exam 2

The Turkana of eastern Africa are an example of pastoralist societies who practice transhumance where certain individuals, rather than the whole group, migrate with the herds.

True Response Feedback: Transhumance, or semi-nomadic, is a form a movement among pastoralists and exists with groups residing in both Europe in the high altitude Alps and in Africa. Only certain individuals migrate with the herd and those not migrating remain in year round settlements with permanent houses

In Dr. Lee's studies, why did San (!Kung) have lower rates of disease than the rates of industrialized societies?

mobility Response Feedback: The San (!Kung) were highly mobile. They never lived in one place for very long and lived in small groups. As such, diseases could not easily flourish among a population. If it did, a small group would be infected rather than in a large epidemic of an urban population

A horticultural system of cultivation is characterized by

periodic cycles of cultivation and fallowing. Response Feedback: Horticulture is a type of plant cultivation that differs from agriculture. Horticulturalists employ a strategy based on a simple level of crop production and rotation without soil preparation, fertilizers, irrigation, or large beasts of burden

As an example of developing nations seeking foreign loans and investments to create an industrial infrastructure, I discussed Brazil as a major recipient of World Bank loans in the 1960s. By 1980s, the threatened to default on those loans. What were they forced to do

To renegotiate loans, the government had to cut public education, healthcare, welfare, and housing expenditures in an attempt to balance the budget

A market exchange economy is critical to the development of the state because of the need to trade with groups when crops failed and food shortages were present.

True Response Feedback: Because agriculturalists were sedentary and limited to a specialized crop, when those crops failed, trade with neighboring groups was necessary for survival (p. 122).

Horticulture can support sedentism but requires more labor than foraging

True Response Feedback: Horticulture can support sedentism because of the surplus of food gained from this subsistence strategy

The most significant contrast between Mesopotamian and Mesoamerican food production involved animal domestication. Large game animals were mostly absent in the New World.

True Response Feedback: In Mesopotamia, large game animals played a significant role with domestication. Besides the llama and alpaca in the Andean region, domesticated large game animals were not present in the New World

An important feature of the pre-classic Mayan site El Mirador is the presence of roads (sacbe) the link major ancient cities throughout the region.

True Response Feedback: Sacbe means "white road" in Mayan and connected neighboring sites several miles away

The Basseri of Iran are nomadic pastoralists. They use sheep and goats, live in temporary settlements, and have a migratory range of over 300 miles

True Response Feedback: The Basseri are on example of pastoral nomads who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. Pastoral nomads exist predominately in North Africa and the Middle East

The Nazca lines of Peru are large geoglyphs of zoomorphs, anthromorphs, and phytomorphs.

True Response Feedback: The designs are shallow lines made in the ground by removing naturally occurring reddish pebbles and uncovering the whitish/grayish ground beneath the pebbles

"White Man's Burden" is the supposed or presumed responsibility of white people to govern and impart their culture to non-white people

True Response Feedback: This was often advanced as a justification for European colonialism. Colonialism provided colonized peoples with protection from savage uncivilized indigenous groups and to ability "lead" them to civilization.

Match the correct eastern US mound city with the correct waterway

Question Selected Match Moundville B. Black Warrior River Etowah C. Etowah River Cahokia A. Mississippi River

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Teotihuacán state?

a mature, syllabic writing system

What was the initial reason for establishing colonial relations with groups in east Africa?

trade and exchange

Many archaeologists believe that a combination of social, political, military upheaval, along with environmental degradation, contributed to the collapse of the Mayan Empire

true

The modern world system is:

A system of global dimension in which nations are economically and politically interdependent. Response Feedback: We are linked today as we never have been before by modern means of transportation and communication. The study of small communities is what defines the origins of ethnographic research. However, these groups are very difficult to find today because they are now part of the economic and political infrastructure of a larger political and social system

Why do state level societies collapse?

Any one of them or a combination of all of them. Response Feedback: All of these factors could threaten economies and political institutions at the state level system and lead to a social and political collapse of a society

The site of Machu Pitchu was one of the wealthiest cities along the edge of Lake Titicaca. It's primary export was copper.

: False Response Feedback: Tiwanaku was a major economic city and was very prosperous as an important trade hub on the southern shores of Lake Titicaca. The main item traded was copper and copper items

A simple definition of industrialism is the use of machinery to produce goods

: True Response Feedback: Industrialism is the mass production of commodities using machines within the system of capitalism.

The Basseri of Iran are nomadic pastoralists. They use sheep and goats, live in temporary settlements, and have a migratory range of over 300 miles.

: True Response Feedback: The Basseri are on example of pastoral nomads who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. Pastoral nomads exist predominately in North Africa and the Middle East.

A __________ is a form of social and political organization that has a formal central government and a division of society into classes.

: state Response Feedback: State level political systems first appeared in societies with large-scale intensive agriculture

What is one explanation for the fall of Cahokia?

A long-term drought that depleted food supplies. Response Feedback: One of the explanations is a drought that lasted for like 30 years throughout the SW and SE United States around AD 1300

During the Neolithic Revolution, several factors converged in order for domestication of plants and animals to have happened. Which of the following are those factors?

All of these. Response Feedback: The Neolithic is the name given to the cultural period in which the first signs of domestication are present. All of these factors converged in order for the domestication of plants and animals to have occurred.

Match the general features that characterize industrial agriculture with the appropriate result

An increase in the use of technology. A. Results in a replacement of human labor with machines and an increase in the use of unsustainable fossil fuels for energy. An increase in government agencies. E. Results in bureaucratic oversight needed to create and manage farm production policies. An increase in competition. C. Results in small farmers not able to compete with larger farmers, which ultimately forces consolidation under large corporate farming. An increase in high levels of specialization of crop production known as monocropping. D. Results in a single crop grown every year rather than rotating and diversifying crops. An increase in the overproduction of products. F. Results in food waste deposited into landfills. An increased interdependence between farms and corporations. B. Results in a control the manufacture of machines, sales, processing of food, and transportation of food

What are the three sisters

Corn, Beans, and Squash

An influential theory that incorporates three factors working together instead of a single cause for state formation includes

Environmental circumscription, increasing population, and warfare Response Feedback: The combination of environmental circumscription, increasing population, and warfare states that whenever these things exist, state formation will begin by setting limitations or boundaries set on a space or area. These can be physical limitations, such as an environmentally productive area within a river valley, desert oasis, or a small island or they can be social limitations, such as blocking expansion of an area or access to resources

The former cities of Moundville, Etowah, and Cahokia are all on private property and cannot be visited

False Response Feedback: All three of these sites are publicly accessible archaeological parks!

Of the three eastern US mound cities discussed in class, Moundville is the largest (in terms of number of mounds), most populous (in terms of number of people), and was most influential along the Mississippi River Valley.

False Response Feedback: Cahokia is one of the most important pre-Columbian sites in the New World and is the largest Native American site north of Mexico. It was the largest community north of Mexico and covered about 6 square miles, 120 mounds, and 10-20 thousand people

The Mayan urban center of Tikal was the last remain Mayan cities before the decline of the Empire

False Response Feedback: Chitzen Itza was the last urban center and fared better because of the limestone geology and collapsed sink holes in the Yucatan. Because of these features, deep groundwater was accessible during droughts

As demonstrated in the research of Dr. Richard Lee with San (!Kung) groups in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa, foraging societies typically are of poor health, usually only eat hunted meat, and require much more labor than farming societies.

False Response Feedback: Dr. Lee's study demonstrates that foraging societies average 2-3 days a week in subsistence activities (about 17 hours), which is much less than those living in farming and industrial societies. Additionally, foragers eat mostly vegetable foods and are quite healthy overall. (p. 113-114

Compared with foraging societies, intensive agriculture has a very low energy budget with a diverse set of foods

False Response Feedback: Foragers like the San Bushman of Africa have a low energy budget with a diverse and nutritionally sustainable diet. This is in contrast to the high carbohydrate starchy foods and very limited agricultural diet of today, which is predominately products made with rice, potatoes, or corn

Writing never developed among the early states in Mesoamerica, so there is no reliable archaeological evidence that records these states' histories.

False Response Feedback: Hieroglyphs are a form of writing that first developed during Olmec times

While most ancient states were created using slave labor, the institution of slavery today is non-existent

False Response Feedback: It is a common misconception that slavery no longer exists today. The institution of slavery continues in pre-industrialized and modern nations in various forms. Somewhere around 30 million people are enslaved today.

Jericho, the earliest known town, is located in central Turkey

False Response Feedback: Jericho is located in modern Israel.

The use of monocropping in industrial agriculture provides a mechanism to diversity yields

False Response Feedback: Monocropping lowers diversity of food yields. It creates a dependence on a limited number of crops that can lead to risk of starvation if a crop fails. Monocropping does not provide a back up plan if a crop fails

Teotihuacán and Çatal Hüyük are two of the earliest towns in the Middle East

False Response Feedback: Teotihuacán is in Mesoamerica

The Moundbuilders who built the mounds and cities in the eastern United States are now extinct. Their demise is a great mystery in North American archaeology.

False Response Feedback: The descendants of the Moundbuilders are still with us and most of them live right next door in Oklahoma (formerly Indian Territory) as they were forcibly removed there in the 1830s

Most contemporary foragers live in remote areas, completely cut off from contact with other modern, agricultural, and industrial communities

False Response Feedback: While we tend to evaluate foraging societies individually, all modern foragers are under the control of nation-states and are influenced by forces of globalization and political environment.

In 1532 a small band of Spanish conquistadors led by ____________ arrived in northern Peru and ultimately collapsed the Incan Empire

Francisco Pizzaro Response Feedback: In 1533, the Spanish took control over Cuzco and the Incan Empire fell. Pizarro is well known in Peru as the leader of the Spanish conquest. After his invasion, Pizarro destroyed the Inca state and initiated the decline of local cultures. The Incan polytheistic religion was replaced by Christianity and much of the local population was reduced to serfdom under the Spanish elite. The cities of the Inca Empire were transformed into Spanish Catholic cities

What is one outcome of globalization?

High levels of inequality in developed and developing nations. Response Feedback: With globalization a high level of inequality within all countries between developed and developing nations is increasing. In other words, having a job doesn't equate to a lack of poverty. As such, standards of living are declining for many developing nations

Early Horizon cemeteries along the Paracas Peninsula in Peru used what form of mortuary practice?

Mummified bodies were placed in bottle-shaped vaults and were dressed with clothing textiles and then wrapped with several layers of textile shrouds

In order for capitalistic economies to survive, they must grow profits from the buying and selling of products in markets. In the context of food and industrial agriculture, which of the following lead to the greatest profit for food companies?

High yields and low OPEX Response Feedback: High yields and low operating expenses (OPEX) lead to the greatest profit for food companies. This is often at the social, economic, environmental, and health expense of consumers of their goods and services. For example, high yields can be achieved by using agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) at the expense of the environment and the chemicals retained in the food. Low operating expenses can be achieved through low wages, by using unskilled immigrant workers or by shifting manufacturing to developing countries

One result of the degradation of environment from agriculture is the issue of hypoxic zones. What are hypoxic zones?

Hypoxic zones are those ecological areas that are deprived of adequate oxygen supply for plants and animals to survive. Response Feedback: Hypoxic zones have been occurring in the gulf since the 1970s, and studies show that the main culprits are nitrogen and phosphorus from crop fertilizers and animal manure in river runoff. They flow downstream from farms far to the north and settle in at the mouth of the gulf and fertilize algae, which prospers and eventually starves other living things of oxygen

Which of the following is a true statement about intensive or industrial agriculture?

Intensive agriculture has significant environmental impacts, such as deforestation, water pollution, and reduction of ecological diversity.

The description of the San (!Kung) relationship to the government of Botswana is an example of which of the following?

It demonstrates how more and more foragers have come under the control of nation-states and are now influenced by the forces of globalization. Response Feedback: Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) was established in 1961 to protect several of the Bushman's ancestral lands and give them access to live on these ancestral lands. The CKGR Bushmen are the last surviving Bushmen who rely largely on hunting and gathering for their livelihood. Yet, the San were forcibly evicted from their ancestral land within the CKGR and the government has banned access of the San to boreholes and made it illegal to hunt in order to promote environmental tourism

As emphasized in your reading, when describing the adoption of agriculture and a move toward "civilization" between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago, why is the term "civilization" misleading

It implies a transition from simple to complex, which is only accurate when describing changes in economy (transition to agriculture) and technology (adoption of specialized tools). Response Feedback: As described in the reading (p. 121), civilization is a poorly defined term that has often been used to suggest that societies of the Upper Paleolithic Europe are the most civilized and complex with other societies simply and primitive. This is not the case since "civilization" and "complex" are relative terms

The Andean site of Chavín de Huantár was an important center for exchange and trade. What is one of the factors that lead to its economic importance?

It is located north of modern day Lima at the confluence of two rivers major rivers with allowed for easy transportation for trade. Response Feedback: In term of exchange and influence, the site is located north of modern day Lima at the confluence of two rivers major rivers with allowed for easy transportation for trade. Additionally, it was nicely situated between high altitude areas and agricultural lands and could exploit both of those environments

What is the GINI coefficient?

It measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution. In the example from class it is looking at levels of income.

Match the following early Mesoamerican cities with the cultural group

La Venta C. Olmec El Mirador A. Pre-Classic Maya Tikal B. Classic Maya Teotihuacán E. Pre-Aztec Tenochtitlan D. Aztec

The first writing on cuneiform tablets presumably developed to handle recordkeeping for a centralized economy. In what part of the world did this early form of writing develop?

Mesopotamia

The earliest state level societies emerged in which region?

Mesopotamia Response Feedback: Mesopotamia is the geographic region often referred to as the "Middle East" and known agriculturally as the Fertile Crescent.

Match the eastern US mound city with the likely descendant Native group living today.

Moundville A. Choctaw Cahokia B. Osage Etowah C. Muscogee Creek

Match the eastern US mound city with its closest contemporary city.

Moundville A. Tuscalosa Etowah B. Atlanta Cahokia C. St. Louis

Match the following cultural groups with their appropriate geographic location

Olmec B. Mesoamerican Coastal Lowlands Maya C. Mesoamerican Lowlands Aztec A. Mesoamerican Highlands

Match the names of current foraging societies with the appropriate descriptionQuestion

Question Selected Match Agta B. This foraging society is located in modern day Philippines where women (not men) contribute substantially to hunting duties. Aborigines A. This society has been practicing foraging strategies for 50,000 when they first occupied the continent. Inuit D. Hunters of seals and whales who use modern technologies, such as snowmobiles and rifles. San (!Kung) C. Foragers of southern Africa located predominately in what is today the arid country of Botswana. Response Feedback: In all these cases, foraging societies have survived in environments that posed obstacles to food production or because available resources were (are) abundant enough to provide a nutritious diet.

Around 5,00 years ago, the early kingdoms of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia developed state levels of political and social complexity. There have been a few theories as to some of the causes or reasons that led to state formation. Match the theory with the appropriate definition

Question Selected Match Hydraulic Systems C. Suggests one cause of state formation is the need to regulate hydraulic or water-based agricultural economies. Long Distance Trade A. State level societies emerged at strategic locations in regional trade networks as points of supply or exchange in order to manage and control trade along these trade routes. Population, War, and Circumscription B. Perspective that suggests that environmental circumscription can lead to increasing population, and ultimately warfare or resources and state formation

As described in your reading, match the following early villages/urban centers with the correct attribute.

Question Selected Match Mezhirich B. Mammoth bone huts were arranged in a formal way suggesting a deliberate village organization. Netiv Hagdud C. A four acre site with the floors and foundations of several square and oval mud-brick houses and evidence of of early stages of domestication. Dolní Vestonice F. A site with evidence of very early examples of ceramic technology (kiln-fired pottery) and finely made needles. Nooan H. Contains examples of the first Neolithic farm tools - polished stone axe heads. Ganj Dareh E. Earliest evidence of both animal and plant domestication where goats and cereals were cultivated. Abu Hureyra G. An important site in Syria that has some of the earliest examples of multi-roomed mud-brick houses containing ovens and hearths. Çayönü A. A large planned community with large houses and areas subdivided for storage and living. Çatal Hüyük D. Evidence of organized violence with several males buried with fractured arms that would have held shields for defense

Food production occurred independently in seven areas in the world. Match the following domesticated foods with the correct world area

Question Selected Match Middle East G. sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, wheat, barley South American Andes C. llama, alpaca, cuy, squash, potatoes, quinoa, beans Yangtze River China A. pigs, dogs, water buffalo, rice Africa F. rice, millet, sorghum Eastern North America E. squash, marsh elder, goosefoot, sunflower Yellow River China D. dogs, chickens, pigs, millet Central America B. dogs, turkeys, corn, beans, squash

When foraging societies are examined comparatively, numerous correlations in economic and social life are apparent. Match the following correlates with their best description.

Question Selected Match Technological Mastery D. Foragers are often knowledgeable about hundreds of plant and animals species, such as seasonal growth and migration pattern, various strategies to hunt within close range, and the knowledge to properly process collected and hunted food. Political and Social Organization C. Loosely organized groups of people (bands) related by kinship or marriage and with informal leadership and flexible membership. Egalitarian G. Everyone has equal access to valued resources and status. There are few differences in wealth and power among foraging groups. Settlement Patterns A. Seasonal mobility where some groups unite during productive seasons and then split apart when seasonal resources dwindle. Economic Exchange B. Individuals or groups pass value-based objects back and forth in predictable ways around a system of generalized reciprocity. Labor Roles and Expectations E. While not universal, men often hunt whereas women and young children typically contribute by gathering. Environmental Knowledge F. A reliance on available natural resources for their subsistence, rather than controlling the reproduction of plants and animals. They live in marginal environments that were of little interest to food-producing societies

As discussed in class, in central Arkansas we have three community-supported agricultural economies that are available to consumers as an alternative to corporate industrial agriculture. Match the three local economies with the best description

Question Selected Match The Faulkner County Urban Farm Project B. An educational garden located behind the Faulkner County Library that is used to teach sustainable food growing practices. Food grown in the garden is donated to volunteers and a local food pantry. Conway Locally Grown C. An online farmers market that coordinates with local farmers to provide synthetic fertilizer and pesticide free fruits, vegetables, eggs, poultry, beef, pork, lamb, and dairy. All products are produced within 150 miles. New South Cooperative A. Provides Arkansas grown produce to local restaurants, retailers, and individual consumers. As individual consumers a box of regionally grown produce is available every week

Within the modern world system (MWS) countries occupy three positions of economic and political power. Match each position with the proper definition

Question Selected Match core A. The dominant position. Includes nations with an advanced system of production and are the most powerful nations in terms of complexity of economic activities. Level of capital accumulation is the greatest. semiperiphery B. Industrialized nations that fill an intermediate position between core and periphery. They lack economic power and dominance of core nations. periphery C. The world's least privileged and least powerful nations, often as a byproduct of colonialism and subsequent independence. Economic activities are less mechanized.

Pastoralist societies exist throughout the world, although the species of animals that define each subsistence strategy are variable. Match the pastoralist group with the preferred species

Samis of the Nordic region C. Reindeer Aymara of the Andean region D. Llama and alpacas Navajo of the Southwestern US B. Sheep Maasai of east Africa A. Cattle

The presence of which of the following is one of the key distinguishing features of a state?

Social stratification

he description of the Maasai and contemporary issues with mobility is an example of which of the following?

The complex balance that exists between state-level societies and indigenous peoples way of life

The presence of bull symbolism at Çatal Hüyük suggests which of the following

The possibility of a symbolic ideology of deep antiquity back into the Upper Paleolithic.

Why do most domesticated grains have a tougher axis and more brittle husk than wild grains?

The practices of harvesting and processing grain gradually selected for these characteristics. Response Feedback: Grains of wheat, barley, and other cereals occur in bunches at the end of a stalk. In wild grains, the axis is brittle and breaks apart easily in the wind, whereas in domesticated plants the axis is tough and doesn't come apart. This allows for more controlled harvesting and less waist falling off or being blown away.

In recent times, many foraging groups have been exposed to the idea of food production but have never adopted it. Why?

Their own economies provided a perfectly adequate and nutritious diet, with a lot less work.

Which is NOT true of core nations

They export their raw materials to other countries

Earthen mounds that form some of the earliest cities in the eastern woodlands have been constructed in the eastern United States for well over 5,000 years, yet many of them do not exist today. Choose the best reason why this is the case

They have been destroyed, flattened by plowing, or hemmed in by urban development

Which of the following statements about the Olmec is NOT true?

They were the first Mesoamerican empire. Response Feedback: The Olmec were never an empire, but developed into a chiefdom society

Which of the following was used by V. Gordon Childe to describe the major transformation of human life toward the first cities and states and the accompanying social institutions?

Urban Revolution Response Feedback: The Urban Revolution is where institutions framed around rulers having real power leading to social stratification first emerge and lead to an expansion of economic activity and the urbanization of groups

In the Middle East, a shift in subsistence strategies around 12,000 years ago led to a dependence on domesticated foods as subsistence switches from food collection to food production and the control over the reproduction of plants and animals. What is the term that defines an economy that developed that linked groups through seasonal movements and trade patterns across the landscape?

Vertical Economy Response Feedback: Middle Eastern food production arose in the context of four environmental zones in what anthropologists call a vertical economy. The geography in the Fertile Crescent allows for a food production tied to a vertical economy. A vertical economy is linked environmental zones that, although close together in space, contrast with one another in altitude, rainfall, overall climate, and vegetation

Post WWII, developing nations sought foreign loans and investments to create an industrial infrastructure. They sought these loans from

World Bank and IMF Response Feedback: Developing nations sought foreign loans and investments to create an industrial infrastructure and the World Bank and International Monetary Fund played an important role in loaning money to underdeveloped nations in order to spur development and create social programs related to an attempt at eradicating poverty

The increasing dominance of world trade has led to

a single world system committed to production for sale or exchange with the object of maximizing profits rather than supplying domestic needs. Response Feedback: The world system has been formulated into a Modern World System theory that is argued as a discernible social system based on wealth and power differentials that extends beyond boundaries of countries

Subsistence is a term that anthropologists use to define an _________________ strategy in which a society interacts with the environment to acquire food and other resources

adaptive Response Feedback: Each adaptive strategy refers to the main economic activity of members of that society and influences how societies are organized in terms of political structure, social structure, gender roles, food consumed, etc

Some alternatives to industrial agriculture (as presented in class) include

agro-ecology, agro-forestry, and local consumerism

The main agents of cultural change directly related to colonialism include which of the following?

all of the above Response Feedback: The role of missionaries included converting and "civilizing" native inhabitants. Forced attendance in schools separated children from their parents and communities. the cash economy facilitated large export taxes limiting the ability for colonies to compete on the global market as periphery countries.

Global economic and political processes spread many influences in a variety of ways, such as consumerism, media, and technology. What are the cultural consequences of globalizaiton and the spread of culture through economic and political means?

all of these

Early settlements along the coast of the Pacific in the Andean Mountain region relied heavily on which subsistence practice

anchovies Response Feedback: The coast of Peru contains the most productive fishing all along the coast of North and South America. The largest catches of fish are anchovies, which supported dense populations within the earliest coastal sites with an absence of farming

Modern foragers are not Stone Age relics, living fossils, lost tribes, or noble savages. Still, to the extent that foraging has been the basis of their subsistence, contemporary and recent hunter-gatherers

can illustrate links between a foraging economy and other aspects of society and culture, such as their sociopolitical organization. Response Feedback: Using modern foraging societies (and realizing that they are not static cultures), models can be developed to better understand the evolution of subsistence strategies and adaptations of early humans

________ enclaves are the type of colonies that were established for the purpose of controlling trade at foreign ports

maritime

What prestige item was crafted by inhabitants of the Valley of Oaxaca and traded with other Mesoamerican chiefdoms?

mirrors Response Feedback: Yes, mirrors! While stone, feather, and metalwork were a part of long distance trade, mirrors were an important trading item.

As a result of colonialism in Africa, territories were carved up into colonies based on natural resources. After colonies gained independence, these new boundaries have led to

r: social strife including genocide. Response Feedback: As a result of colonialism, territories in Africa were carved up into colonies based on natural resources and in some instances by ethnic boundaries. When African countries gained independence, new boundaries were constructed by the departing empires with little regard for ethnic divisions. Departing empires placed certain ethnic groups in power to run the newly formed government. This has led to social strife in many countries, including genocide in places like Rwanda and Sudan

What three elements are necessary for animal domestication?

restricted movement, regulated breeding, and controlled feeding

Neolithic is a period of time where food production intensifies toward large-scale cultivation and animal domestication beginning around 12,000 years ago

true

The issue with long distance trade as an explanation for the formation of states is that long distance trade also was developed in other societies that did not reach state level status.

true

A cash crop system is

where an agricultural produce is grown for sale for a profit and not for direct subsistence