exam 1 and 2

Cultural Evolution

A mid -1800s belief that through time cultures become more efficient in their technologies and so become better adapted to their environments

A simple definition of the Environmental Determinism is... A school of thought that assumes nature limits what humans can do A school of thought that assumes nature controls human action

A school of thought that assumes nature controls human action

Which of the following terms describe the large-scale, intensive production of DOMESTICATED plants and animals? Simple Foraging Management Horticulture Agriculture

Agriculture

Quick review, a key reason(s) why the case study of animal extinction in the Pacific is so important for modern society is.... This case study highlights how the nature of the natural world is so important for understanding its capacity to deal with human impacts This case study highlights that there is often social costs (such as collapse or survival) that occur as a result of dramatic anthropogenic impacts to the environment All of the above

All of the above

Quick review, even though the archaeological cases studies we will discuss in this occurried a long time ago and were associated with human groups that don't live like modern people why are they still important or relevant? These ancient extinction events involve large numbers of species, comparable to proposed future extinction events Studying past extinct events can be used to help us understand the importance of issues like human hunting or habitat change in causing extinctions Like today, these past case studies can be useful in helping to understand how human impacts can combine and intensify the effects of climate change All of the above

All of the above

To review, what evidence indicates that our earliest human ancestors from Lower Paleolithic (3.3 million to 300,000 years ago) were active hunters of large game? The animal remains at these early sites show evidence that hunters primarily killed prime age adult animals (healthiest, hardest to kill prey) Evidence from humanly produced butchery marks and breakage, indicate that these early humans utilized the meatiest and most fat-rich parts of the body part of their prey(the parts of the body other predators would have eaten first) At least at some sites dating to the later part of this period, there are preserved evidence of sharpened wood spears, which was likely used as the weapon to kill animals All of the above

All of the above

Passive Impacts on the environment are: Any time humans interact with a plant or animal in the wild An intentional (purposeful) change humans bring to their environment An accidental (unintentional) change that human make to their environment

An accidental (unintentional) change that human make to their environment

Commensal Relationship:

An animal that lives in close association with another animals and gains greater selective advantage in the association than they do disadvantage

what is the coyote range expansion

As coyotes were hunted and threatened by humans, they expanded their territories. This allowed them to populate more quickly than in their initially small living range. increase in range across U.S.

Feedback loop:

As the environment changes the components of culture adjust to face those changes which can cause further change

Early Epipaleolithic: Kabaran

Broad Spectrum H/G subsistence -Hunting: primarily gazelle -Gathering: wild cereals (barley) and nuts (almonds, acorns, and pistachios) High mobility = small temporary sites Small human population

Simplistic Stereotype: Ecological "Noble Savage"

Coined by explorer Marc Lescarbot in 1609 Picked up by early environmentalists: George Bird Grinnell (anthro. & naturalist)& Gifford Pinchot (first chief of US Forest Service) Not intended as pejorative term, but suggests:- Indigenous people lack many of the problems (& complexities) of European society, Lived in "harmony" with the environment Did not cause environmental damage like many state level societies

Simple Foraging:

Collecting available wild resources without modification to environment

Secondary (later) changes in animal domesticates

Coloration and physiology* -Fur coloration (multi-color coats) and texture -Shortening of snout (overbite and under bite) -Changing limb or extremity proportions (tails & ears) and body size -Reduced dimorphism between sexes -Changes in reproductive organs (milk) These are byproducts of chemical and physiological changes resulting from domestication

Three Pathways to domestication (Melinda Zeder 2012)

Commensal domesticates (species adapt to live with humans): dogs, cats, pigs, chicken, turkey Prey Domesticates (humans manage limited food):goat, sheep, cattle, llama, reindeer Directed domesticates (humans select species for secondary resources [food and non-food]): horse, donkey, camel, fox, mink, ferret, elephant

Rock Gardens

Construction of huge rock piles (boulder mulch) on upland areas for growing sweet potato, taro, & yam ~20% of island covered by gardens Built mostly between 600 -350 yrs ago during period of increase social complexity Rocks collected from nearby sources Combined with intentional application of fertilizer with phosphorous (charcoal, waste)

Political Ecology

Daily behavior and social relationships effect people and their environment Explore how regular social relationship (political, economic, social differences) influence people and their environment Costs and benefits of environment change not equally distributed (some suffer/benefits more than others) Unequal distributions can reinforces or reduces social and economic inequalities (changes to environment effect political and economic status) Thomas Hobbes; Thomas Malthus; Adam Smith; Karl Marx

Primary changes in animal domesticates

Decreased reaction to stimuli -Decreased brain size (10-30%) and complexity & less developed sensory organs (ears & eyes) Decreased activity & aggression levels -more serotonin, less adrenaline & corticosteroids, & less developed heart, adrenal & thyroid glands Increased fertility -Earlier sexual maturity, larger litters sizes, reduced seasonality of reproduction no one chose for these things to happen, they were evolutionary responses to certain animals living peacefully along side people

What is culture?

Dynamic system of learned and shared behaviors, concepts, symbols, and beliefs that facilitates and provide meaning to a human's interaction with their environment

Which aspect of an existing domesticated animals could ancient humans easily have selected for to create additional changes to the animals through direct breading? Earlier human groups could have selected for brain size in pigs to make them even less intelligent animals Earlier humans groups could have selected for less adrenaline or corticosteroids in the systems of dogs to make them even tamer animals Earlier human groups could have selected for size of the chest muscle in chickens to make them produce more meat All of the above

Earlier human groups could have selected for size of the chest muscle in chickens to make them produce more meat

Three Key Issues with Near East Farming

Earliest evidence of domesticates world wide Evidence supports aspects of environmental and demographic explanations Clear example of segment of population intentionally chose not to participate in agriculture

what are the six schools of thought?

Environmental Determinism Cultural Evolution Possibilism Cultural Ecology Political ecology Historical Ecology

Types of Anthropogenic Impacts

Environmental manipulation Resource management Each type occurs at different scales & can have positive and/or negative effects

Active & Passive Effects of Rats

Even if people left, rats remain Underwent population expansion (millions?) Eats seeds, leaves, and reproductive parts of plants Key Points: Could be active cause of deforestation & erosionPassive cause of extinction

Six Major Ecological Changes associated with Human Settlement

Faunal extinction Deforestation Erosion Wild fires Introduction of exotic species Undertook major resource management projects

Impacts to Social Organization from farming:

Gender inequality: Increased work load preferentially accomplished by women Social inequality: Increased task specialization and food surplus leads to social hierarchy and uneven access to goods Personal freedom: less ability to leave social group

Farming's Impact to People

Greater labor effort for food produced Great risk of catastrophic failure (famine) Poorer quality of diet (malnutrition) Poorer health (disease and injuries) Shorter life spans

Factors that endanger animals:

Habitat loss (deforestation, urban/industrial development, pollution, expansion of agricultural land) Over-hunting/harvesting (illegal trade, overfishing, unregulated hunting) Environmental change (temperature, precipitation, plants) Introduction of invasive species (especially Australia)

Historical Ecology

Historical events are key reason for change in the relationship between humans and their environments Humans and environment are completely interrelated

Human Biological Ecology vs Cultural Ecology

Human Biological Ecology = adaptation through biological means; Increased heart rate in high altitude or cold environments Cultural Ecology = adaptations to environment through cultural means

Overkill Hypothesis

Human colonization's often followed by massive vertebrate extinctions (People = extinction) Clovis people represented first wide-spread human presence south of Ice sheet around 13,300 yrs ago Clovis hunters preyed on wide variety of now-extinct large herbivores Late Pleistocene megafauna went extinct about 13,300 years ago Extinction occurred so quickly few kill sites would survive

Key points of Western View of Nature

Human dominion over nature Nature uncivilized and passive Humans appropriate from environment

scientific industrialism

Humans have domain over nature to better human life. Human salvation lies in a future of technological advancement and efficiency—not the past. Excesses of large scale production must be tempered with attention to environmental impacts.

Extinction Conclusions

Humans interacted with surviving megafauna & apparently not with many that disappeared (hunting alone not key to loss) Demographic and physiological changes to prey populations correlate with periods of climate change, not hunting pressure -but why did extinctions not occur earlier Extinction likely species-specific process -Hunting may be important in loss of mammoths & mastodons, but maybe not llama, sabertooths, & sloths (and others)

wilderness thinking

Humans should submit to nature. Sustainable human use of nature requires small population size. If human population size is reduced, nature will recover.

Primary changes in plant domesticates

Improved success in germination Changes in structure of edible reproductive parts evolutionary responses to humans intensively using plants

Benefits of Rock Gardens

Improves growing conditions for root crops Disrupts wind flow Slows evaporation Increases water percolation Reduced weed growth Fertilizers increase nutrients available plants

Management:

Increase yield of wild resources by encouraging growth and reducing competitors (clear cutting vegetation, replanting, irrigating)

People must provide adequate nutrients to farmed plants and animals: (farming)

Increased grazing & planting: denudes vegetation (deforestation), increase erosion, increase fire frequency Irrigate: increased erosion, salinization of soils Declining soil nutrients: increase erosion, deterioration of soil quality Landscape modification: denude vegetation, increase erosion

agrarianism

Individual landowners are best stewards of land. Technology important but is on a human scale. Bonds of community are strong.

Four Potential causes for deforestation and extinctions

Introduction of disease Direct predation (hunting) of birds Habitat alteration (clear cutting/burning forests) Introduction of rat

Islands size and human settlement

Large western islands Early settlement Continuous human presence Rapid and continual population increase Small eastern island Late settlement Periodic abandonment Slow, gradual population increase

Three Factors in Successful Island Settlement:

Location close to New Guinea Proximity to other inhabitable islands Size and environment of island -Habitable space (flat land) -Biodiversity of island

As a quick review, which of the following terms is associated with the actions (removing vegetation, planting seeds, etc) of humans that are designed to encourage growth or reduce competitors of the WILD species? Simple Foraging Management Horticulture Agriculture

Management

What is a key line(s) of evidence that suggest modern humans after ~65,000 (Upper Paleolithic period) years had at least the potential to negatively impact animal populations? Modern humans only hunted easy-to-catch animals like tortosises and shell fish Modern humans did NOT use very reliable or efficient weapons to hunt animals Modern humans would regularly take part in large, cooperative mass kills of animals (killed a lot of animals at one time) All of the above

Modern humans would regularly take part in large, cooperative mass kills of animals (killed a lot of animals at one time)

Cultural Ecology

More efficient behavior selected Major proponents: Julian Steward in 1930s & Marvin Harris in 1960s Nature tends (eventually) to find some harmonious equilibrium (balance) Cultures adapt to environmental conditions to produce payoff (food, money, status, children, etc.) human actions (eventually) become in equilibrium with their environment (new condition = new ideas)

Body Size and Pleistocene Extinction

Most species are small Large animals went extinct Different than earlier extinctions

Environmental determinism (a.k.a. anthropogeography):

Nature controls human environmental condition dictate how humans will live

Pacific Islands and Active Human Impacts

Nature of environment (habitat resilience) Timing and characteristics of human occupation of the islands (footprint) Type of impacts (active or passive) Social costs of anthropogenic impacts to the environment (social collapse or survival) Jared Diamond

Possibilism:

Nature sets limits on human action Environments are a limiting, but not determine, how humans live. Not a theory, makes no predictions

Pleistocene differs from 7 previous extinction events over last 10 my:

Number of extinct species Types of animals that went extinct Speed of extinction Appearance of new predator

Non-Western Perspective on Environment

People are part of nature, not separate from it Environment is alive and conscious Independent power Has personality (e.g., reincarnated human) Chooses to provide resources to people

As a review, selection all the processes that likely contributed to the environment destruction that occurred on the Pacific Islands. The loss of all the bird species across the Pacific was the caused by human hunting People likely cut down huge portions of the forest on these islands to create farm plots and residences The anthropogenic destructions of forest directly contributed to extinction of the animals species and soil erosion As people entered the Pacific Islands they brought with them new diseases that caused the death of many birds and mammals

People likely cut down huge portions of the forest on these islands to create farm plots and residences The anthropogenic destructions of forest directly contributed to extinction of the animals species and soil erosion

Late Epipaleolithic: Natufian

Period of deteriorating environmental conditions (cooling temperatures = shrinking forests) Greater sedentism: some year-round settlements Larger settlements: 100s people Extensive trade networks and use of art Intensive use of wild plant utilizations and animals -First development of bread -First appearance of domesticates (dog)

Lower Paleolithic (3.3 my-300 ky)

Pre-modern species hunted: Australopithecines and early Homo (our genus) Early human ancestors used primitive stone and wood tools to scavenge (skinning, meat removal, marrow extraction) natural deaths and kill large animals

Evidence for hunting:

Prey Choice: Medium and large animals dominate (difficult to kill) Mortality Pattern: Assemblages dominated by prime age adults (healthiest and hardest to kill) Carcass parts:Selection of meaty and fat-rich skeleton parts

Other Impacts: changes to animals & plants

Selective hunting-gathering-planned/organized harvesting designed to increase yield with minimal damage to populations Domestication-a change in behavior, physiology, and/or genetics of species that reflect greater interaction between people and animals Dispersal- a change in the natural distribution of species Community restructuring - changing the character of population or physical structure of a wild species Extinction- disappearance of an species or lineage

Four Types of interactions with plants & animals

Simple Foraging Management Horticulture Agriculture

whats the difference between simple foraging and management?

Simple foraging is going out daily to harvest whatever you can find. Management involves knowing which resources replenish slowly and appropriately using the resource so it doesn't become depleted over time.

Deforestation of Pacific Islands

Since at least 35,000 BP, islands covered with large, dense palm forests Trees survived a number of major climatic changes (colder, warmer, drier, wetter) Within last 3000 years, rapid disappearance of palm trees on many islands

Blitzkrieg

Small initial human population but very rapid population growth (1-2% growth/year) Skilled hunters encounter naive prey As population expands extinctions along wave front Carnivores extinct due to loss of food base

Upper Paleolithic (<65 kya)

Species: Anatomically modern humans (no biological or intellectual change from before) Important social and technological changes: -Large scale cooperative appears (mass kills) -Evolution of weaponry technology (increase reliability and efficiency) -Use of variety of difficult to catch small game (fish, birds, rabbits) -Intensive use of plants appears (seeds and roots) -Greater reliance on food storage Conclusion: Hunting starting to have effects on wildlife

Middle Paleolithic (300-65 kya)

Species: Neanderthals and early modern humans Selective hunting key continues: -Humans top of food chain-Medium and large game (deer, horse, caribou, bison) key prey -Prime age animals preferred Very small populations of hunters (impacts limited) Use of alternative foods (small game, plants) limited In addition to large game hunting Neanderthals also took, slow-moving small game animals such as shellfish, tortoises...

Why Should Anthropologists Study Past Human Impacts?

Success or failure in past allows for recommendations for dealing with future how humans respond/cause: deforestation, food scarcity, loss of species, etc

What is the environment?

The changing complex of physical, cultural, chemical, and biological factors in which an organism or a community exists.

What is possibilism?

The counter to environmental determinism; the belief that while environment may limit certain actions of a people, it cannot TOTALLY predestine their development, and humans may adapt. no longer supported

Which of the following is an example of something in the non-biotic component of the environment? The geologic bedrock that underlies portions of Iowa Microorganisms that live in the soil of a farm field outside of Iowa City The intensive agricultural economy that allows for large scale harvesting of corn throughout

The geologic bedrock that underlies portions of Iowa

To review, what are some of the key environmental differences among islands of Pacific that are likely important in terms of their capacity to either support human settlement or to be resilient to human impacts? The large western Islands (in Melanesia and Micronesia) have warm wet climate and lush forests with lots of different plants and animals, so they likely could sustainably handle fairly large human populations All islands in Polynesia (eastern Pacific) were small, far from New Guinea and had very cold climates with very little rainfall, this meant that people could arrive first to these islands and life was very easy. All of the above

The large western Islands (in Melanesia and Micronesia) have warm wet climate and lush forests with lots of different plants and animals, so they likely could sustainably handle fairly large human populations

What effects did the introduction of exotic species, such as the rat, have on the environments of the Pacific Islands? The presence of a lot of rats increased the rates of wild fire The rats contributed to the deforestation because they ate the seeds of palm trees, making it harder for the trees to grow back The rats brought diseases that caused the decimation of the local bird population.

The rats contributed to the deforestation because they ate the seeds of palm trees, making it harder for the trees to grow back

Human Ecology:

The study of the interactions among human biology, culture, and the environment.

Which of the following is an example of something that could be part of the biotic component of the environment? Religious beliefs held by people Trees and bushes found in a forest The movement of water between underground aquifers and surface water sources such as lakes and rivers

Trees and bushes found in a forest

Which of the follow is NOT an example of active resource management ? Using fire to enrich the soil in a forest Constructing eathern terraces to reduce erosion of top soil Bringing Pheasants to the United States to increase the number of birds to hunt Unselective hunting and gathering

Unselective hunting and gathering

It is important to understand there are changes to domesticated animals that happend first (primary changes) and changes that occur much later (secondary changes). Which of the following is a PRIMARY change in the domestication of animals? The changes in the capacity of cows to produce large quantities of milk The various physiological resulting in a much larger body size in pigs Various biochemical and physical changes that made the dog less aggressive to humans All of the above are primary changes in domestication

Various biochemical and physical changes that made the dog less aggressive to humans

Why so few "modern" domesticates

While small genetic changes are needed for many domesticates, that may not be true for all (some wild species are resilient) So plants & animals that were very susceptible to being domesticated, were domesticated very early with generally minimal human manipulation Later domestications, if possible, involve much more human manipulation

Self selection:

animals/plants develop close relationship with humans on their own

what is the difference between low, middle, and upper patholithic hunting

as time goes on the tools get more advanced small prey to larger prey steps towards agriculture

What is the overkill hypothesis?

belief that most animal extinctions (megafauna) can be directly or indirectly attributed to predation by humans objection: not enough evidence that every species was hunted to extinction

why are some species of plants and animals harder to domesticate even though they are similar to other domesticated plants/animals

biological characteristics havent had a need to try and tame the harder animals

Artificial Selection describes the situation where domestication occurs when a plant or animals initiates the beginning of a close relationship with humans t/f

false

Quick review, a key attribute of the Ice Age extinction (~13,000 years ago) that make it different than other extinction events is that it was almost exclusively small-bodied animals (less than 40 kg) that disappeared. t/f

false

what is plasticity in terms of human impact

flexibility coyote range expansion example

Plasticity:

flexibility of an individual/group to adjust to changing conditions

Horticulture:

growing domesticated fruit, plants, and vegetables in small gardens (small-scale farming)

Ecologists:

having a detailed understanding of complex environmental interactions

what are beneficial uses of controlled burning?

help some plants reproduce clears area gives back

Artificial selection:

human intervention in animal/plant breading created an animal they could live with

what are the env/cultural impacts of large scale farming

increase in air and water pollution soil degradation permanent settlements higher number of domesticates larger populations

passive impact

indirect or unintended effects Examples: dispersal of earthworms, rats, coyotes, overfishing cod

Zoonose:

infectious disease that is able to be transmitted from other animals

Conservationists:

performing intentional acts designed to maintain genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity and abundance

Agriculture:

producing food, feed, fiber, fuel and other goods by systematic raising of domesticated plants and animals (large-scale farming)

active impact

purposeful or intentional effects Examples: terrace construction, rock gardens, irrigation canals, etc

What factors were most important for the successful settlement of the Pacific Islands?

size, flat land, distance to other islands jared diamond

According to Scientific Industrialism human survival is only possible through application of advanced technology in the efficient mass production t/f

true

As a quiz review, Political Ecology emphasizes that social and economic interaction among people and groups help shape our environment and human impacts. t/f

true

During times of drought or stress h/g is more productive t/f

true

Islands more susceptible to extinction than continents t/f

true

western vs non western perspectives

western: people dominate nature rather than co exist with it non-western: people place nature over themselves

do humans cause deforestation?

yes but so do natural disasters

does megafauna mean big animal?

yes, large mammel in certain regions