Exam 1 (Blood, Heart, Blood Vessels)

Relate the opening and closing of specific heart valves in each phase of the cardiac cycle to pressure changes in the heart chambers.

-High pressure in the ventricle causes blood flow that pushes aortic/pulmonary valve open -High pressure in the ventricle pushes the blood up to the mitral/tricuspid valve, closing it -Pressure from the blood flowing backwards in the aorta closes the aortic/pulmonary valve -Pressure from the blood in the left/right atrium pushes the mitral/tricuspid valve open, allowing blood in the left/right atrium to drain into the relaxed ventricles

Contrast the way action potentials are generated in cardiac pacemaker cells, cardiac contractile cells, and skeletal muscle cells.

-Much faster action potentials in skeletal muscle cells vs. pacemaker and contractile cells -Ca extends the refractory period of contractile cells -Ion flows are different

Describe how blood pressure changes in the arteries, capillaries, and veins.

-The closer you are to blood LEAVING the heat, the higher the BP *Capillaries: BP decreases b/c high BP would rupture capillaries

Describe the composition of blood plasma.

-liquid portion of blood -55% total volume -Complex mixture of H2O, proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, and gases Plasma Proteins: 1. Albumin: smallest & most abundant, contribute to viscosity/osmolarity, influence BP, F, and fluid balance 2. Globulins (antibodies): immune system functions, alpha/beta/gamma globulins, transport proteins 3.Fibrinogen/Other Clotting Proteins: precursor of fibrin threads that help form blood clots

Describe the different types of capillaries, and explain how their structure relates to their function.

1. Continuous: occur in most tissues (abundant in skin/muscle) *Structure: endothelial cells joined by tight junctions *Function: least "leaky" (permit a narrow range of substances to cross capillary walls) -Small gaps btwn tight junctions = INTERCELLULAR CLEFT (fluids/solutes pass) -PINOCYTOTIC VESICLES shuttle fluids across capillary wall 2. Fenestrated: some endothelial cells have fenestra (pores/windows) covered by membrane *Structure: contain fenestrations in endothelial cells *Function: moderately leaky (allow large volumes of fluid/larger molecules to cross capillary walls) *Found where filtrate formation occurs (kidneys) /capillaries need to absorb materials released by organs (endocrine system) 3. Sinusoidal: leaky capillaries w/ large lumen & fenestrations *Structure: discontinuous sheet of endothelium, irregular basal lamina, very large pores *Function: leakiest (allow large substances [cells] to cross capillary walls -Often have specialized macrophages (KUPFFER CELLS) associated w/ them that destroy bacteria

Trace the pathway of blood through the heart and describe the major factors that ensure one-way flow.

1. DeO2 blood enters right atrium from superior/inferior vena cava 2. Blood in right atrium flows through tricuspid valve into right ventricle 3. Contraction of right ventricle forces pulmonary valve open 4. Blood flows through pulmonary valve into pulmonary trunk 5. Blood is distributed by right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it unloads CO2 and loads O2 6. Blood returns from lungs via pulmonary veins to the left atrium 7. Blood in the left atrium flows through mitral valve into left ventricle 8. Contraction of left ventricle (simultaneous w/ right ventricle) forces aortic valve open 9. Blood flows through aortic valve into ascending aorta 10. Blood in the aorta is distributed to every organ in the body, where it unloads CO2 and loads CO2 11. Blood returns to the heart via vena cava Valves ensure one way blood flow through the heart.

Describe the process of hemostasis, including the vascular phase, the formation of the platelet plug, and the formation of fibrin.

1. Injury 2. Vascular spasm: vasoconstriction & increased tissue pressure decreases blood vessel diameter & brings tear edges closer together 3. Platelet Plug Formation: tear exposes collagen fibers & causes smooth endothelial cells to produce von Willebrand factor (vWF)--> exposure to collagen/vWF begins to activate/bind platelets--> platelets become sticky & form a plug (temporary placeholder to fill damaged area to stop leakage of blood) 4. Coagulation: tissue factor--> clotting factor formation (intrinsic/extrinsic)--> merge to form Prothrombin--> Thrombin--> Fibrinogen--> Active form of Fibrin (glue, coats platelet plug & traps other cells w/ platelet particles) 5. Clot Retraction: fluid is squeezed out of clot & returned to blood stream (this brings edges close together), growth factor promotes mitosis/repair, clot remains until enough growth to seal w/ fresh tissue 6. Thrombolysis: clot is no longer needed, endothelial cells release tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)-->activates plasminogen--> plasmin--> breaks down fibrin--> returns to bloodstream

Describe the phases of the cardiac muscle action potential, including ion movements that occur in each phase, and explain the importance of the plateau phase.

1. Rapid depolarization: Na channels activate and Na enters, rapidly depolarizing membrane 2. Initial repolarization: Na channels inactivated, some K channels open and K leaks out, causing small initial repolarization 3. Plateau: Ca channels open and Ca enters, K exits, prolonging depolarization 4. Repolarization: Na and Ca channels close, K continues to exit, causing repolarization Importance of Plateau Phase: this phase is the reason for a longer refractory period which allows the heart to fill with blood, increases the strength of contractions, slows the heart rate by a factor of 15

Explain the basic process of erythropoiesis and its regulation through erythropoietin.

1. Starts in RED bone marrow 2. Hematopoietic stem cell: may become any type of formed element 3. Erythrocyte Colony-Forming Unit (CFU): commits to becoming erythrocyte *has receptors for erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys--> stimulates RED bone marrow to produce more RBCs 4. Proerythroblast: requires the hormone EPO 5. Early Erythroblast: hemoglobin is synthesized rapidly 6. Late erythroblast: nucleus shrinks & is ejected w/ other organelles 7. Reticulocyte: remaining organelles ejected & cell enters bloodstream 8. Erythrocyte: cell is mature

Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle.

1. Ventricular Filling: ventricles fill w/ blood and are in diastole, tricuspid/mitral valves are open, atrial systole occurs, semilunar valves closed 2. Isovolumetric Contraction: ventricular systole begins, AV and Semilunar valves close, atrial diastole begins 3. Ventricular ejection: ventricular systole continues, AV valves still closed, atrial diastole continues, pressure opens Semilunar valves and blood in ejected into Pulmonary Artery and Aorta 4. Isovolumetric Relaxation: ventricular diastole begins, AV valves still closed, atrial diastole continues, Semilunar valves close

Describe the parts of the cardiac conduction system, and explain how the system functions.

1. signal starts at SA node and sent to other cells in atria to contract simultaneously 2. signal slows down through AV node (thin cardiocytes have few gap junctions) (THIS ALLOWS HEART TO FILL WITH BLOOD) 3. signal travels to AV Bundle (Bundle of His) and splits into left and right branches 4. Branches carry signal to Purkinje Fibers *signal travels to apex of the heart and then goes upwards

Describe the structure and function of the chambers, septa, atrioventricular valves, semilunar valves, papillary muscles, and chordae tendineae of the heart.

4 Chambers: Right and Left Atria: 2 superior chambers, receive blood returning to the heart, auricles (seen on surface) enlarge chambers Right and Left Ventricles: 2 inferior chambers, pump blood into arteries Septa: Interatrial Septum: wall that divides left and right atria Interventricular Septum: muscular wall that separates ventricles, provides ventilation Atrioventricular Valves: control flow between atria and ventricles *Right: has 3 cusps (tricuspid valve) *Left: has 2 cusps (mitral or bicuspid valve) Semilunar Valves: control flow into great ateries, open and close because of blood flow and blood pressure, NOT attached to chordae tendineae or any muscles *Pulmonary: in opening between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk *Aortic: in opening between left ventricle and aorta Papillary Muscles: prevent AV valves from flipping inside out or bulging into atria when the ventricles contract Chordae Tendineae: chords connect AV valves to papillary muscles on the floor of ventricles, tendons have slack and allows blood to flow through valve into the ventricle

Describe and discuss causes and symptoms of anemia.

Anemia: decrease in blood's O2-carrying capacity 3 Main Causes: 1. Decreased hemoglobin 2. Decreased hematocrit *Inadequate erythropoiesis Hemorrhagic anemia: blood loss (acute/chronic) *Hemolytic anemia: RBCs rupture prematurely (bacterial/parasite infection) *Decreased erythropoiesis 3. Abnormal Hemoglobin *Ex: sickle cell anemia Nutritional Anemias: 1. Iron-deficiency: insufficient iron ingestion/absorption 2. Pernicious: problems w/ B12 vitamin absorption & protein (hemoglobin) synthesis

Explain the role of surface antigens on erythrocytes in determining blood groups.

Antigens: complex molecules on surface of cell membrane that are unique to individual -used to distinguish self from foreign matter -foreign matter generates immune response

Describe the structure and function of the types of arteries and veins.

Arteries 1. Elastic: conduct blood under high pressure to organs 2. Muscular: control blood flow to organs, regulate BP 3. Arterioles: control blood flow to tissues, feed capillary beds Veins: return blood to the heart Venules: drain capillary beds

Compare and contrast the structures of arteries and veins, and of arterioles and venules.

Arteries: 1. Elastic: thick-walled, near heart, lumen as LARGEST DIAMETER, high elastin content (present in all tunics), best known artery = AORTA 2. Muscular: THICKEST tunica media, intermediate lumen diameter, more smooth muscle, less elastin in tunica media Veins: thin-walled vessels w/ LARGE LUMENS, little smooth muscles, & valves Arterioles: lumen has SMALLEST DIAMETER, tunica media is mostly smooth muscle, few elastin fibers Venules: small venules have only a tunica intima, larger venules have all 3 tunics

Describe the role of arterioles in regulating tissue blood flow and systemic arterial blood pressure.

Arterioles shift F w/ changing priorities *Controls which capillaries receive blood a) Dozing in armchair after big meal: vasoconstriction in lower limbs raises BP above limbs, redirecting blood to intestinal arteries b) Vigorous exercise dilates arteries in lungs, heart, & muscles: vasoconstriction occurs in kidneys/ digestive tract

Explain the main effects and importance of the baroreceptor reflex.

Baroreceptor Reflex is a "mechanoreceptor"/ stretch-receptor, sends a signal via sympathetic nervous system to tell the brain what's going on w/ BP -Increased BP --> decreased BP (parasympathetic nerves block sympathetic nerves) -Decreased BP --> increased BP (sympathetic nerves activate)

Define blood flow, blood pressure, and peripheral resistance.

Blood Flow (F): volume of blood flowing through a vessel, organ, or entire circulation in a given period; for entire vascular system (cardiac output = 5/6 L/min) *blood pressure gradient (delta P)/resistance (R) *The greater the pressure difference btwn 2 points = greater flow *Greater resistance = less flow Blood Pressure (BP): force per unit area exerted by blood OUTWARD on a vessel wall (mmHg); typically refers to arterial BP in aorta/it's branches Peripheral Resistance: things that can slow the blood down 1. Vessel Radius: most powerful influence over F (vasomotion) *Laminar flow: flows in layers, FASTEST IN CENTER 2. Aorta--> Capillaries: speed decreases 3. Capillaries --> Vena Cava: flow increases 4. Arterioles: most significant point of control over peripheral resistance/flow *produce HALF of peripheral resistance 5. Blood viscosity 6. Blood vessel length

Describe the components and physical properties of blood.

Blood is a liquid connective tissue and provides 8% of total body mass. Formed Elements: -Erythrocytes (RBC): O2 transporting cells of blood -Platelets: cell fragments that signal blood clotting -Leukocytes (WBC): immune function/defense *Granulocytes: with granules 1. Neutrophils 2. Eosinophils 3. Basophils *Agranulocytes: w/out granules 1. Lymphocytes 2. Monocytes

Describe the histology of cardiac muscle tissue, and differentiate it from that of skeletal muscle.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue: striated, short, thick, branched cells, 1 central nucleus surrounded by light-staining mass of glycogen, intercalated discs (join cells end to end), involuntary smooth muscle tissue *Intercalated Discs have 3 structures: 1. Interdigitating folds: increase surface area of contact, important for cells to contract in unison 2. Mechanical Junctions: *Desosomes- anchor/tie adjacent cells together *Fascia Adherens- actin band that "glues" the cells together 3. Electrical (Gap) Junctions- allows for communicatino of cytoplasm between adjacent cells Skeletal Muscle Tissue: intercalated discs do NOTA have 3 structures, voluntary muscle tissue, long, multinucleated

Explain how the respiratory and cardiovascular systems maintain blood flow to tissues via the chemoreceptor complex.

Chemoreceptors focus on chemical composition and control respiration pumps more than pressure pumps to regulate chemicals in blood.

Describe the difference in leukopoiesis of granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Circulating WBCs do NOT stay in the bloodstream Granulocytes: LEAVE in 8 hrs& stay 5 days longer Agranulocytes: -Monocytes: LEAVE in 20 hrs, transform into macrophages, & live for several yrs -Lymphocytes: provide long-term immunity (decades), being continuously recycled from blood--> tissue fluid--> lymph--> blood Commited Cell Lines: -Myeloblast --> neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil -Monoblast --> monocyte -Lymphoblast --> T/B lymphocyte

Explain the roles of diffusion, filtration, and osmosis in capillary exchange.

Diffusion: MOST IMPORTANT form of capillary exchange, movement of solute from an area of high concentration to area of low concentration *Glucose/O2 being more concentrated in blood diffuse out of blood *CO2/waste being more concentrated in tissue diffuse into blood *CAN ONLY OCCUR IF SOLUTE CAN PERMEATE PLASMA MEMBRANE OF ENDOTHELIAL CELL OR FIND PASSAGES LARGE ENOUGH TO PASS THROUGH (pores/intracellular clefts) *Ex: lipid-soluble substances (thru plasma membrane), water-soluble substances (thru pores/ clefts), large particles held back Filtration: some solute can move but some is left behind Osmosis: b/c solvent cannot move the solute moves Transcytosis: endothelial cells pick up material on 1 side of membrane by pinocytosis/receptor-mediated endocytosis, transport vesicles across cell, & discharge material on other side by exocytosis *Important for fatty acids, ALBUMIN, some hormones (insulin)

Explain how changes in hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure may cause edema.

Edema: accumulation of excess fluid in tissue *when fluid filters into tissue faster than absorbed -Causes: 1. Increased capillary filtration: kidney failure, histamine release, old age, poor venous return 2. Reduced capillary absorption: hypoproteinemia, liver disease, dietary protein deficiency 3. Obstructed lymphatic drainage: surgical removal of lymph nodes Pathological Consequences -Tissue necrosis: O2 delivery/waste removal impaired -Pulmonary edema: suffocation threat -Cerebral edema: headaches, nausea, seizures, coma -Severe edema/circulatory shock: excess fluid in tissue spaces causes low blood volume/BP

Explain the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic clotting factors.

Extrinsic: -stimulus comes from OUTSIDE the blood vessel 1. Damaged cells produce/display tissue factor 2. Tissue factor activates clotting factor 3. Clotting factor starts activation cascade w/ factor 7 4. Ends w/ factor 10A Intrinsic: -stimulus resides w/in blood vessel -clotting factors are inactively circulating in body 1. Damaged cells produce/display tissue factor 2. Tissue factor activates clotting factor 3. Clotting factor starts activation cascade w/ factor 12 4. Calcium forms enzyme complex to activate factor 10A

Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes.

Functions: -carry O2 from lungs to cell tissues -pick up CO2 from tissues and bring to lungs Structure: -no nucleated -no organelles -small, flattened, biconcave discs -do not divide (renewed by cell division in RED bone marrow) -don't consume O2 that they transport (generate ATP anaerobically)

Describe the functions and major components of the circulatory system.

Functions: -Transport of O2, wastes, signaling molecules (hormones) -Protection against blood loss (clotting) and infection (immune system) -Regulation of body temp, pH, fluid volume Major Components: formed elements (RBC/WBC/Platelets) + Plasma

Compare/Contrast the relative prevalence & morphological features of the 5 types of leukocytes

Granulocytes: -sphere shaped -larger than RBCs -shorter-lived than RBCs -lobed nuclei -visable cytoplasmic granules Agranulocytes: -lack visible cytoplasmic granules -spherical/kidney-shaped nuclei

Distinguish between the terms hemostasis and coagulation.

Hemostasis: 5 step process to stop leaks & repair damaged vessels Coagulation: step of hemostasis that leads to activation of fibrin

Discuss the role of the megakaryocyte in the formation of platelets.

Hormone Thrombopoietin initiates megakaryocyte formation-->Megakaryocyte w/ cytoplasmic arm that inserts into bone marrow sinusoid, rush of blood flow cuts off "arms--> platelets

Describe hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure.

Hydrostatic Pressure: drives fluid out of capillary, pressure that blood exerts OUTWARD on vessel wall *high on arterial end of capillary, low on venous end = lower BP Colloid Osmotic Pressure: draws fluid into capillary *results from plasma proteins (albumin) ~ more in blood *Oncotic Pressure = net COP (blood COP - tissue COP) -outward pressure (+) -inward pressure (-) *drawing H2O into tissue = higher BP

Describe the local, hormonal, and neural factors that affect and regulate blood pressure. (Controlling vasomotion)

Local: 1. Autoregulation: ability of tissues to regulate their own blood supply *Metabolic Theory of Autoregulation: if tissue is inadequately perfused, wastes accumulate stimulating vasodilation (increases perfusion) *Bloodstream delivers O2 & removes metabolites *When wastes are removed, vessels constrict 2.Vasoactive Chemicals: substances secreted by plaelets/ endothelial cells/ perivascular tissue to stimulate vasomotion *During trauma/inflammation/exercise: histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandins (STIMULATE VASODILATION) *During stress (blood rubbing against vessels) endothelial cells secrete: prostacyclin & nitric oxide (VASODILATION) 3. Angiogenesis: growth of new blood vessels, typically in tissues w/ long-term hypoxia *controlled by growth factors Neural: vessels under remote control by CNS and ANS, VASOMOTOR CENTER of medulla oblongata exerts SYMPATHETIC CONTROL over blood vessels throughout body -1st role: adjust respiration to changes in blood chemistry -2nd role: vasomotion, stimulate breathing *stimulates most vessels to CONSTRICT, but dilates vessels in skeletal/cardiac muscle to meet demands of exercise *PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTERS respond ONLY to local/hormonal control (lack of innervation) 1. Baroreceptors: stretch in response to increased arterial pressure 2. Chemoreceptors (aortic/carotid bodies): respond to changes in blood levels of O2, CO2, H+ *increase blood return to lungs when deficient in O2/increased CO2 *Chemoreflex: automatic response to changes in blood chemistry 3. Medullary Ischemic Reflex: automatic response to a drop in perfusion of brain *Medulla Oblongata monitors it's own blood supply; activates correvtive reflexes when it senses ischemia--> cardiac/vasomotor centers send sympathetiv signals to heart/blood vessels (increased HR/contraction force, widespread vasoconstriction, raised BP, normal perfusion to brain) Hormone: influence BP through either vasoactive effects or regulating H2O balance 1. Angiotensin II: potent vasoconstrictor *Raises BP *Promotes Na/H2O retention by kidneys *Increases blood volume/pressure 2. Aldosterone: salt-retaining hormone *Promotes Na/H2O retention by kidneys *Increases blood volume/pressure 3. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): increases urinary sodium excretion *Reduces blood volume, promotes vasodilation *Lowers BP 4. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) *promotes H2O retention *vasoconstrictor @ pathologically high concentrations 5/6. Epinephrine/Norepinephrine *Most blood vessels: bind to alpha-adrenergic receptors (vasoconstriction = increased BP) *Skeletal/Cardiac Muscle blood vessels: bind to beta-adrenergic receptors (vasodilation = increased flow/BP)

Explain how mean arterial pressure is calculated.

MAP ~ diastolic (relaxed pressure) + (pulse pressure [systolic - diastolic pressure] /3) It is the MAP that influences the risk of most disorders (kidney failure, aneurysm, artherosclerosis)

Describe the function for each of the 5 major types of leukocytes.

Neutrophils: phagocytize bacteria, release antimicrobial chemicals Eosinophils: phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes/allergens, release parasite-destroying enzymes Basophils: secrete histamine--> increases blood flow, secretes heparin--> prevents clotting and allows WBC mobility Lymphocytes: destroy cancer cells/viral infections/ foreign cells, activate other immune cells, secrete antibodies, serve in immune memory Monocytes: differentiate into macrophages, phagocytize pathogens/debris, activate other immune cells

Explain why blood type O- is the universal donor and type AB+ is the universal recipient.

O- is the universal donor because it lacks EVERY antibody and no antigens will agglutinate with it. AB+ is the universal recipient because it contains EVERY ANTIGEN and NO antibodies, so the blood wouldn't attack itself.

Identify the waveforms in a normal electrocardiogram, and relate the ECG waveforms to atrial and ventricular depolarization and repolarization and to the activity of the conduction system.

P wave: atrial depolarization QRS complex: ventricular depolarization (masks atrial repolarization) ST segment: ventricular systole (contraction), plateau in action potential T wave: ventricular repolarization and relaxation (diastole)

Differentiate between a cardiac pacemaker and contractile cell.

Pacemaker: 1% of population of cardiac cells that rhythmically and spontaneously generate action potentials that trigger contractile cells, initiate heartbeat Contractile: 99% of cardiac cells that transmit the electrical signal from the course (pacemaker cells) to the rest of the heart tissue

Explain how platelets differ structurally from the other formed elements of blood.

Platelets: cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes Formation: HSC--> Myeloid cell line--> Megakaryoblast--> repeated mitosis w/out cytokinesis--> Megakaryocyte w/ cytoplasmic arm that inserts into bone marrow sinusoid, rush of blood flow cuts off "arms--> platelets Structure: has granules, mitochondrion, microtubules, plasma membrane Functions: -reduce blood loss -stick together to form platelet plug to seal small breaks -secrete growth factors that stimulate mitosis to repair blood vessels -activate/attract leukocytes

Describe the location and functions of the right coronary arteries and their branches, the cardiac veins, and the coronary sinus.

Right Coronary Arteries/Branches: branches after aorta to coronary veins (part of systemic circuit) Cardiac Veins: *almost* immediately return newly oxygenated blood back to heart tissue

Relate the heart sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle.

S1 "Lub": heard during AV valve closing S2 "Dub": heard during Semilunar valve closing

Discuss the structure and function of hemoglobin, as well as its breakdown products.

Structure: -consists of 4 protein chains (Globins--2 alpha, 2 beta) -each polypeptide chain is bound to a ring-like heme group -each heme group contains 1 iron atom -each iron atom can bind REVERSIBLY with 1 molecule of O2 ~1 molecule = 4 iron atoms = 4 O2 atoms (1 per polypeptide chain) Function: protein, to transport O2 Breakdown Products: **disassembles into original building blocks** iron ions & amino acids (recycled to make new Hb in red bone marrow) & (heme-->) bilirubin (sent to liver & excreted as bile)

Explain how blood pressure varies in the different parts of the systemic and pulmonary circuits.

Systemic: more distance, more gravity, more work, higher BP Pulmonary: not as much work, lower BP

Describe the structure and function of the major arteries and veins entering and leaving the heart.

The Great Vessels: Superior/Inferior Vena Cava: bring DEOXYGENATED blood back into the heart and dump into right atrium, both are VEINS, Pulmonary Trunk: is an ARTERY, splits into left and right pulmonary arteries, carries DEOXYGENATED blood out of body Pulmonary Veins: receives OXYGENATED blood and brings it to left atrium Aorta: is an ARTERY, OXYGENATED blood leaves the heart through aorta to go through the systemic circuit

Explain how the heart functions as a double pump and why this is significant.

The heart functions as a double pump because it pumps through 2 circuits (systemic and pulmonary). Significance: 1 circuit picks up oxygen & the 2nd distributes it

Describe the layers of the pericardium.

The heart is enclosed in a sac called the pericardium. The pericardium compartmentalizes and encloses the heart w/ it's double layers. 1 layer is in direct contact with the heart itself, and 1 year is in direct contact with the thoracic cavity. The fluid that makes up the tissue of the pericardium is serous fluid and it's function is to absorb shock/friction and act as a lubricant.

Describe the position of the heart in the thoracic cavity.

The heart is located in the mediastinum, between the left and right lung. It takes up more space on the left side (asymmetrical lungs) and tilts towards the left pelvis.

Describe the basic surface anatomy of the chambers of the heart.

There are 4 chambers of the heart (2 atria and 2 ventricles). The atria are receiving chambers and the ventricles pump blood into arteries.

List the type of antigen and the type of antibodies present in each ABO and Rh blood type.

Type A: A antigens, anti-B antibodies Type B: B antigens, anti-A antibodies O: no antigens, no antibodies Rh+: no antibodies Rh-: anti-Rh antibodies

Define vascular anastomosis, and explain the significance of anastomoses.

Vascular Anastomosis: the point where 2 blood vessels merge *Most common: venous anastomosis Significance: serve as a back-up route or alternative route for blood flow if something is blocked/compromised *Ex: acts as a safeguard around/against clots/ blocks

Describe the mechanisms that assist in the return of venous blood to the heart.

Venous return: flow of blood back to the heart 1. Pressure gradient: BP is the MOST IMPORTANT force in venous return 2. Gravity drains blood from head/neck 3. Skeletal muscle pumps in limbs: contracting muscle squeezed out of compressed section of vein 4. Thoracic (respiratory) Pump: blood flows FASTER with inhalation, thoracic cavity expands & pressure decreases while abdominal pressure increases and forces blood upwards 5. Cardiac suction of expanding atrial space -Exercises INCREASES venous return -Venous pooling occurs w/ inactivity

Explain the relationship between vessel diameter, cross-sectional area, blood pressure, and blood velocity.

Vessel Diameter/Radius: MOST POWERFUL INFLUENCE OVER F *Vasomotion: change in vessel radius (constriction/dialation) *Affects blood velocity (speed) *Laminar Flow: blood flows in layers, FASTEST IN CENTER *F is proportional to r^4 Cross-Sectional Area: From aorta--> capillaries velocity decreases -farther from heart, # of vessels & their total crosss-sectional area become greater

Predict which blood types are compatible, and explain what happens when the incorrect ABO or Rh blood type is transfused.

When the incorrect ABO or Rh blood type is transfused, the erythrocytes will agglutinate and agglutinated erythrocytes eventually undergo hemolysis.

Describe how autoregulation controls blood flow to tissues.

When there is too much "garbage" buildup in cells that disrupts F, the tissues stimulate vasodilation to "clear out" garbage

Explain the differences between the development of anti-Rh antibodies and the development of anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

You are born with anti-A and anti-B antibodies. A person would only acquire anti-Rh antibodies if their blood came into contact with Rh+ person's blood and then the Rh- would develop anti-Rh antibodies.