EXAM #1 - PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN

Know the main ideas and constructed themes (findings/results) from the Graham et al. (2014) article

- AA trans women have the highest rates of hiding their trans identities. - Participants learned and performed feminine gender roles early on from their biological families. Participants saw gender expectations of their family/community through social sanctions. - Some were sent to live w/male figures to try and force a masculine identity (a form of gender conversion therapy). - Social support from family and friends was found to act as a buffer against stress. - The 5 main themes: - Familial reactions to self-recognition of feminine sensibilities were often negative and not supportive. - Coming out as gay was easier than accept than transgender bc their families had a better understanding to what gay meant. - Transgender was such a foreign notion especially w/the lack of representation. - Revelation and affirmation through initial contact w/transwomen was helpful in their trans identity development. - It helped them feel more comfortable w/their identities as transwomen. - Interpersonal and emotional distance from biological family was necessary for them to complete their transition and live comfortable. - Having unsupportive family was not good for their transitioning process as well as their mental health. - They felt like they had no choice but to leave bc of how unsupportive their families were. - When they did that, they formed new familial networks w/other transwomen. - They created their own support systems that helped them survive as a person and finish w/their transition. - Reestablishing contact w/biological family was something some participants did once they had fully transitioned and felt comfortable seeing their family again. - They felt that it had been enough distance for their families to accept them.

Explain what it means for genitalia to be "ambiguous," and apply the different connotations of "ambiguous" genitalia and how they may relate to stigma from society at large and the medical community.

- Ambiguous genitalia à genitalia that doesn't clearly align w/female-typical or male-typical genitalia; implies that there are only 2 genitalia options when there isn't - Hermaphrodite à an outdated term used to describe ambiguous genitalia; falsely implies that the person is both male and female - Disorders of sex development (DSD) à a newer name used in place of intersex to describe the differences in the types of genitalia that there are - Now, ppl say differences of sex development bc "disorder" implies something is wrong w/the person. There are no set rules for how to label ambiguous genitalia so doctors kind of identify as a case-by-case basis. - The American Pediatric Association has tried to come up w/guidelines but there's no one there to enforce it. - Ppl (parents, doctors) are forced into making a binary decision bc often time birth certifications only have those two options, and it needs to be filled out before they leave the hospital. - Parents are even asked to think about "corrective" surgeries. Genitoplasty à surgery on the genitals; can affect sexual function and pleasure - Clitoroplasty reduces the size of the clitoris; often requires follow-up surgeries throughout the lifetime - Phalloplasty à increases the size of the penis; often includes moving the urethral opening - Medical gaze dehumanization that happens from medical professionals who treat a person's body as separate from that person's sense of self - Doctors might make decisions about a person's body that aren't necessarily right for their mental health. Ex: surgeries to "correct" babies' genitalia that only have cosmetic purposes not physical health purposes - Doctors even have old-fashioned views about intersex children that are centered in keeping the White, Western idea of sex/gender/sexuality. Saying that parents should keep it a secret. - Saying that surgery will prevent any confusion about gender identity and sexual orientation.

Describe the two types of sexism (hostile and benevolent) and explain how they work together to maintain gender hierarchies.

- Ambivalent sexism a combination of both hostile and benevolent sexism which encompasses contemporary sexism. - Hostile sexism à negative and derogatory beliefs about girls and women - Benevolent sexism treating girls and women differently than men and putting them on a pedestal w/the idea that they need protecting and worthy of being cherished (as long as they follow traditional gender roles) - Paternalistic chivalry à the idea that girls and women should be protected and cherished (this is only as long as they follow traditional gender roles) - Benevolent and hostile sexism are heavily related and interconnected. Ppl can have both negative ideas about women (hostile) and positive beliefs about women who follow traditional gender roles (benevolent). - Women are more likely to reject hostile sexism but accept benevolent sexism. This could be a way to protect themselves from the intense backlash from going against traditional gender roles. - Benevolent sexism changes depending on the group of women. Ex: Black women vs. White women, trans women vs. cis women

Identify some of the less well-known sexual orientations.

- Asexual à having little to no sexual attraction - Bisexual à having sexual/romantic attraction for women and men - Pansexual having sexual/romantic attraction for all genders based on ppl's personality - Demisexual needing to have an emotional connection before dvlping sexual/romantic attraction - Heteroflexible majority of the time having sexual/romantic attraction for someone of the opposite gender, but also sometimes having sexual/romantic attraction for someone who doesn't label as the other gender (opposite gender or nonbinary or genderqueer) - Queer someone who doesn't identify w/a specific sexual orientation; an umbrella term for those who aren't straight and/or gender binary - Skoliosexual having sexual/romantic attraction for nonbinary individuals

Explore some of the experiences of Black women in psychology from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century.

- At the end of the 19th century, it was mostly wealthy, white women who got the opportunity to study in psychology graduate programs. - A lot of their work focused on discrediting biological determinism and how cultural expectations influence the perceived differences between men and women.

Identify three factors that contributed to and signaled the formation of the psychology of women.

- Before 1969, female psychologist couldn't participate in most of the field because jobs weren't trying to hire women. - The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was formed as a response to the APA's sexism and lack of female leadership - Women protested the APA from 1969 to 1973 because they wanted them to create a division that just focused on women.

Know the components of the gingerbread person.

- Gender expression (outside body) how ppl portray themselves through their behaviors, interests, and appearances; ranges from masculine to feminine including androgynous on this spectrum - Gender identity (brain) à how ppl view themselves as gendered beings; ranges from man to women including nonbinary and transgender on this spectrum - Biological sex (genitalia) à the chromosomes that make up someone's sex; ranges from XX (female) to XY (male) including intersex conditions on this spectrum w/variations of X and Y - Sexual orientation (heart) à how ppl label their sexual and romantic attractions to others; ranges from heterosexual to homosexual including the labels from LGBTQIA+ on this spectrum

Differentiate between different identities within the umbrella term of transgender.

- Genderqueer à an umbrella term for ppl who feel outside of, not included within, or beyond the binary of female and male -Gender non-conforming à someone who doesn't identify as trans but they don't conform to the traditional characteristics for man or woman - Transwoman/transfeminine individual à someone who has transitioned from man to woman or has a feminine gender expression - Transman/transmasculine individual à someone who has transitioned from woman to man or has a masculine gender expression - Gender bender/pangender/polygender à refers to ppl who are nonbinary; someone who identifies w/all genders - Androgynous à someone who are gender neutral; they are both female and male or neither female nor male - Two-spirited à from Native American culture, where ppl have characteristics of both female and male; treated as a separate gender - Some ppl choose not to label themselves bc they don't like them. - Self-labeling can be helpful for individuals to form connections w/ppl like them and spread awareness about issues - Transgender identity dvlpmt is a process that can start at any age and time. - This has been seen even in children as young as 2. - This process can be helped or hindered by how parents react to their child's desire to develop their trans identity. - The first step in identity dvlpmt is awareness. -Gender transitioning à the typically lengthy process of publicly showing one's new gender identity in both appearance and behavior

Describe the characteristics of Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and Turner's syndrome (TS) and explain how they make it difficult to understand sex as a binary.

- Intersex conditions can be caused by nondisjunction. - Nondisjunction à the process where chromosomes fail to disconnect when a cell divides which can happen w/sex chromosomes - Klinefelter syndrome à when there's more than one X chromosome but also one or two Y chromosomes; external male genitalia - There's no sign of anything different at birth, so they're often assigned male at birth. - Bc of the lower levels of testosterone, men often have producing sperm (hypogonadism). - W/each added X chromosome, there's greater potential for physical, emotional, and cognitive challenges. - Turner's syndrome à when the sex chromosomes are XO and only 45 chromosomes; external female genitalia and a uterus but no ovaries; typically shorter than peers - This is caused by a sperm w/an X chromosome fertilizing an egg w/out an X chromosome or a chromosome became lost during fetal development. - They're assigned female at birth, but some later identify as intersex - Since they don't have ovaries, they can't produce estrogen or naturally go through female puberty. - Some use estrogen therapies so that they do go through puberty and dvlp female secondary sex characteristics. - They also can't have biological children, so many look into alternatives. -Intersex conditions show that there is not a binary when it comes to sex assignment. -The body naturally creates other options besides male and female.

Explain how language is used to maintain gender hierarchies.

- Language can contribute to the gender hierarchies bc we often use language that centers around men or uses them as the default. - Spotlighting à the tendency to include a word that adds context to the noun (e.g., professor vs. female professor) -The word "man" is often used when we just mean "human." - People = male bias à when ppl are given the word "person," they tend to picture a man (specifically a White, young, able-bodied, straight man) - Animal = male bias à children and adults are likely to refer to animals using male pronouns - Using the male version of the word first in word pairings. - Binomial pairings à a 2-word expression where the words are fixed and unchangeable - Ppl tend to think of/describe a man when asked to think of anyone. - The male version of words tends to be the default which just prioritizes men. - Marked words à typically the male version that is used as the generic term (ex: lion) - Unmarked words à typically the female version that can only be used to describe females (ex: lioness) - English has a strong cisgendered bias bc we don't have any gender-neutral singular pronouns.

consequences of not identifying as a feminist.

- Non-labelers tend to believe that no more work needs to be done because we've reached gender equity already. - Beliefs like this are dangerous because people think that women's lack of accomplishments are due to personal failure and not the systematic problems

Explain how people use body language to demonstrate their social status.

- Non-verbal communication à communication that doesn't come from words but comes from body language, facial expressions, gestures, etc. - High status ppl have been found to say what they want w/out concern for consequences, appear more relaxed, take up more space, and hold eye contact while they're speaking rather than when they're listening. - High status ppl are more likely to show non-verbal cues of disengagement and less likely to show non-verbal cues of engagement compared to lower status ppl. - Women have been found to be more likely than men to show behaviors that reliably predict low status. They smile more, gaze more, show more expressive gestures, use a soft voice, self-touch more, and hold smaller interpersonal distance. - Men tend to behave in ways that shows dominance. Ex: manspreading à sitting w/the legs wide open in a way that takes up extra space Women smile more than men, but it's often due to feelings of obligations not genuine emotion. - Women are taught to be nice and sweet. Men often tell/ask women to smile, and they do for fear of retaliation. Girls and women smile 66% more than boys and women. Smiling is an example of doing gender bc it conforms to the idea that girls and women should be nurturing and communal.

Identify the specific types of discrimination that women commonly experience.

- Prejudice à a negative, biased belief about a person bc of their actual or perceived membership in a certain social group - Discrimination unfair treatment towards someone bc of their actual or perceived membership in a social group that is less powerful than the dominant social group - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 are anti-discrimination laws. - Overt sexism unequal treatment of women that is easily identifiable and easily documented

Identify and describe the three conditions related to hormones that complicate the understanding of sex as a binary.

- Sex differentiation à the process of dvlping sex specific characteristics which starts during the sixth week pf pregnancy when gonads appear -Gonads à a pair of sex glands that can turn into ovaries or testes - Gonads become ovaries unless there's a Y chromosome. - The Y chromosome has a sex-determining region that helps w/the other genes needed to dvlp the testes. -Androgen a hormone necessary for shaping the rest of the male body after testes are formed - Testosterone the androgen that promotes the growth of internal male reproductive organs - Dihydrotestosterone à a component of testosterone that promotes the growth of a penis and testicles - 5-alpha reductase à the enzyme that turns testosterone into dihydrotestosterone - Androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS) à testosterone is present but cannot connect w/cell receptors so the dvlping tissue can't use the testosterone to promote male genital growth -Ppl w/AIS have XY chromosomes, no female internal organs, active testes, and typical male levels of T. -The problem is the body can't process the T so masculinization of the genitals and dvlpmt of secondary sex characteristics don't happen. -Ppl w/complete AIS (CAIS) have female looking genitals and are typically AFAB bc T hasn't been processed at all. - Ppl w/partial AIS (PAIS) have ambiguous or partially masculinized genitalia and can be AFAB or AMAB bc T has been processed some. - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) à there is an excess of androgens which impacts dvlpmt inside and outside of the womb; there's a uterus but either an enlarged clitoris or penis - In ppl w/XX chromosomes, the increase in androgens causes fetuses to dvlp different levels of male-typical genitalia and impacts how the uterus and fallopian tubes dvlp. - They typically don't have genitalia that are identifiable as M or F so they have surgery to go in either direction. -Those who were AFAB tend to continue to identify as F. In ppl w/XY chromosomes, the increase in androgens can cause hyper-masculinization like super deep voices and super hairy bodies. - 5-alpha reductase deficiency à there isn't enough 5-alpha reductase in ppl w/XY chromosomes to convert testosterone into hydrotestosterone, so they can't masculinize their external genitalia in utero - They're normally AFAB but start to dvlp phalluses, get deeper voices, and grow facial hair during puberty unless there's medical intervention. This happens more often in the DR, Papua New Guinea, Turkey, and Egypt.

Define sexual orientation and differentiate it from gender identity.

- Sexual orientation (heart) à how ppl label their sexual and romantic attractions to others; ranges from heterosexual to homosexual including the labels from LGBTQIA+ on this spectrum - Gender identity is about your own self and how you view yourself and sexual orientation is about how you feel about other ppl. - Who you go to bed as vs. who you go to bed with

Identify the components of the traditional model of how biological factors, gender identity, and sexual orientation relate to each other.

- The sex/gender binary à the idea that there are only 2 sexes that ppl can be assigned to (male and female) which align w/the 2 genders (man and woman)] -Sex and gender are interconnected, but biological sex doesn't always match up w/gendered expectations -The White, western model has a very specific path that connects biological factors, gender identity, and sexual orientation w/out room for deviation from this path. - Chromosomes: XX or XY; Hormones: No Prenatal Masculinizing Hormones or Prenatal Masculinizing Hormones; Genitalia: Uterus or Penis; Gender: Girl or Boy; Sexual Orientation: Liking Boys or Liking Girls -In reality, this path isn't straightforward, and they can change at any stage. - In non-Western countries, sex isn't the primary tool used for determining gender. - Gender identity à the understanding we have ourselves as gendered (ex: man, woman, nonbinary, transgender) - Cisgender à someone who identifies w/the gender they were assigned at birth -Transgender à someone who identifies w/a different gender then the one they were assigned at birth - Nonbinary à someone who doesn't identify as a woman or man bc they feel in btwn those categories or not like neither of them; they don't feel connected to the sex/gender binary -Gender expression à the different behaviors, interests, and appearances we choose to show our gender identity; clothing, hairstyles, jewelry, tattoos, shoes, etc.

Describe how talking styles, speech use, and interrupting reflect power differentials.

- Women are more interrupted than men by both men and women. - Men tend to interrupt so they can dominate the conversation. - Women tend to interrupt bc they're excited about the topic and want to add to the conversation. - They're more likely to do this in a group than in a one-on-one conversation. - Theory of communicator status à ppl w/higher status are seen as having more credibility and expertise than ppl w/lower status - Men get more talking time, and women aren't able of controlling the conversation. - This dictates whose opinions get heard, who influences decisions in meetings, and who gets the opportunities. - Mansplaining à when a man explains something, typically to a woman, in a condescending way This also applies to ppl in positions of pwr trying to explain things to ppl in lower-status positions. - Women are socialized to be more polite and speak in ways that are weaker which is why women are more likely than men to use tentative speech forms. - Tentative speech forms à hesitations, filler words, tag questions, etc. that lessen the pwr of a sentence - Most women don't actually use tentative speech forms, but when they do ppl notice it which adds to confirmation bias. - Naming and shaming phenomenon à ppl tend to notice stereotypical behaviors and then generalize this behavior to the whole group - Tentative speech forms can improve connections and increase pwr in certain social settings bc it can show interpersonal sensitivity and lack of assertiveness. Ex: longer vs. shorter conversations, groups vs. pairs Uptalk/upspeak à a style of speech where the end of the sentence goes up in octaves as if you're asking a question - This has been shown to relate to success particularly in women (ex: popular, teenage girls). Women who use more direct types of communication risk social punishment. - Double-bind à girls and women who speak tentatively are seen as inferior, but those who speak assertively are seen as stepping out of line In general, the language use and speech patterns of women are constantly critiqued. Ex: vocal fry à an unnatural low, creaky voice

Understand how gender identity can complicate the way people identify their sexual orientation.

- Your own gender identity can dictate how you identify your sexual orientation. Ex: someone is a transwoman and is attracted to men (straight) whereas before transitioning they were gay - At any point in time, this identification can change. The sexual configurations theory (SCT) à the argument that sexuality must be viewed from multiple dimensions which explains why sexuality is multi-faceted, socially situated, and dynamic - Sexual fluidity à sexuality is fluid and changeable over time - Sexuality shift stress à bc sexuality is fluid, there can be stress that goes along w/navigating one's sexuality/sexual orientation.

List the seven major perspectives of feminism

- liberal feminism - radical feminism - socialist feminism - cultural feminism - women of color feminism - queer feminism - post-colonial/transitional feminism

Explain how stereotypes can shape behavior.

- self stereotyping people behaving in a way that aligns with how they think should act for their gender, but this only perpetuates gender stereotypes - doing gender the cycle of social expectations influencing gender performance which then influences social interactions; this only applies with the male and female gender binary

Know components of the ADDRESSING model

- social identities the different social groups that we belong to and that make up our sense of self. - AGE: adults vs. children, adolescents, and elders -DEVELOPMENT disability: neurotypical vs neurodivergent people - Disability status: people without disability vs people with physical, cognitive, or psychological disabilities - Religion: Christian vs Muslim, Jewish, and non-christian people -Ethnicitiy: White/European vs POC -Social class: upper class and middle class and educated vs lower class people and poor - Sexual orientation: straight vs. LGBTQ+ - Indigenous background: non-natuve vs native people - National origin: Us born vs. being born outside the country - Gender: men vs women, nonbinary, intersex, trans people

Identify why a member of certain social groups or minorities may be reluctant to identify as a feminist

- some people don't identify as feminists because of the history of discrimination in the world - black women developed the word womanist which fits them better - Latinx feminists developed the word mujerista

Illustrate some of the benefits and consequences of feminist identification. Consider the impact that feminist identification has on minority or disenfranchised populations.

- understanding feminist theory and perspectives lets women see that they aren't alone, shows them how personal struggles represent societal problems, explains the basis for some inequalities, and reveals the tools needed to discuss and deal with society's problems - feminists are often seen as smart, knowledgeable, productive, career-oriented, and active. - Feminist report better psychological well-being, experience less body shame, and have more more sexual satisfaction compared to those who don't identify as feminist.

First Wave Feminism

-the right to vote - Women's suffrage movement - Seneca falls convention

Fourth Wave Feminism

Broadened the term of feminism further to include; male feminism, LGBTQ+, intersectionality, challenging the gender binary.

Queer Feminism

Calls for the elimination of binary gender categories since they are at the core of gender inequality - traditional definitions of feminism that focuses on achieving equity between women and men contributes to oppression and exclusion of non-binary people.

Assess how feminists have challenged the production and interpretation of knowledge, including how feminist epistemologies inform the practice of psychology.

Feminist psychology argues that psychological research is never value-neutral or objective. Feminist psychologists create transparency and genuine equity, fairness, and respect among people.

Define heterosexism

Heterosexism à the bias that ppl are straight (unless proven otherwise) bc straightness is the default and that it's better to be straight

Liberal Feminism

a form of feminism that focuses o the similarities between women and men and on using government policies to eliminate barriers that keep women from achieving their potential. - Equal Rights Amendment: government is responsible for making sure women receive a equal opportunity at education and employment

Women of Color Feminism (Womanism)

connects gender inequity to other structures of oppression, especially but not limited to racism.

post-colonial/transnational feminism

connects women's inequality to the legacy of colonialism - to build coalitions rather than assume one unified voice of sisterhood

Second Wave Feminism

demanded equal rights for women in employment and education, women's right to control their own bodies, and the end of patriarchal domination. Redstocking staged a performance at Miss America.

Radical Feminism

focuses on transforming women's thinking since women are condtioned to prioritize men and to deem heterosexuality as a social ideal. - Patriarchy

Socialist Feminism

highlights the ways in which money and capitalism are interconnected with gender inequities. - Makes women economically dependent on men which encourages heterosexual relationship.

Cultural Feminism

perceives gender inequity as being related to a lack if appreciation for women's unique feminine qualities. - Traditional romantic loves should be replaced with ideas of feminine values of kindness and concern for all.

Propose some of the consequences of post-feminism

some people don't label as feminists even if they have feminists values because of the stigma around it

What is intersectionality?

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

Black Women Stereotypes

the prominent stereotype of the "strong black woman" combines twos central and overlapping concepts; caregiving (feminine) and strength (masculinterm-23e). This stereotype perpetuates the idea that Black women are tough, naturally strong, self-sacrificing, and communal.

Middle Eastern Women stereotypes

were described as family oriented, quiet, and housewives

Assess why womanism is a more relevant perspective of feminism for some women of color.

womanist: term encompasses feminism but it differs because it does not prioritize sexism over other forms of oppression. More inclusive of experiences of oppression that all women face.

Third Wave Feminism

•Began in the mid-1990s •struggle to change mainstream ideas of feminism •lack of diversity