Exam 1 Health Psychology Chapters 1 - 5

hardiness

A cluster of stress-buffering traits consisting of commitment, challenges, and control.

burnout

A job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion.

ecological momentary assessment (EMA)

A method of measuring stress that involves repeated sampling of people's behaviors and experiences in real time, and in their natural environment.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)

A new federal law aimed at reducing the number of people in the United States who do not have health insurance, as well as lowering the costs of health care.

buffering hypothesis

A theory that social support produces it's stress-busting effects indirect by helping the individual cope more effectively.

repressive coping

An emotion-focused coping style in which we attempt to unhibit our emotional responses, especially in social situations, so we can view ourselves as imperturbable.

statistical literacy

The ability to read and interpret statistics and to think critically about arguments that use statistics as evidence.

health literacy

The ability to understand health information and use it to make good decisions about one's health.

attributable risk

The actual amount that a disease can be attributed to exposure to a particular risk factor. Attributable risk is determined by subtracting the incidence rate of a disease in people who have been exposed to a risk factor from the incidence rate of the disease in people who have not been exposed to the risk factor.

heritability

The amount of variation in a trait among individuals that can be attributed to genes.

health psychology

The application of psychological principles and research to the enhancement of health and the prevention and treatment of illness.

cell

The basic unit of structure and function in living things.

dependent variable

The behavior or mental process in an experiment that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable; the variable that is being measured.

personal control

The belief that we make our own decisions and determine what we do and what others do to us.

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenaocortical (HPA) system

The body's delayed response to stress, involving the secretion of corticosteroid hormones from the adrenal cortex.

sympathic-adreno-medullary (SAM) system

The body's initial, rapid-acting response to stress, involving the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla under the direction of the sympathetic nervous system.

gastrointestinal system

The body's system for digesting food; includes the digestive tract, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard; located on top of the brainstem, it routes messages to the cerebral cortex.

medulla

The brainstem region that controls heartbeat and breathing.

allostatic load (allostasis)

The cumulative long-term effects of the body's physiological response to stress.

fetus

The developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.

embryo

The developing human organism from the third through the eighth week after conception.

epigenetic

The effects of environmental forces on how genes are expressed.

psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

The field of research that emphasizes the interaction of psychological, neural, and immunological processes in stress and illness.

immigrant paradox

The finding that, although low socioeconomic status usually predicts poor health, this is not true for Hispanics and other ethnic groups in the United States.

synapse

The junction between one neuron's axon and the dendrites of an adjoining neuron, across which a nerve impulse may be transmitted.

diathesis-stress model

The model that proposes that two interacting factors determine an individual's susceptibility to stress and illness; predisposing factors in the person (such as genetic vulnerability) and precipitating factors from the environment (such as traumatic experiences).

incidence

The number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur in a specific population within a defined time interval.

brainstem

The oldest and most central region of the brain; includes the medulla, pons, and reticular formation.

bronchi

The pair of respiratory tubes that branch into progressively smaller passageways, the bronchioles, culminating in the air sacs within the right and left lungs (the alveoli).

psychological control

The perception that one can determine one's own behavior and influence the environment to bring about desired outcomes.

mortality

As a measure of health, the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a given group at a given time.

mind-body dualism

The philosophical viewpoint that mind and body are separate entities that do not interact. Descartes.

emotional cascade

Becoming so focused on an upsetting event that one gets worked into an intense, painful state of negative emotion.

acculturation

The process by which a member of one ethnic or racial group adopts the values, customs, and behaviors of another.

cognitive reappraisal

The process by which potentially stressful events are constantly reevaluated.

stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

emotional-approach coping (EAC)

The process of working through, clarifying, and understanding the emotions triggered by a stressor.

resilience

The quality of some children to bounce back from environment stressors that might otherwise disrupt their development.

epidemiology

The scientific study of frequency, distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other health outcome in a population.

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in males and females; females have two X chromosomes, while males have one.

Y chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males; contains a gene that triggers the testes to begin producing testosterone.

genotype

The sum total of all the genes present in an individual.

homeostasis

The tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as the level of glucose in the blood, around a particular set point.

cellular theory

Formulated in the nineteenth century, the theory that disease is the result of abnormalities in body cells.

anatomical theory

The theory that origins of specific diseases are found in the internal organs, musculature, and skeletal system of the human body.

cerebral cortex

The thin layer of cells that covers the cerebrum; the seat of conscious sensations and information processing.

cilia

The tiny hairs that line the air passageways in the nose, mouth, and trachea; moving in wavelike fashion, the cilia trap germs and force them out of the respiratory system.

prevalence

The total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or condition that exist at a given time.

massification

The transformation of a product or service that was once only available to the wealthy such that it becomes accessible to everyone. Applied to education and health, it is the idea that college can benefit everyone.

stress management

The various psychological methods designed to reduce the impact of stressful experiences.

regulatory control

The various ways in which we modulate our thinking, emotions, and behavior over time and across changing circumstances.

biopsychosocial (mind-body) perspective

The viewpoint that health and other behaviors are determined by the interaction of biological mechanisms, psychological processes, and social influences.

sociocultural perspective

The viewpoint that it is impossible to understand a person fully without understanding his or her culture and ethnic identity.

ecological-systems approach

The viewpoint that nature is best understood in a hierarchy of systems, in which each system is simultaneously composed of smaller subsystems and larger, interrelated systems.

life-course perspective

Theoretical perspective that focuses on age-related aspects of health and illness.

subjective well-being

The cognitive and emotional evaluation of a person's life.

coping

The cognitive, behavioral, and emotional ways in which we manage stressful situations.

genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, including all the genetic material found in that organism's chromosomes.

biomedical model

The dominant view of the twentieth-century medicine that maintains that illness always has a physical cause.

stereotype threat

The experience of stress in a situation where a person's ability, appearance, or other characteristic has the potential to confirm a negative viewpoint about his or her social group.

independent variable

The factor in an experiment that an experimenter manipulates; the variable whose effect is being studied.

glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) resistance model

The idea that chronic stress promotes the development and progression of disease by reducing the sensitivity of immune system receptors to glucocorticoid hormones such as cortisol, thereby interfering with the body's ability to regulate the inflammatory response.

pituitary gland

The master endocrine gland controlled by the hypothalamus; releases a variety of hormones that act on other glands throughout the body.

threshold

The minimum change in electrical activity required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

invisible support

The perception that people in the community care and are standing by to provide assistance, if needed.

positive health

The scientific study of health assets, which are factors that produce longer life, reduce illness, and increase overall well-being.

etiology

The scientific study of the causes or origins of a specific disease.

genomics

The study of the structure, function, and mapping of the genetic material of organisms.

germ theory

The theory that disease is caused by viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms that invade body cells.

evidence-based health care

The use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services.

cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)

The use of principles from learning theory to change unhealthy patterns of thinking and behavior.

health disparities

Preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations.

cytokines

Protein molecules produced by immune cells that act on other cells to regulate immunity (includes the interferons, interleukins, and tumor necrosis factors).

rumination

Repetitive focusing on the causes, meanings, and consequences of stressful experiences.

lymphocytes

Antigen-fighting white blood cells produced in the bone marrow.

stressor

Any event or situation that triggers coping adjustments.

association cortex

Areas of the cerebral cortex not directly involved in sensory or motor functions; rather, they integrate multisensory information and higher mental functions such as thinking and speaking.

morbidity

As a measure of health, the number of cases of a specific illness, injury, or disability in a given group of people at a given time.

random assignment

Assigning research participants to groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences among the groups.

Digestive System

Begins in mouth, where food is chewed and ground up by teeth. Passes through esophagus to stomach where it is churned and proteins are chemically digested. Food then passes into the large and small intestines, where chemical digestion of carbohydrates and proteins is completed. Waste products are stored as feces in the rectum and eliminated from the body through the anus.

arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other organs and tissues; a small artery is called an arteriole.

veins

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart from the capillaries.

stem cells

Cells with the potential to develop into any other type of specialized cell.

cardiovascular reactivity (CVR)

Changes in cardiovascular activity that are related to psychological stress.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released by a neuron at synapses that diffuse across the synaptic hap and alter the electrical state of a receiving neuron.

hormones

Chemical messengers, released into the bloodstream by endocrine gland, which have an effect on distant organs.

social support

Companionship from others that conveys emotional concern, material assistance, or honest feedback about a situation.

general adaptation response (GAS)

Selye's term for the body's reaction to stress, which consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Cardiovascular System

1. oxygen depleted blood returns to heart through superior and inferior vena cava 2. blood is pumped from right atrium to right ventricle 3. then through capillaries of the lungs, where it picks up fresh oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide 4. freshly oxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium and from there into the left ventricle, from which it flows into the arterial system.

Descartes

1596-1650 Renaissance French Philosopher & Mathematician. Mind-body dualism, that mind and body function separately. That body is a machine, and described all basic functions of the body, making intricate models to demonstrate his beliefs. Disease occurred when machine broke down and physician's task is to repair the machine. Two natures: mental & physical. Not connected and mind does not influence body. Science separated from spirituality, but also disconnected the importance of psychological processes related to health. This method began unraveling in the 1970's.

Selye

1907-1982 Hungarian Endocrinologist. GAS General Adaptation Syndrome. 1. Alarm (mobilize coping resources) 2. Resistance (continue coping with stressor) 3. Exhaustion (resources depleted). Prolonged stress exacts a toll on the body. Rats in lab were as sick as one's injected because of stress during testing periods. He believed all stressors create same physiological reaction which has since been revised.

Hippocrates

460-377 BCE Known as the "father of modern medicine". Established roots of modern medicine. Disease is a natural phenomenon, cause and treatment to be studied. Moving from spiritual to scientific approach. Practice medicine ethically. HUMORAL THEORY, balance of bodily fluids, or humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm). Maintain balance by proper rest, exercise, good diet, and avoid excess. When not in balance, both body and mind affected depending on which bile is out of balance. Conducted one of the earliest public survey's to people suffering from gout regarding their habits. He was also interested in patients emotions and thoughts regarding health and treatment - "it's better to know the patient who has the disease, than the disease the patient has".

retrospective study

A backward-looking study in which a group of people who have a certain disease or condition are compared to a group of people who are free of the disease or condition, for the purpose of identifying background risk factors that may have contributed to the disease or condition.

tend-and-befriend

A behavioral response to stress that is focused on protecting offspring (tending) and seeking others for mutual defense (befriending).

noncommunicable disease (NCD)

A chronic disease, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, that is not passed from person to person.

stress inoculation training

A cognitive behavioral treatment in which people identify stressors in their lives and learn skills for coping with them so that when those stressors occur, they are able to put those skills into effect.

humoral theory

A concept of health proposed by Hipprocrates that considered wellness a state of perfect equilibrium among four basic body fluids, called humors. Sickness was believed to be the result of disturbances in the balance of humors.

problem-focused coping

A coping strategy for dealing directly with a stressor, in which we either reduce the stressor's demands or increase our resources for meeting its demands.

emotion-focused coping

A coping strategy in which we try to control our emotional response to a stressor.

approach (vigilant) coping

A coping strategy that directly confronts a stressor and attempts to develop a solution.

negative affectivity (NA)

A coping style or personality dimension consisting of chronic negative emotions and distress; also known as neuroticism.

case study

A descriptive study in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing general principles.

gender perspective

A focus on the study of gender-specific health behaviors, problems, and barriers to health care.

antigen

A foreign substance that stimulates an immune response.

expectancy effects

A form of bias in which the outcome of a study is influenced either by the researcher's expectations or by the study participants' expectations.

belief bias

A form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations.

progressive muscle relaxation

A form of relaxation training that reduces muscle tension through a series of tensing and relaxing exercises involving the body's major muscle groups.

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

A form of therapy that focuses on using structured meditation to promote mindfulness, a moment-to-moment, non-judgmental awareness.

prospective study

A forward-looking longitudinal study that begins with a healthy group of subjects and follows the development of a particular disease in that sample.

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of data points, each of which represents the values of two variables in a descriptive study.

birth cohort

A group of people who, because they were born at about the same time, experience similar historical and social conditions.

tissue

A group of similar cells organized into a functional unit.

organ

A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function.

population density

A measure of crowding based on the total number of people living in an area of limited size.

relaxation response

A meditative state of relaxation in which metabolism slows and blood pressure lowers.

neuron

A nerve cell, including the cell body, dendrites, and axon.

reticular formation

A network of neurons running through the brainstem involved with altertness and arousal.

limbic system

A network of neurons surrounding the central core of the brain; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression; includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

observational study

A non-experimental research method in which a researcher observes and records the behavior of a research participant.

John Henryism (JH)

A pattern of prolonged, high-effort coping with psychosocial demands and stressors, including barriers to upward social mobility.

secondary appraisal

A person's determination of whether his or her own resources and abilities are sufficient to meet the demands of an event that is appraised as potentially threatening or challenging.

primary appraisal

A person's initial determination of an event's meaning, whether irrelevant, benign-positive, or threatening.

phenotype

A person's observable characteristics; determined by the interaction of the individual's genotype with the environment.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A psychological disorder triggered by exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor, such as combat or a natural disaster. Symptoms of PTSD include haunting memories and nightmares of the traumatic event, extreme mental distress, and unwanted flashbacks.

crowding

A psychological state in which people believe that they do not have enough space to function as they wish.

meta-analysis

A quantitative technique that combines results of many studies examining the same effect or phenomenon.

survey

A questionnaire used to ascertain the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group of people.

descriptive study

A research method in which researchers observe and record participants' behaviors, often forming hypotheses that are later tested more systematically; includes case studies, interviews and surveys, and observational studies.

health

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

relative risk

A statistical indicator of the likelihood of a causal relationship between a particular health risk factor and a health outcome; computed as the ratio of the incidence (or prevalence) of a health condition in a group exposed to the risk factor to its incidence (or prevalence) in a group that is not exposed to the risk factor.

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, and thus of how well one predicts the other.

avoidant (minimizing) coping

A strategy for coping with stressors by withdrawing, minimizing, or avoiding them.

social-evaluative threat

A stressor in which people fear negative evaluation by others of their appearance or ability.

hippocampus

A structure in the brain's limbic system linked to memory.

cross-sectional study

A study comparing representative groups of people of various ages on a particular dependent variable.

quasi-experiment

A study comparing two groups that differ naturally on a specific variable of interest.

longitudinal study

A study in which a single group of people is observed over a long span of time.

double-blind study

A technique designed to prevent observer- and participant- expectancy effects in which neither the researcher nor the participants know the true purpose of the study or which participants have each condition.

direct effect hypothesis

A theory that social support produces it's beneficial effects during both stressful and non-stressful times by enhancing the body's physical responses to challenging situations.

randomized clinical trial (RCT)

A true experiment that tests the effects of one independent variable on individuals (single-subject design) or on groups of individuals (community field trials).

pathogen

A virus, bacterium, or some other microorganism that causes a particular disease.

corticosteroids

Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that fight inflammation, promote healing, and trigger the release of stored energy.

trephination

An ancient medical intervention in which a hole was drilled into the human skull, presumably to allow "evil spirits" to escape.

behavioral medicine

An interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and biomedical science in preventing, diagnosing, and treating illness.

psychosomatic medicine

An outdated branch of medicine that focused on the diagnosis and treatment of physical diseases caused by faulty psychological processes.

Segerstrom

Significant stressor to one person may not be a big deal to another. Short-lived or stressor perceived as a challenge may have positive effect on immune system to fend off infection and promote healing. Relationship between stress and immune functioning. Short term stressors can have positive effect on natural immunity, while long term stressors can have damaging effects by suppressing immunity. Indirect effect hypothesis, which suggests that immunosuppression is an aftereffect of the stress response. People with optimistic outlook live healthier, longer lives than their pessimistic counterparts. Optimistic moods seem to improve immunity. Results show pressure in school in optimistic students have less negative toll than pessimistic. Optimists have healthier attitudes, healthier habits, and tend to exercise, not smoke, and eat healthier. They also believe they have control over stressors and respond to them as challenges. Optimists and pessimists have different responses, varying from actively engaging (optimist) to passively disengage (pessimist). Optimists more likely to seek treatment when ill.

microaggressions

Insults, indignities, and marginalizing messages sent by well-intentioned people who seem unaware of the hidden messages that they are sending.

transactional model

Lazarus's theory that the experience of stress depends on much on the individual's cognitive appraisal of a potential stressor's impact as it does on the event or situation itself.

epidemic

Literally, among the people; an epidemic disease is one that spreads rapidly among many individuals in a community at the same time. A pandemic disease affects people over a large geographical area.

cerebellum

Located at the rear of the brain, this brain structure coordinates voluntary movement and balance.

adrenal glands

Lying above the kidneys; the pair of endocrine glands that secrete epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol, which are hormones that arouse the body during moments of stress.

sensory cortex

Lying at the front of the parietal lobes, the region of the cerebral cortex that processes body sensations such as touch.

motor cortex

Lying at the read of the frontal lobes, the region of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary movements.

hypothalamus

Lying just below the thalamus, the region of the brain that influences hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

amygdala

Two clusters of neurons in the limbic system that are linked to emotion, especially aggression.

Seligmen, Martin

Negativity and "epidemic hopelessness" are largely responsible for the prevalence of depression among Western people. When failure and rejection happen, self-focused society blames self, whereas in non-Western cultures with more sense of community, one does not internalize failures as greatly. LEARNED OPTIMISM: ABC's. Adversity: Interpret difficulties as in terms that are external, temporary, and specific. Beliefs: practicing optimistic explanation mindfully will lead to healthier, more upbeat beliefs. Consequences: healthier, more optimistic beliefs will prompt more positive health consequences. When faced with continual, uncontrollable stress, some people develop resigned passive behaviors of LEARNED HELPLESSNESS. Stop trying or become unresponsive. Lose motivation, impaired learning, anxiety and depression.

explanatory style

Our general propensity to attribute outcomes always to positive causes or always to negative causes, such as personality, luck, or another person's actions.

reactivity

Our physiological reaction to stress, which varies by individual and affects our vulnerability to illness.

Ader

University of Rochestor, Psychologist. Conducted classic Pavlovian learning experiment, conditioning rats to avoid saccharin flavored water. Gave the rats the water, and then a medicine to induce nausea. After several weeks, rats began to die because it was found to suppress immune response. Furthered experimentation to remove nausea drug, rats responded as if drug were still present. Learned association between the taste of the water and the suppression of T-cells. Made the rats increasingly susceptible to disease due to suppressed immune system. Ader himself had a hard time accepting results, so Cohen retested with same outcome.