avoid being drawn into dangerous and otherwise undesirable conflicts. There may also be a perceived benefit from avoiding international trade agreements or other mutual assistance pacts.[1] " U.S. policy during the World Wars was technically not isolationism " Traded arms and equipment with Allies (mainly Britain) -> Hence German U-boat attacks on U.S. merchant ships " Isolationists in the United States during WWI include the America First Campaign, led by Charles Lindbergh, which had the aim of keeping the United States out of the War and out of European affairs, but also had anti-semitic tendencies. " Dr. Seuss was very critical of Isolationists both before and during the war, and featured them in many of his cartoons.

Unconditional surrender

" May 7, 1945 " An unconditional surrender is a surrender in which no guarantees are given to the surrendering party. In modern times, unconditional surrenders most often include guarantees provided by international law.

Potsdam conference

" Meeting of the British, Americans, and Russia at the end of the war in Europe to determine how to control defeated Nazi Germany " Objectives included the order of the postwar world, peace-treaty issues, and countering effects of the war for the defeated and victorious countries " New Prime Minister and President for Britain and the US, respectively, caused tensions as the "Big Three" were no longer present (Stalin, FDR, and Churchill) " Discussed the occupation and demilitarization of Germany, the redrawing of border lines, and how war reparations were to be paid

New Rome

" New Rome (Greek: Νέα Ῥώμη, Nea Romē; Latin: Nova Roma) was a name given by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great in 330 AD to his new imperial capital at the city on the European coast of the Bosphorus strait, also known as Byzantium until then, and as Constantinople. The city is now known as Istanbul. " Constantine essentially rebuilt the city on a monumental scale, partly modelled after Rome. Names of this period included ἡ Νέα, δευτέρα Ῥώμη, "the New, second Rome";[1] Alma Roma, Ἄλμα Ῥώμα; Βυζαντιάς Ῥώμη, "Byzantine Rome"; ἑῴα Ῥώμη, "Eastern Rome"; and Roma Constantinopolitana.[2]:354 " The term New Rome lent itself to East-West polemics, especially in the context of the Great Schism, when it was used by the Eastern Orthodox Greek writers to stress the rivalry with the Western Catholic Rome. New Rome is still part of the official title of the Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome.[3] " Argentinian writer Ugarte in 1923 wrote US was a "new rome" due to its imperialism and system of diagnosis on how it successfully took over ever region by way of individually taking into account the differences of areas with regards to all aspects: culture, races, customs neighbors etc. " The United States = New Rome " New imperialism, U.S. drawing countries as satellites into its orbit (CR pg 20)

the Novikov telegram

" Nikolai V. Novikov, Russian Ambassador in the US " He addressed that the US was striving for 'World supremacy" " Addressed " America desired to dominate the world. " Following FDR's death, the American government was no longer interested in cooperation with the USSR. " The American public were being prepared for war with the USSR.

NATO

" North Atlantic Treaty Organization " Intergovernmental military alliance between several North American and European Countries based on the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed 4 April 1949. " A system of collective defence whereby its members states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by an external party

Bretton Woods

" Occured between 44 Allied nations to regulate the international monetary and financial order following the conclusion of World War II " Created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

Wilson's 1917 war message

" On 3 February 1917, President Wilson addressed Congress to announce that diplomatic relations with Germany were severed. In a Special Session of Congress held on 2 April 1917, President Wilson delivered this 'War Message.' Four days later, Congress overwhelmingly passed the War Resolution which brought the United States into the Great War. " Had no mention of the Zimmermann Telegram, and instead focused on the humanitarian aspect of the War, including the unrestricted submarine warfare and people fighting oppressive governments " Requested a declaration of war on the basis of German unrestricted sub-warfare " "Warfare against mankind" (CR pg 6)

Berlin Blockade

" One of the first major international crises of the Cold War " Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies railway road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western Control. " Soviet offered to drop the blockade if the western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from west berlin

Henry L. Stimson

" Over his long career, he emerged as a leading figure in the foreign policy of the United States, serving in Republican and Democratic administrations. He served as Secretary of War (1911-1913) under William Howard Taft, Secretary of State (1929-1933) under Herbert Hoover, and Secretary of War (1940-1945) under Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman.

containment

" Policy of trying to stop the spread of communism across the globe " The Domino Theory is related, as the fear that if one country "fell to communism," the surrounding countries would spread as well resulting in this policy to contain this spread

Harry Truman

" President following FDR's death " Decision to use nuclear weapons on Japan (Hiroshima/Nagasaki) " Skeptical of Stalin and USSR "should let Russians and Germans kill each other" " Potsdam Conference -> shift from FDR to Truman

Hideki Tojo

" Prime Minister of Japan throughout World War II " Accepted much of the blame and bore full responsibility for the war and was eventually executed for his war crimes

Dean Acheson

" Secretary of State who played key role in determining US policy against Communism against the Cold War " Helped to create and reinforce the Marshall Plan and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization " Convinced Truman to intervene during the Korean War " Helped to create the framework and policy of Containment

Calvin Coolidge

" Soon after, he was elected as the 29th vice president in 1920 and succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. Elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small government conservative and also as a man who said very little, although having a rather dry sense of humor.

Second Front

" Stalin asked Britain and the U.S. to open a second front in the west " German offensive of Russia (Operation Barbossa 1941-1942) " Caused discontent/distrust between Stalin and the Allies " Second Front opened on D-Day June 1944

Yalta agreements

" Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill " FDR's last meeting before he died " February 1945 as World War II was winding down. The leaders agreed to require Germany's unconditional surrender and to set up in the conquered nation four zones of occupation to be run by their three countries and France

Dr Seuss

" Staunch critic of U.S. foreign policy during the early stages of the war " Used popular culture + propaganda to advocate for U.S. entry into World War II " Depicted Japanese as sub-human, Germans as goofy/stupid, Italians and Mussolini as useless/weak

Tehran conference

" Strategy meeting between Russia, the U.S., and Britain to determine the invasion of Iran " First conference of World War II for the "Big Three" " Each nation came with a different agenda (as usual), but a shared objective was the Western powers' commitment to opening up a Second Front

FDR

" commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United Statesfrom 1933 until his death in 1945. " His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II. He is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.[2][3][4]

Atlantic charter

" The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement issued during World War II on 14 August 1941, which defined the Allied goals for the postwar world. The leaders of the United Kingdom and the United States drafted the work and all the Allies of World War II later confirmed it. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war - no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people, self-determination; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. Adherents of the Atlantic Charter signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, which became the basis for the modern United Nations. " The Atlantic Charter set goals for the postwar world and inspired many of the international agreements that shaped the world thereafter. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the postwar independence of European colonies, and much more are derived from the Atlantic Charter.

Dawes Plan

" The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee, chaired by Charles G. Dawes) was an attempt in 1924 to solve the World War I reparations problem that Germany had to pay, which had bedevilled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles.

Emperor Hirohito

" The Emperor of Japan from 1926 until his death in 1989, and was the Emperor throughout World War II. " He was emperor during the Japanese invasion of China during WWII, and approved the invasion as well as several war crimes, including the use of toxic gas on Chinese citizens. " As the War ended, he gave a speech officially surrendering, siting the atomic bomb as one of the primary reasons for surrender. " He was not tried for any war crimes committed by the Japanese military after the War. Both the Japanese government and American occupation forces portrayed him as a powerless figurehead who had little involvement in actual military decisions.

Fourteen points

" The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress by President Woodrow Wilson. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's points,[1] but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.[2] " Germany sued for Peace on the basis of the 14 points " The 14 points outlined and were the basis of the League of Nations and Wilson's vision of the Post-WWI world.

Good neighbor policy

" The Good Neighbor policy was the foreign policy of the administration of United States President Franklin Roosevelt towards Latin America. Although the policy was implemented by the Roosevelt administration, President Woodrow Wilson had previously used the term-but subsequently went on to invade Mexico. Senator Henry Clay had coined the term Good Neighbor in the previous century. " The policy's main principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. It also reinforced the idea that the United States would be a "good neighbor" and engage in reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries.[1] Overall, the Roosevelt administration expected that this new policy would create new economic opportunities in the form of reciprocal trade agreements and reassert the influence of the United States in Latin America; however, many Latin American governments were not convinced.[2]

FDR's 1941 war message

" The Infamy Speech was a speech delivered by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt to a Joint Session of the US Congress on December 8, 1941, one day after the Empire of Japan's attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and the Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire.[1][2][3][4][5] The name derives from the first line of the speech: Roosevelt describing the previous day as "a date which will live in infamy". The speech is also commonly referred to as the "Pearl Harbor Speech". " Within an hour of the speech, Congress passed a formal declaration of war against Japan and officially brought the U.S. into World War II. The address is one of the most famous of all American political speeches.[6]

Kellog- Briand Pact

" The Kellogg-Briand Pact (or Pact of Paris, officially General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy[1]) is a 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them".[2] Parties failing to abide by this promise "should be denied of the benefits furnished by [the] treaty". It was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on 27 August 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact renounces the use of war and calls for the peaceful settlement of disputes. Eleven years later after the Paris signing, World War II had begun. Similar provisions were incorporated into the Charter of the United Nations and other treaties and it became a stepping-stone to a more activist American policy " Condemned the recourse to war as a solution of international controversies " Renounced war as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another

Ludlow amendment

" The Ludlow Amendment was a proposed amendment to the Constitution of the United States which called for a national referendum on any declaration of war by Congress, except in cases when the United States had been attacked first.[1][2] Representative Louis Ludlow (D-Indiana) introduced the amendment several times between 1935 and 1940. Supporters argued that ordinary people, who were called upon to fight and die during wartime, should have a direct vote on their country's involvement in military conflicts.[3][4] " The general public vote on matters of war

1937 China Incident

" The Marco Polo Bridge Incident, also known by several other names, was a battle between the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese Army. It is widely considered to have been the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945).

Marshall plan

" The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, " United States gave over $13 billion[1] (nearly $140 billion[2] in 2017 dollars) in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II. " The plan was in operation for four years beginning on April 8, 1948. " The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-torn regions, remove trade barriers, modernise industry, improve European prosperity, and prevent the spread of Communism.[3] " The Marshall Plan required a lessening of interstate barriers, a dropping of many regulations, and encouraged an increase in productivity, trade union membership, as well as the adoption of modern business procedures.[4]

Nazi-Soviet Non aggression pact

" The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact,[1] the German-Soviet Non-aggression Pact[2][3] or the Nazi German-Soviet Pact of Aggression[4][5][6] (officially: Treaty of Non-aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics),[a] was a neutrality pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed in Moscow on 23 August 1939 by foreign ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop and Vyacheslav Molotov, respectively.[8] The pact was followed by the German-Soviet Commercial Agreement in February 1940.

Manchurian crisis

" The Mukden Incident, or Manchurian Incident, was a staged event engineered by Japanese military personnel as a pretext for the Japanese invasion in 1931 of northeastern China, known as Manchuria. " The U.S. responded with the Stimson Doctrine (which essentially did absolutely ****ing nothing) " Stimson Doctrine's policy = non-recognition of Japan's claims to Manchuria after Japan's invasion into China

Munich conference

" The Munich Agreement was a settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation, the "Sudetenland", was coined. " Famous Chamberlain "Peace is at hand" " Appeasement

Holocaust

" The Nazi genocide of Jews during World War II characterized with concentration camps, ghettos, and other forms of degradation and extermination

Neutrality Acts 1935-37

" The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. " The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of German submarine attacks on U.S. vessels and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Lusitania

" The Royal Navy had blockaded Germany at the start of World War I. When RMS Lusitania left New York for Britain on 1 May 1915, German submarine warfare was intensifying in the Atlantic. Germany had declared the seas around the United Kingdom a war zone, and the German embassy in the United States had placed a newspaper advertisement warning people of the dangers of sailing on Lusitania. On the afternoon of 7 May, a German U-boat torpedoed Lusitania, 11 mi (18 km) off the southern coast of Ireland and inside the declared war zone. A second, unexplained, internal explosion sent her to the seabed in 18 minutes, with the deaths of 1,198 passengers and crew.[5] " Because the Germans sank, without warning, what was officially a non-military ship, many accused them of breaching the internationally recognised Cruiser Rules. It was no longer possible for submarines to give warning due to the British introduction of Q-ships in 1915 with concealed deck guns. (Lusitania had been fitted with 6-inch gun mounts in 1913, although she was unarmed at the time of her sinking.) The Germans justified treating Lusitania as a naval vessel because she was carrying hundreds of tons of war munitions, therefore making her a legitimate military target, and argued that British merchant ships had violated the Cruiser Rules from the very beginning of the war.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12] " The sinking caused a storm of protest in the United States because 128 American citizens were among the dead. The sinking helped shift public opinion in the United States against Germany, and was a factor in the United States' declaration of warn early two years later. After World War I, successive British governments maintained there were no munitions on board Lusitania and the Germans were not justified in treating the ship as a naval vessel. In 1982, the head of the British Foreign Office's North America department admitted that there is a large amount of ammunition in the wreck, some of which is highly dangerous and poses a safety risk to salvage teams.[13][14]

1917 Russian revolution

" The Russian Revolution was a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917 which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the rise of the Soviet Union. The Russian Empire collapsed with the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II and the old regime was replaced by a provisional government during the first revolution of February 1917 (March in the Gregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar was in use in Russia at the time). Alongside it arose grassroots community assemblies (called 'soviets') which contended for authority. In the second revolution that October, the Provisional Government was toppled and all power was given to the soviets. " The new government took Russia out of WWI with the Brest-Litovsk Treaty

Stimson Doctrine

" The Stimson Doctrine is the policy of nonrecognition of states created as a result of aggression.[1] The policy was implemented by the United States federal government, enunciated in a note of January 7, 1932, to the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China, of non-recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force. The doctrine was an application of the principle of ex injuria jus non oritur.[2] While some analysts have applied the doctrine in opposition to governments established by revolution, this usage is not widespread, and its invocation usually involves treaty violations.[2]

Brest- Litovsk Treaty

" The Treaty of Brest-Litovskwas a peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russia's participation in World War I. The treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk (Polish: Brześć Litewski; since 1945 Brest), after two months of negotiations. The treaty was agreed upon by the Bolshevik government to stop further advances by German and Austro-Hungarian forces. According to the treaty, Soviet Russia defaulted on all of Imperial Russia's commitments to the Triple Entente alliance.

Truman doctrine

" The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. " Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people " who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[2] " Truman claimed that because totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they automatically represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States.

Washington Conference

" The Washington Naval Conference, also called the Washington Arms Conference or the Washington Disarmament Conference, was a military conference called by U.S. President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington, D.C., from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspice of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations-the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal[1][2]-regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first arms controlconference in history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement. " Sought to de-escalate the naval arms race

Young Plan

" The Young Plan was a program for settling German reparations debts after World War I written in August 1929 and formally adopted in 1930. It was presented by the committee headed (1929-30) by American industrialistOwen D. Young, creator and ex-first chairman of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), who, at the time, concurrently served at board of trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation, and also had been one of the representatives involved in previous war reparations restructuring arrangement - the Dawes Plan of 1924. The Inter-Allied Reparations Commissionestablished the German reparation sum at a theoretical total of 132 billion, but a practical total of 50 billion gold marks. After the Dawes Plan was put into operation in 1924, it became apparent that Germany would not willingly [citation needed] meet the annual payments over an indefinite period of time.[citation needed] The Young Plan reduced further payments by about 20 percent.

Zimmerman telegram

" The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note or Zimmerman Cable) was a secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico in the prior event of the United States entering World War I against Germany. Mexico would recover Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents enraged American public opinion, especially after the German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann publicly admitted the telegram was genuine on March 3, and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April.[1] The decryption was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I,[2] and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events.[3] " German ambassador Zimmermann tried to get Mexico to involved in attacking America's southern border " Zimmermann hoped it would keep U.S. preoccupied and therefore, keep them out of WWI " Hoped to recruit Japan who had close ties with Mexico into the attack as well

Lend and Lease

" The lend-lease policy, formally titled "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States", (Pub.L. 77-11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941)[1] was a program by which the United States supplied Free France, the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union and other Allied nations with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. This included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended during September 1945. The aid was free for some countries, although some countries were repaying with gold, and some military equipment were required to be returned after the war. In return for the aid, the U.S. was given leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war. Canada operated a similar smaller program with a different name. " In his proposal of Lend-Lease Aid (CR pg. 31) FDR uses an analogy of lending your hose to your neighbor if his house is burning. FDR's 1941 war message

Pearl Harbor

" The surprise bombing of the U.S.' Pacific fleet on December 7th, 1941 " Led to the U.S.' entry into World War II " After failed diplomacy, the Japanese launched their strike as a preemptive action designed to stop the U.S.' involvement in the Japanese's Southeast Asian campaigns. " Nearly 3,000 American military and civilians died on the island and much of the fleet was destroyed or greatly damaged including battleships, destroyers, and aircraft " The carriers were out, which was a huge saving grace for the American Navy

Arabic pledge

" This event followed hard on the heels of the sinking of the Lusitania (May 7) and reignited public rage at Germany. President Wilson protested this violation of the United States' neutral rights and threatened to break diplomatic relations. " German ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff responded with what has been termed the "Arabic Pledge," in which his government promised to: " Halt the practice of attacking unarmed passenger ships without warning " Provide for the safety of crew and passengers of any passenger vessels under attack

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

" US detonated two nuclear weapons on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki " August 6, 1945 - Hiroshima " August 9, 1945 - Nagasaki " Two bombs killed at least 129,000 people, most were civilians

Unrestricted submarine warfare

" Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink vessels such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules (also known as "cruiser rules"). Prize rules call for submarines to surface and search merchantmen[1] and place crews in "a place of safety" (for which lifeboats did not qualify, except under particular circumstances)[2] before sinking them, unless the ship showed "persistent refusal to stop ... or active resistance to visit or search".[3] The Germans disregarded the law during the First World War following the British introduction of Q-ships with concealed deck guns, and in the most dramatic episode sank Lusitania in 1915 in a few minutes because they believed it was carrying war munitions.[4] The U.S. demanded it stop, and Germany did so. Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff, chief of the Admiralty staff, argued successfully in early 1917 to resume the attacks and thus starve the British. The German high command realized the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare meant war with the United States but calculated that American mobilization would be too slow to stop a German victory on the Western Front.[5][6] " This is a major point in The Zimmerman Telegram, in which part of the Telegram itself mentions Germany's plans to resume unrestricted submarine warfare and its belief that this may bring the United States into the War. " Germany told the United States of its plans to resume on the day it intended. In his announcement to Congress asking for a Declaration on War, Woodrow Wilson sites unrestricted submarine warfare and its cost to humanity as one of the primary reasons for wanted to go to war.

Jiang jieshi

" Western-backed leader during the Chinese Civil War " Relocated to Taiwan and established a democracy there after being defeated by Mao Zedong

House- Grey memorandum

" he House-Grey Memorandum was a memorandum prepared by President of the United States Woodrow Wilson's diplomatic emissary to Europe, "Colonel" Edward M. House, and the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey. " The memorandum, drafted in memo form by Grey, was an invitation from the U.S. to all those involved in the First World War to participation in a U.S.-sponsored peace convention. President Wilson aimed to have a role at the peace conference in order to curb[vague] the big European powers' ambitions. If Germany declined to attend, the U.S. would probably become militarily involved in the European conflict. " Wilson "approved the whole of the agreement",[1] but added the word 'probably'. Grey showed the Memorandum to the French Ambassador Paul Cambon. Cambon believed that the Memorandum was just an election tactic for Wilson[2] who would be standing again for President that year.

Triple entente

" refers to the understanding linking the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on 31 August 1907. The understanding between the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Japan and Portugal, was a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. " The Triple Entente and Triple Alliance were set up for a showdown on the eve of 1914. Italy, which originally remained neutral during the War, eventually sided with the Triple Entente against its Triple Alliance allies.

Quarantine speech

" the Quarantine Speech was given by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 5, 1937 in Chicago (on the occasion of the dedication of the bridge between north and south outer Lake Shore Drive), calling for an international "quarantine" against the "epidemic of world lawlessness" by aggressive nations as an alternative to the political climate of American neutrality and non-intervention that was prevalent at the time. The speech intensified America's isolationist mood, causing protest by non-interventionists and foes to intervene. No countries were directly mentioned in the speech, although it was interpreted as referring to Japan, Italy, and Germany.[1] Roosevelt suggested the use of economic pressure, a forceful response, but less direct than outright aggression. " Condemned Japanese aggression in China " The language in FDR's speech suggests he would consider war if need be

Neutrality

" the state of not supporting or helping either side in a conflict, disagreement, etc.; impartiality. " U.S. position in both World Wars initially but never truly neutral " Sent arms and economic aid to Allies during both World Wars " Wilson was strongly opposed to war at all costs, only reluctantly entered WWI after the Zimmermann Telegram + Germany's declaration of unrestricted sub-warfare " FDR was more willing to enter war "not be neutral in thought" (CR pg 27) + Fireside chat (CR pg 28) + Lend-Lease Act (CR pg 30)

David Lloyd George

" was a British statesman of the Liberal Party. As Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908-1915), Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government (1916-22), during and immediately after the First World War. He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers

George Clemenceau

" was a French politician, physician, and journalist who was Prime Minister of France during the First World War. A leader of the Radical Party, he played a central role in the politics of the French Third Republic. " Clemenceau was first Prime Minister from 1906 to 1909, and then again from 1917 to 1920. In favour of a total victory over the German Empire, he militated for the restitution of Alsace-Lorraine to France. He was one of the principal architects of the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, which placed a massive burden on Germany after the War.

Adolf Hitler

" was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party(Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germanyfrom 1934 to 1945.[a] As dictator, Hitler initiated World War II in Europewith the invasion of Poland in September 1939, and was central to the Holocaust. " Fascism, Aggressive Military Expansion, Munich Conference, Invasion of Poland, Axis powers, concentration camps, all the Dr. Seuss cartoons against him, and literally everything else because it's Hitler

Joseph stalin

" was a Soviet revolutionary and political leader of Georgian ethnicity. Governing the Soviet Union as its dictator from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, he served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1952 and as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1953. Ideologically a Marxistand a Leninist, Stalin helped to formalise these ideas as Marxism-Leninism while his own policies became known as Stalinism.

General "Black Jack" Pershing

" was a senior United States Army officer. His most famous post was when he served as the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) on the Western Front in World War I, 1917-18. " Under Pershing's leadership, American forces quickly pushed back the German forces in Allied territory under what had previously been immovable lines. During the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Pershing shifted roughly 600,000 American soldiers to the heavily defended forests of the Argonne, keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days, alongside the French. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which the Argonne fighting was part of, contributed to Germany calling for an armistice. " Occupied parts of Mexico before the U.S. entered WWI in an attempt to capture Pancho Villa

Charles Lindberg

" was an American aviator, military officer, author, inventor, explorer, and environmental activist. At age 25 in 1927, he went from obscurity as a U.S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame by winning the Orteig Prize-making a nonstop flight from Roosevelt Field, Long Island, New York, to Paris, France. He covered the 33 1⁄2-hour, 3,600 statute miles (5,800 km) alone in a single-engine purpose-built Ryan monoplane, Spirit of St. Louis. This was the first solo transatlantic flight and the first non-stop flight between North America and mainland Europe. Lindbergh was an officer in the U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve, and he received the United States' highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for the feat.[2] " Before the United States formally entered World War II, some people accused Lindbergh of being a fascist sympathizer. An advocate of non-interventionism[4] he supported the antiwar America First Committee, which opposed American aid to Britain in its war against Germany, and resigned his commission in the United States Army Air Forces in 1941 after President Franklin Roosevelt publicly rebuked him for his views. Nevertheless, he publicly supported the U.S. war effort after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and flew fifty combat missions in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a civilian consultant, though Roosevelt refused to reinstate his Air Corps colonel's commission. In his later years, Lindbergh became a prolific prize-winning author, international explorer, inventor, and environmentalist. " Started the America First movement which had White supremacist roots, a common target of Dr. Seuss " Called for isolationism before Pearl harbor

Colonel Edward House

" was an American diplomat, politician, and an adviser to President Woodrow Wilson. He was known by the nickname Colonel House, although he had performed no military service. He was a highly influential back-stage politician in Texas before becoming a key supporter of the presidential bid of Wilson in 1912. Having a self-effacing manner, he did not hold office but was an "executive agent," Wilson's chief advisor on European politics and diplomacy during World War I (1914-18) and at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. " Initially supported Wilson's stance on neutrality " Started to favor the idea of war after the Lusitania incident " Helped draft the Fourteen Points

Herbert Hoover

" was an American engineer, businessman and politician who served as the 31st President of the United States from 1929 to 1933 during the Great Depression. " He was president during the Stimson Doctrine, seen as a soft response to Japan's aggression. " Hoover became a conservative spokesman in opposition to the domestic and foreign policies of the New Deal. He opposed entry into the Second World War and was not called on to serve in any public role during the war. He had better relations with President Harry S. Truman and Hoover helped produce a number of reports that changed U.S. occupation policy in Germany. Truman also appointed Hoover to head the Hoover Commission, intended to foster greater efficiency throughout the federal bureaucracy and Hoover served on a similar commission under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. By the time of his death in 1964, he had rehabilitated his image. Nevertheless, Hoover is generally not ranked highly in historical rankings of Presidents of the United States

Robert Lansing

" was an American lawyer and Conservative Democratic[1] politician who served as Legal Advisor to the State Department at the outbreak of World War I, and then as United States Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson from 1915 to 1920. Before U.S. involvement in the war, Lansing vigorously advocated in favor of the principles of freedom of the seas and the rights of neutral nations. He later advocated U.S. participation in World War I, negotiated the Lansing-Ishii Agreement with Japan in 1917 and was a member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace at Paris in 1919. " Favored becoming Britain's ally in WWI after German U-boats sunk multiple U.S. ships

Frank B Kellogg

" was an American lawyer, politician and statesman who served in the U.S. Senate and as U.S. Secretary of State.[1] He co-authored the Kellogg-Briand Pact, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1929.[2] " In the pact, made with French Foreign Minister Astiride Briand, The US, France, and ultimately 62 other nations renounced war "as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another," which in theory keeps countries from using war to settle disputes.

William Jennings Bryan

" was an American orator and politician from Nebraska. Beginning in 1896, he emerged as a dominant force in the Democratic Party, standing three times as the party's nominee for President of the United States. He also served in the United States House of Representatives and as the United States Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson. Because of his faith in the wisdom of the common people, he was often called "The Great Commoner".[2] " After the Democrats won the presidency in the 1912 election, Wilson rewarded Bryan's support with the important cabinet position of Secretary of State. After the Lusitania was torpedoed by a German submarine in 1915, Wilson made strong demands on Germany that Bryan disagreed with, as he hoped to avoid entering World War I. Bryan resigned from office in 1915, and the United States entered the war two years later. Bryan remained active in public life, supporting Wilson's re-election and advocating for the enactment of Prohibition.

Gerald p. Nye

" was an American politician who represented North Dakota in the United States Senate from 1925 to 1945. He was a Republican and supporter of World War II-era isolationism and anti-Semitism, chairing the Nye Committee which studied the causes of United States' involvement in World War I. " Strong advocate of neutrality " Pushed for open trade and commerce for neutral nations during a time of international war " Neutral policies he pushed for: " forbidding the export of arms and ammunition to countries engaged in war " Embargo on items considered war materials such as oil " Strict "cash and carry" -> buyers must come and get goods purchased " American passengers should not travel on vessels of belligerent states " No loans and credits to warring nations

Cordell Hull

" was an American politicianfrom the U.S. state of Tennessee. He is known as the longest-servingSecretary of State, holding the position for 11 years (1933-1944) in the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during most of World War II. Hull received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for his role in establishing the United Nations, and was referred to by President Roosevelt as the "Father of the United Nations".[1] " "Good Neighbor Policy" for Latin American countries " Architect for the United Nations

Woodrow Wilson

" was an American statesman and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910 and then ran and was elected as a progressive Democrat to the office of Governor of New Jersey. Wilson's victory in the 1912 presidential election made him the first Southerner elected to the presidency since Zachary Taylor in 1848. He also led the United States during World War I, establishing an activist foreign policy known as "Wilsonianism." He was a major leader at the Paris [Versailles] Peace Conference in 1919, where he championed the proposed League of Nations. However, he was unable to obtain Senate approval for U.S. membership. After he suffered debilitating strokes in September 1919, his wife and staff members handled most of his presidential duties. " In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, Wilson asked Congress to declare war in order to make "the world safe for democracy." The United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, especially General John J. Pershing. .............

Benito Mussolini

" was an Italian politician and journalist who was the leader of the National Fascist Party(Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF). He ruled Italy as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943 - constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped the pretense of democracy and established a dictatorship. " Dr. Seuss commonly portrayed Mussolini as an incompetent allie of Germany, such as in the cartoon of him riding a tiny tank held back by a rope saying that he was attacking the Allies too.

League of Nations

" was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.[1] Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.[2] Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.[3] At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. " Firm establishment of international law " Called for: " Reduce in armaments " Guarantees against aggression " Actions in case of war or danger of war " Sanctions that could be placed on countries breaking international laws (economic, political, and personal)

Warren G. Harding

" was the 29thPresident of the United States from March 4, 1921 until his death in 1923. At the time of his death, Harding was one of the most popular Presidents, but the subsequent exposure of scandals that took place under his administration such as Teapot Dome eroded his popular regard, as did revelations of an affair by Nan Britton, one of his mistresses. In historical rankings of the U.S. Presidents, Harding is often rated among the worst.

Nicholas II

" was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917.[1] His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Due to the Khodynka Tragedy, anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, the violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, the execution of political opponents and his perceived responsibility for the Russo-Japanese War, he was given the nickname Nicholas the Bloody by his political adversaries.[2][3] Soviet historians portrayed Nicholas as a weak and incompetent leader, whose decisions led to military defeats and the deaths of millions of his subjects.[4]

Kaiser William II

" was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. " He strengthened Germany's alliance with Austria-Hungary, which brought Germany into WWI on their side through the Triple Alliance. " Characteristic of the 19th century-esk World Leaders who fell from power during and after WWI, was considered an ineffective leader during the War with little regard for the civilian government.

Versailles Treaty

" was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties.[8]Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919. " Root cause of WWII " Cause German hyper-inflation " Put the whole weight of WWI on Germany -> was charged to pay reparations to Allies, and placed the blame on Germany with the War Guilt Clause

Sussex Pledge

The Sussex Pledge was a promise made by Germany to the United States in 1916, during World War I before the latter entered the war. Early in 1915, Germany had instituted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare,[1] allowing armed merchant ships, but not passenger ships, to be torpedoed without warning. Despite this avowed restriction, a French cross-channel passenger ferry, the Sussex, was torpedoed without warning on March 24, 1916; the ship was severely damaged and about 50 people died.[2] Although no US citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue this practice, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into the war, Germany tried to appease the United States by issuing, on May 4, 1916, the Sussex pledge, which promised a change in Germany's naval warfare policy. These were the primary elements of the pledge: " Passenger ships would not be targeted " Merchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been established, if necessary by a search of the ship " Merchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and crew

Triple Alliance

was a secret agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It was formed on 20 May 1882 and renewed periodically until it expired in 1915 during World War I " Caused a chain reaction of declaration of wars after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, promptly starting WWI