Exam 2 chapters; 5,9, 11,12, 13
John Stuart Mill
"It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied." "the subjection of women" - applied liberal freedom to position of women
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
"To be is to be perceived" (compare to Zen Buddhism - Basho's poetry- 18th century Japan)
Neobehaviorism
"no free will" We act based on the end result Stimulus Response Method: study the stimuli and then study the response modify the responds by rewarding or punishin
Kulpe's 2 advances
(1) Refined introspection: complex tasks were used to examine thought by fractionating experiences into time periods - respondents were often questioned. (2) Respondents did not know in advance what they would observe (Wundt's did)
John Locke
(August 29, 1632 - October 28, 1704) An influential English philosopher. In epistemology, Locke has often been classified as a British Empiricist, along with David Hume and George berkeley. He is equally important as a social contract theory.
John Stuart Mill
(James' son) (1806-1873)
Skinner
(S) Behaviorism; Operant Conditioning; Pos&Neg reinforcement, punishment
Intervening variables
(Tolman) -these are hypothetical constructs rather than physical parameters. They are definable and measurable but not observable. They have functional relationships with both independent and dependent variables. They are internal cognitive processes.
Henry Watt used an associative task (Wϋrzburg Findings )
(e.g., find subordinate of a word - animal cow) to find little conscious process Found that subjects responded without being consciously aware of intending to do so during the time of the response Concluded that conscious work was done prior to the performance of the task - when instructions were given and understood Through instructions, respondents established an unconscious set or "determining tendency" to respond according to instructions (motivation) Predispositions outside consciousness can control conscious activity
Mental essences
**Husserl. those universal, unchanging mental processes that characterize the mind and in terms of which we do commerce with the physical environment.
William James
- 1st American psychologist/ Functionalism - emphasized the stream of consciousness. - (1842-1910) Wrote the first psychology textbook (The Principles of Psychology) and came up with functionalism
Elements of thought
- According to Wundt and Titchener, the basic sensations from which more complex thoughts are derived. -purpose, question at issue, information, interpretation and inference, concepts, assumptions, implications and consequences, and point of view
Edward Tolman
- Pioneered the study of cognitive processes in learning by inventing experimental circumstances in which mechanical one-to-one associations between specific stimuli and response could not explain animals' observed behavior.
David Hume 1711-1776
-Born in Scotland, not terribly successful as a chid (his mother though him "weak minded"!) -Wrote An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding-called it "moral philosophy" -Argued that law of association of ideas is the universal principle of human nature Principles of association: similarity, contiguity, causality
Skinner
-Opposed study of internal mental event
James Mark Baldwin
-a developmental theorist who believed that nature and nature are of equal importance - Piaget's theory of cognitive development expanded on the earlier work of this American psychologist.
Carl Stump
...
Two meanings of "function"
1. "Function" as activity (as in perceiving or remembering) 2. "Function" as utility of the organism (e.g., the function of ideation is to serve as a substitute for motor trial and error)
Wundt's Project
1. (the study of mental states - immediate experience, consciousness) 2. Non-experimental psychology based on historical, comparative, and ethnographic variables - 10-volume "Volker psychologie" 3. Scientific metaphysics to integrate all sciences
Two meanings of function
1. Function as activity (as in perceiving or remembering) 2. Function as utility of the organism (e.g., the function of ideation is to serve as a substitute for motor trial and error, pragmatism )
Major criticism of functionalism
1. Not a basic science but a technology because of its emphasis on practical applications 2. Did not have a clear position on mind-body problem - Carr, at University of Chicago, avoided the issue by arguing that it was too metaphysical for psychology
George Berkeley
1658-1753 Born in Ireland and educated in Dublin always affiliated with the church believed in God, but we are not born w knowledge He wrote A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human knowledge Became a bishop and abandoned psychological thinking
John Locke
17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.
Alexander Bain
1818-1903, was the first to write psychology textbooks, to write an entire book on the relationship between the mind and the body, to use known neurophysiological facts in explaining sychological phenomena, and to found a psychology journal.
William James
1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth
Wilhem Wundt
1879 structuralist interested in idetifing the smallest structure of the conscious experience.
Principles of Psychology
1890, considered to be the first modern psychology textbook by William James
Kenneth Clark
1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls
Positivism
19th century school of thought which began in France and held that the scientific method could solve social ills. Leading thinkers were Count Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte
Wundt
1st Psych Lab, Introspection, Functionalism, , If Mental Process B is a component of Mental process A, then Mental Process B should take less time than mental process A"
Kuo, Zing Yang (1898 -1970)
A Chinese psychologist that worked with kittens to show that rat killing was not instinctual.
Conditioned reflex
A LEARNED stimulus response function (sound of fridge door opening-salivation)
Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (1904 -1990)
A behaviorist who believed that psychology should study the functional relationship between environmental events, such as reinforcement contingencies, and behavior. his work exemplified positivism. (See also Positivism.)
Physicalism
A belief growing out of logical positivism that all sciences should share common assumptions, principles, and methodologies and should model them- selves after physics.
Positivism
A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry
Neobehaviorism
A brand of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence of the environment on overt behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors that themselves need to be explained
John Stuart Mill
A child prodigy, with an estimated IQ of 190 Spoke Greek at 3 and read Plato in the original at 8! Was completely dominated by his father, had no friends, and never learned how to play Had mental problems in young adulthood but eventually published his Logic (1843) In it, he argued for a science of human nature Later he published in other areas as well
Woodworth, Robert Sessions (1869-1962)
A functionalist at Columbia with lifelong interests in the study of motivation who made substantive contributions to many fields of psychology.
Behaviorism
A historical school (as well as a modern perspective) that has sought to make psychology an objective science that focused only on behavior - to the exclusion of mental processes.
Dewey, John (1859-1952)
A leader of the pragmatist movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, ________ applied the philosophy to education and social reform, advocating "learning by doing" as well as the application of knowledge to solving real life problems. He became an outspoken promoter of social and political reforms that broadened American democracy.
Conditioned response
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus - A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS).
One-trial learning
A particular type of learning that involves a change in behaviour as a result of just one trial or event. It results when the outcome for the organism is particularly significant. This significance may be associated with something pleasant, or something extremely unpleasant
Stream of consciousness
A phase coined by William James to describe each person's continuous stream of ever-changing thoughts
Tropism
A plant's turning or bending movement of an organism toward or away from an external stimulus such as light, heat or gravity. LOEB
Law of effect
A principle developed by Edward Thorndike that says that any behavior that results in satisfying consequences tends to be repeated and that any behavior that results in unsatisfying consequences tends not to be repeated
Wilhem Wundt
A professor who created the first psychology experiment when he created an apparatus that would measure the lag between hearing a sound and responding.
functionalism
A psychology based on assumption that all mental processes are useful to an organism in adapting to an environment.
Logical Positivism
A school of modern philosophy that seeks truth by defining terms and clarifying statements and asserts that metaphysical theories are meaningless.
ASSOCIATIONISM
A school of psychological thought that grew out of Empiricism
functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Descriptive behaviorism
A school of psychology that seeks only to describe relationships between environmental events and behavior, not explain them; most commonly associated with B. F. Skinner.
Operational definition
A statement that describes how to measure a variable or define a term.
Reinforcement
A stimulus event that increases the likelihood of a response that preceded it the food, increases the push of the lever
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR).
Functional analysis
A strategy used to identify antecendents and consequences that control a behavior.
Mental set
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past. A problem-solving strategy that can be induced by instructions or by experience and that is usedwithout a person's awareness.
Utilitarianism
A theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that is based upon the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Bentham argued that this principle should be applied to each nation's government, economy, and judicial system.
Implications of James-Lange theory
A very important assumption behind this theory is that there exist one-to-one correspondences between physiological states and emotions, such that we can recognize emotions correctly In other words, there are discrete physiological indicators for specific emotional states
Operant behavior
A voluntary and controllable behavior, such as walking or thinking, that "operates" on an individual's environment
Guthrie, Edwin Ray (1886 -1959)
Accepted the law of contiguity but not the law of frequency. For him, learning occurs at full strength after just one association between a pattern of stimuli and a response. (See also Law of contiguity.)
Law of compound association
According to Bain, contiguous or similar events form compound ideas and are remembered together. If one or a few elements of the compound idea are experienced, they may elicit the memory of the entire compound.
Law of constructive association
According to Bain, the mind can rearrange the memories of various experiences so that the creative associations formed are different from the experiences that gave rise to the associations.
Voluntary behavior
According to Bain, under some circumstances, an organism 's spontaneous activity leads to pleasurable consequences. After several such occurrences, the organism will come to volun- tarily engage in the behavior that was originally spontaneous.
Vibratiuncles
According to Hartley, the vibrations that linger in the brain after the initial vibrations caused by external stimulation cease
Law of cause and effect
According to Hume, if in our experience one event always precedes the occurrence of another event, we tend to believe that the former event is the cause of the latter.
Law of resemblance
According to Hume, the tendency for our thoughts to run from one event to similar events, the same as what others call the law, or principle, of similarity
Secondary laws
According to J. S. Mill, the laws that interact with primary laws and determine the nature of individual events under specific circumstances.
Self-esteem
According to James, how a person feels about himself or herself based on the ratio of successes to attempts. One can increase self-esteem either by accomplishing more or attempting less.
Ideo-motor theory of behavior
According to James, ideas cause behavior, and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas.
Self as knower
According to James, the pure ego that accounts for a person's awareness of his or her empirical self.
Reflection
According to Locke, the ability to use the powers of the mind to creatively rearrange ideas derived from sensory experience.
Sentiment
According to McDougall, the elicitation of two or more instinctual tendencies by the same object, event, or thought.
First-signal system
According to Pavlov, conditioned stimuli that come to signal biologically significant events are called ___., ..., according to Pavlov, physical stimuli that precedes biologically significant events allowing their anticipation and thus appropriate responses to them
Cortical mosaic
According to Pavlov, the pattern of points of excitation and inhibition that characterizes the cortex at any given moment
Hypothesis
According to Tolman, an expectancy that occurs during the early stages of learning.
Cognitive map
According to Tolman, the mental representation of the environment.
Will
According to Wundt, that aspect of humans that allows them to direct their attention anywhere they wish. Because of his emphasis on will, Wundt's version of psychology was called voluntarism.
Creative synthesis
According to Wundt, the ability to willfully (apperception) arrange the elements of thought into any number of configurations
Principle of contrasts
According to Wundt, the fact that experiences of one type often intensify opposite types of experiences, such as when eating something sour will make the subsequent eating of something sweet taste sweeter than it usually would
Theoretical terms
According to logical positivism, those terms that are employed to explain empirical observations.
Observational terms
According to logical positivism, terms that refer to empirical events.
Context theory of meaning
According to titchener, meaning depends on context or the association of a stimulus with other relevant surrounding stimuli
What is repeated and eventually become habits according to Functionalists?
Adaptive act
Bain argued that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain transformed reflexes to voluntary action Thus, behaviors with positive consequences more likely to be repeated and associated than those with negative outcomes Anticipated "Connectionism" (Edward Thorndike, 1874-1949) and the "law of effect" Thus, his associationism had some similarity to behaviorism, by emphasizing associations between stimulus situation and response
Alexander Bain (1818-1903)
Hormic Psychology
All behavior is derived from goal-oriented instinctual impulses. Developed by William McDougall. His explanation of human behavior relied more on innate instincts, conscious repression, and resulting conflicts.
INTROSPECTION and wundt
All conscious thoughts, ideas, impressions were assumed to be combinations of sensations that could be defined on 4 dimensions: 1. Mode (visual, auditory, etc.) 2. Quality (colors and shapes of sensations) 3. Intensity 4. Duration
Behaviorism
An approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior.
Structuralism
An approach to psychology that explained perception as the adding up of small elementary units called sensations. Used introspection
Token economies
An arrangement within institutions whereby desirable behavior is strengthened using valu- able tokens as reinforcers.
Vienna Circle
An association of philosophers from the University of Vienna who agreed with Ludwig Wittgenstein's logical positivism, His book Tractatus was very influential in this circle
William James
An awesome professor at Harvard A legend at Harvard started laboratory in 1875 but was a demonstration lab
Carr, Harvey (1873 -1954)
An early functionalistic psychologist at the University of Chicago.
John Locke
An empiricist who denied the existence of innate ideas but who assumed many nativistically determined powers of the mind. ________ distinguished between primary qualities, which cause sensations that correspond to actual attributes of physical bodies, and secondary qualities, which cause sensations that have no counterparts in the physical world. The types of ideas postulated by _______ included those caused by sensory stimulation, those caused by reflection, simple ideas, and complex ideas, which were composites of simple ideas.
skinner box
An enclosure in which an experimenter can shape the behavior of an animal by controlling reinforcement and accurately measuring the responses of the animal
Reinforcement
An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response., B.F. Skinner
Experimental neurosis
An experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms.
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849 -1936)
An outstanding Russian physiologist who is known particularly for his detailed examination of a type of learning now called Pavlovian conditioning or classical conditioning.
James Mill
Analysis of the Phenomena of the Mind
Külpe, Oswald (1862-1915)
Applied systematic, experimental introspection to the study of problem solving and found that some mental operations are imageless.
Skinner
Argued children learn language through operant conditioning (children imitate speech they hear)
David Hume (1711-1776)
Argued that there are no universal principles independent of persons
Paradox of the basins
Because water cannot be hot and cold at the same time, tem- perature must be a secondary, not a primary, quality.
Purposive behavior
Behavior that is directed toward some goal and that terminates when the goal is attained
The school of psychology, founded by Watson, that insisted that behavior be psychology's subect matter and that psychology's goal be the prediction and control of behavior.
Behaviorism
There is no distinction between man and brute
Behaviorism
Methodological behaviorism
Behaviorist who only studies public events
Introspection is not valid, forget consciousness
Behaviormsim
According to Tolman, an expectation that experience has consistently confirmed
Belief
Logical Positivism
Belief that a concept is meaningful only if it can be empirically verified
Scientism
Belief that only things in existence are those that can be measured or observed
La Mettrie, Julien de (1709 -1751)
Believed humans were machines that differed from other animals only in complexity. ________ believed that so-called mental experiences are nothing but movements of particles in the brain. He also believed that accepting materialism would result in a better, more humane world.
Brentano, Franz Clemens (1838-1917)
Believed that introspection should be used to understand the functions of the mind rather than its elements. Brentano's position came to be called act psychology.
Hobbes, Thomas (1588 -1679)
Believed that the primary motive in human behavior is the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. For __________, the function of government is to satisfy as many human needs as possible and to prevent humans from fighting with each other. Hobbes believed that all human activity, including mental activity, could be reduced to atoms in motion; therefore, he was a materialist.
Said that the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain governed most human behavior. __________ also said that the best society was one that did the greatest good for the greatest number of people
Bentham, Jeremy (1748 -1832)
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Born in Ireland and educated in Dublin Finished college at 20, ordained deacon of the Anglican church and acquired advanced degree at 24. Published some influential books over the following years, esp. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge Traveled, settled in Rhode Island for 3 years, wanted to start a university but got no help from England Returned to London, leaving his house and library to Yale University Toward the end of his life he became a bishop of the Anglican church in Ireland
David Hume (1711-1776)
Born in Scotland, not terribly successful as a child (his mother thought him "weak minded"!) Wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (note title again) - called it "moral philosophy" (not very popular)
Act psychology
Brentano; a system of psychology that focused on mental activities (i.e. seeing) rather than on mental contents (i.e. that which is seen)
David Hartley (1705-1759)
Broadened notion of association to include motor activities: an idea may recall a movement; a movement may recall an idea
James Cattell
Brought statistics to mental testing - coined the term mental test. Doctoral student under Wundt -First professor of psychology in the United States, helped establish psychology as a legitimate science.
Behavior therapy
CHANGING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR THROUGH CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES
Husserl, Edmund (1859 -1938)
Called for a pure phenomenology that sought to discover the essence of subjective experience. (See also Pure phenomenology.) , German philosopher known as father of phenomenology
William James
Came from a very wealthy and intellectual family Father was Henry James His father constantly pushed for them to gain intellectual knowledge
David Hume 1711-1776
Causality does not exist -Argued that there are no universal principles independent of persons - Causality nothing more than the perception of frequent associations We assume cause-effect, but all that is there is habit
Studied cognition, interpretation of information, differentiation among stimuli, etc. Compare to modern studies of categorization, typicality, and so on (e.g., Smith, Shoben, and Rips, 1974 - is a chicken a bird?)
Complication experiment with Wundt
Intentionality
Concept proposed by Brentano, according to which mental acts always intend something. That is, mental acts embrace either some object in the physical world or some mental image (idea).
__________ maintained that all human mental attributes could be explained using only the concept of sensation and that it was therefore unnecessary to postulate an autonomous mind.
Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (1714 -1780)
According to Tolman, the verification of a hypothesis, expectancy, or belief
Confirmation
Müller, George Elias (1850-1934)
Considered one of the early pioneers or giants of experimental psychology,________ worked in psychophysics, perception, and memory.
John Locke (1632-1704)
Considered the "father" of British empiricism From family of modest means, granted scholarship to Oxford at 20 Was exposed to science (his appointment was in Greek and moral philosophy) Got into political trouble with the Crown, left for Holland, where he worked on Essay Concerning Human Understanding (note title) Returned to England in 1689 and later published his book, which discussed "ideas" (broadly defined as "experience") Essay very influential and contributed to later development of Associationism
Vaihinger, Hans (1852 -1933)
Contended that because sensations are all that we can be certain of, all conclusions reached about so-called physical reality must be fictitious. Although fictions are false, they are nonetheless essential for societal living.
Tolman, Edward Chace (1886 -1959)
Created a brand of behaviorism that used mental constructs and emphasized purposive behavior. Although he employed many intervening variables, his most important was the cognitive map.
Hall, Granville Stanley (1844-1924)
Created the first U.S. experimental psychology laboratory, founded and became the first president of the american Psychological association, and invited Freud to Clark University to give a series of lectures. Hall thus helped psychoanalysis receive international recognition. Many of the beliefs contained in his two-volume book on adolescence are now considered incorrect. Nonetheless, that work is currently seen as an important pioneering effort in educational, child, and adolescent psychology and in parent education and child welfare programs.
Titchener, Edward Bradford (1867-1927)
Created the school of structuralism. Unlike Wundt's voluntarism, structuralism was much more in the tradition of empiricism-associationism.
Alexander Bain (1818-1903)
Culmination of associationist tradition—considered the first psychologist in this tradition Scottish psychologist - free lancer and independent thinker who could not secure a university appointment until he was 42 because he was considered controversial By the time he was appointed at the University of Aberdeen he had already published his major psychological work (2 books)
Sensations generate ideas (less intense vibrations)
David Hartley (1705-1759)
So: seeing and remembering a cat are two sets of vibrations that differ in intensity
David Hartley (1705-1759)
David Hartley (1705-1759)
David Hartley (1705-1759) Trained as a physician In 1749 published Observation of Man, one of the first systematic accounts of Associationism Empiricists had not paid much attention to physiology and the mind-body relationship Hartley argued that the brain underlies mental events
Argued that law of association of ideas is the universal principle of human nature Principles of association: similarity, contiguity, causality
David Hume (1711-1776)
Causality nothing more than the perception of frequent associations (billiard ball)
David Hume (1711-1776)
Inspired Kant to launch his counterattack against empiricism
David Hume (1711-1776)
William McDougall
Debated Watson over Behaviorism , Opponent of Watson, supported free will, racism, and psychic research, instinct theory, self report is vital
Mill, John Stuart (1806 -1873)
Disagreed with his father James that all complex ideas could be reduced to simple ideas. J. S. Mill proposed a process of mental chemistry according to which complex ideas could be distinctly different from the simple ideas (elements) that constituted them. J. S. Mill believed strongly that a science of human nature could be and should be developed.
Clark Hull
Drive-reduction theory; motives can be described as a search for homeostasis (e.g. mice will learn to negotiate a maze to obtain a substance with nutritional value)
Vygotsky, Lev Semyonovich (1896 -1934)
Eclectic Russian psychologist best known for his work with child cognitive development and higher mental processes such as thought and language.
Connectionism
Edward Thorndike , -Idea that neural networks are not complex processors themselves, but are rather simple units whose connections to each other are comple
Helvétius, Claude-Adrien (1715 -1771)
Elaborated the implications of empiricism and sensationalism for education. That is, a person's intellectual development can be determined by controlling his or her experiences.
James Lange
Emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reaction
By late 17th century, science was growing in
England (Newton's experimentation with physical world)
Wilhem Wundt
Established the first psych lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany -> defined the start of scientific psychology *relied on introspection
James Lange
Event happens then physiological then emotion.
According to Pavlov, brain activity that leads to overt behavior of some type.
Excitation
According to Tolman, a hypothesis that has been tentatively confirmed
Expectancy
Mediate experiences
Experience that is provided by various measuring devices and is therefore not immedi- ate, direct experience.
Stanley Hall
FUNCTIONALIST. founded 1st psych research lab in U.S. and founded the American Psychological Association , One of the first psychologists to describe adolescence. He believed that the tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of "storm and stress"
John Locke
Father of British empiricism from family of modest means, granted scholarship to Oxford at 20 He wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding Returned to england in 1689 and later publisghed his book, which discussed "ideas" (broadly defined as "experience"
William McDougall
Father of Hormic Psychology. Felt genetics played a role in group interaction. Believed in eugenics, by which more desirable people can be bread.
Functionalism
First American School functionalist could not even agree
Margaret Washburn
First female PhD in psychology, "The Animal Mind" most thorough animal research book and last to assume animal consciousness
Voluntarism
First school of Psychology founded by Wundt
FUNCTIONALISM
First truly American school of Psychology Inspired by American pragmatism (Dewey) Not terribly successful: fell to the more "prestigious" (radical) Behaviorism and to the "foreign import" - Gestalt Psychology To what extent did it constitute a "paradigm"? Functionalists could not even agree what they meant by "function"
Washburn, Margaret Floy (1871 -1939)
First woman to attain a doctorate in psychology and second female president of the aPa (1921). She made significant contributions to comparative psychology by studying animal behavior under controlled conditions before inferring the mental attributes necessary to explain the observed behavior.
Reinforcement
For Hull, drive reduction; for Skinner, anything that increases the rate or the probability of a response; for Tolman, the confirmation of a hypothesis, expectation, or belief; for Guthrie, a mechanical arrangement that prevents unlearning.
Reaction potential ( SE R)
For Hull, the probability of a learned response being elicited in a given situation. This probability is a function of the amount of drive and habit strength present.
Reaction potential
For Hull, the probability that a response will occur at a given time, depending on such factors as drive and habit strength (sER).
Habit strength ( SH R)
For Hull, the strength of an association between a stimulus and response. This strength depends on the number of reinforced pairings between the two.
Hull, Clark Leonard (1884 -1952)
Formulated a complex hypotheticodeductive theory in an attempt to explain all learning phenomena.
In 1896 a new laboratory was established at Wϋrzburg that came to rival Leipzig
Founded by Oswald Kϋlpe (1862-1915) - perhaps the first lab in cognitive psychology!
Hormic psychology
Founded by William McDougall, this brand of psychology focuses on goal-directed behavior as motivated by instincts.
Baldwin, James Mark (1861 -1934)
Founded several psychology programs, including the first in Canada. Did important early work in social psychology, cognitive development, and linking psychology with evolution. He served as aPa president, but was disgraced by scandal.
William James (1842-1910)
From very intellectual family (brother Henry, sister artist) Father: Henry Sr., inherited wealth, religious background (Swendenborg), experienced a nervous breakdown (so did William in 1870) Well traveled (Europe) Went to medical school Did not have a job, but was asked to teach physiology course at Harvard Course eventually became psychology, based on philosophy of pragmatism Great teacher - full time appointment at Harvard Started laboratory in 1875 but was a demonstration lab
William James
Function and process Principles of Psychology 1890 James abandoned psychology eventually "nasty little science"
He basically reduces everything to the mind
George Berkeley
Made no distinction between primary and secondary qualities as Locke did
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Objects do not exist independently of perception (except in God's eye, so to speak) Modern phenomenologist?
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Secondary reinforcement
Grades, social approval, money value, status
One-trial learning
Guthrie's contention that the association between a pattern and a response develops at full strength after just one pairing of the two.
Law of contiguity
Guthrie's one law of learning, which states that when a pattern of stimuli is experienced along with a response, the two become associated. In 1959 Guthrie revised the law of contiguity to read, "What is being noticed becomes a signal for what is being done."
Those learned patterns of behavior that James and others believed were vital for the functioning of society.
Habbit
Recapitulation theory
Hall's contention that all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual. , as children develop they pass through stages that repeat the evolutionary history of the human race
Vibratiuncles
Hartley's ideas that Pleasure is the result of moderate vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. These vibrations leave behind them in the brain a tendency to fainter vibrations or _______
Combined empiricism and associationism with rudimentary physiological notions.
Hartley, David (1705 -1757)
Clark Hull
He created Performance = Drive x Habit. (People are first motivated by drive, and then act according to old successful habits.)
Edward Tolman
He embraced mentalistic concepts in explaining the behavior of rats while at the same time wishing to remain a behaviorist. His solution was to painstakingly tie all of his mentalistic intervening variables to observable behavior using operational definitions
Oswald Kulpe
He made sure his subjects did not know in advance what they would be exposed to unlike wundt, which is one of his biggest criticisms, (that is potentially retrospection, not introspection)
Wundt
He was a good lecturer, imposed discipline and had good students His work was not terribly popular in the US, though people were aware of the importance of his contributions Possibly because American psychology was taking a slightly different direction (functionalism) and perhaps because of personal animosity (James)
Harvey Carr
His theory of learning was based upon the "adaptive act," which consisted of three components: a motive, an environmental setting, and a response that satisfies the motive.
Drive reduction
Hull's proposed mechanism of reinforcement. For Hull, anything that reduces a drive is reinforcing.
Agreed with Berkeley that we could experience only our own subjective reality but disagreed with Berkeley's contention that we could assume that our perceptions accurately reflect the physical world because God would not deceive us. For _______, we can be sure of nothing. Even the notion of cause and effect, which is so important to Newtonian physics, is nothing more than a habit of thought. _______ distinguished between impressions, which are vivid, and ideas, which are faint copies of impressions.
Hume, David (1711 -1776)
Solipsism
I alone exist, or I alone am conscious , 'I am the only mind which exists', no one can ever know your reality, does reality exist? everything is an allusion-color blue. existence is within realm of personal consciousness-nothing else exists, Grendel reverts back to this in his cave
Edward Tolman
I contributed the theory of latent learning which explains that we learn things but may not express it immediately
James Lange
I see a bear which cause my heart to race, then I become afraid
George Berkeley
Immaterialism The only reality is in the mind" Nothing exists if it is not perceived. Physical qualities projected on environment. Ideas are the only things we experience directly and are therefore the only things we can be sure of
Thomas Hobbes
Important principles of association; repetition and "coherence" Did not develop these ideas much
Wundt
In 1867 he taught a course called "Physiological psychology" and in 1871 he started work on Principles of Physiological Psychology (a new science using introspection)
Sumner, Francis Cecil (1895-1954)
In 1920, under the supervision of Hall, became the first african american to obtain a PhD in psychology. Later, under Sumner's leadership, Howard University became a highly influential training center for african american psychologists.
Immediate experience
In Wundt's laboratory, introspection was used to assess , Direct subjective experience as it occurs. , a stimulus is a direct one in that it is based on an immediate reaction and is uninfluenced by previous knowledge of the stimulus; it provides data for experimental psychology
Mental chemistry
In chemistry hydrogen and oxygen make water, which has different properties from hydrogen and oxygen alone. Similarly, John Stuart Mill thought the same of mental processes. Example: a combination of colors will create a different color distinct from the colors that make it up.
Wund'ts lab in 1879
It became very successful, though initially university officials thought that through introspection student participants would go crazy! By 1881 clear that he was very successful attracting students from all over the world (from US: Cattell, Titchener)
Mental chemistry
JOHN STUART MILL: against mechanistic position of his father; viewed mind as passive, something acted upon by external stimuli
who was forced to retire due to his writing letters to congressmen protesting the practice of sending draftees into combat?
James Cattell
Argued that many elemental ideas are summed together (through contiguity) to produce more complex ideas, which cam become so consolidated that they appear as single ideas
James Mill (1773-1836)
Paradox of the basins
John Locke. Does warmth reside in the water basin or in the mind? Warmth is a secondary quality
Mental chemistry
John Stuart Mill's concept of ______ emancipated associationistic psychology from the strict mental mechanics proposed by James Mill and others
Argued that thinking (process) can be studied experimentally
Kulpe
Würzburg school
Kulpe's psychology of imageless thought; focused on what the human mind is capable of doing with a sensation
latent learning
LEARNING THAT REMAINS HIDDEN UNTIL IT IS NEEDED
Self as knower
Last aspect of the proprium that surpasses, transcends, and unifies all seven parts of the self through its awareness of the other parts of the proprium. Being aware of existing. James
Research on James-Lange theory
Later, some supportive results, but very subtle phenomena
Thorndike's contention that the strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association's use. Thorndike discarded this law in 1929.
Law of exercise
Purposive behaviorism
Learning occurs as behavior is organized around a purpose., Tolman, All behavior has a specific goal
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it TOLMAN
Hartley
Like Democritus argued that vibrations in the physical world create vibrations (sensations) in the brain Sensations generate ideas (less intense vibrations) So: seeing and remembering a cat are two sets of vibrations that differ in intensity Broadened notion of association to include motor activities: an idea may recall a movement; a movement may recall an idea
Bechterev, Vladimir (1857 -1927)
Like Pavlov, looked upon all human behavior as reflexive. However, _________ studied skeletal reflexes rather than the glandular reflexes that Pavlov studied.
Paradox of the basins
Locke's observation that warm water will feel either hot or cold depending on whether a hand is first placed in hot water or cold water. Because water alone cannot be hot and cold at the same time, temperature must be a secondary and not primary quality.
George Berkeley
Made no distinction between primary and secondary qualities as Locke did All knowledge depends on the perceiver Objects do not exist independently of perception (except inGod's eye, so to speak) Modern phenomenologist Everything that is known is the function of the perceiver
John Locke (1632-1704)
Main arguments: No innate ideas (rejected Plato and Descartes) Agreed with Aristotle that prior to experience the mind is a "blank tablet" (tabula rasa) - a child's mind is a blank tablet slowly filled out by experience Ideas come from sense impressions (e.g., motion, rest) Simple ideas are of 2 kinds:
Mill, James (1773 -1836)
Maintained that all mentalevents consisted of sensations and ideas (copies of sensations) held together by association. No matter how complex an idea was, Mill felt that it could be reduced to simple ideas.
Wundt's Experiments on Mental Chronometry,
Many of the Leipzig experiments measured the time required to perform mental operations (reaction time) From Helmholtz's work, Wundt knew that a person's reaction to a stimulus involved a measurable period of time. It was assumed that a nervous impulse, traveling at a measurable rate of speed along the nerve: (1) had to pass along the sensory nerve to the brain or spinal cord (2) had to be processed in the brain, and (3) a new impulse had to pass along the motor nerve to initiate the muscular response
Thorndike, Edward Lee (1874-1949)
Marks the transition between the schools of functionalism and behaviorism. Thorndike concluded from his objective animal research that learning occurs gradually, occurs independent of consciousness, and is the same for all mammals. His final theory of learning was that practice alone has no effect on an association (neural bond) and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it.
Perception
Mental experience that occurs when sen- sations are given meaning by the memory of past experiences.
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Mentalism - primacy of the mind (Subjective Idealism)
George Berkeley
Mentalism- primacy of the mind (Subjective Idealism) "To be is to be perceived" (compare to Zen Buddhism -Basho's poetry- 18th century Japan) Solipsism (only self can be known to exist Position often misunderstood- he was not saying the external world does not exist, but that what we perceive is not necessarily what exists We can never possibly know, we can only know via our sensory systems
Wundt's theory of feelings
Metronome 3 dimensions 1. Pleasant - unpleasant 2. Tense-relaxed 3. Active-passive The most common judgment is the first, how much you like something
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Modern phenomenologist?
John Stuart Mill
More sophisticated associationist than his father For example, he moved away from mental compounding to mental chemistry: An active mind that generates new ideas, in which old parts may disappear and new properties may emerge - the whole is greater than the sum of its parts This idea was also advocated later by American functionalists and by Gestalt psychologists Consider its relationship to modern thinking in cognitive psychology (e.g., Hayes-Roth, 1977, article in Psychological Review titled "Evolution of Cognitive Structures and Processes") Also in holographic models of short-term memory
James Angell
Mr. functionalism. Functionalism studies OPERATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, and RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT.
Reciprocal antagonism
Munsterberg's idea for treating mentally ill. Strengthen thoughts that oppose the thoughts that cause the problem.
Logical positivism + Behaviorism
Neobehaviorism
Clark Hull
Neobehaviorism.
John Locke
No innate ideas Rejected Plato Accepted Aristotle, prior to experience the mind is a "blank tablet" a child's mind is a bland tablet slowly filled out by experience Ideas come from sense impressions (e.g.., motion, rest) Simple ideas are of 2 kinds Primary-base on object and external to perceiver (e.g., form-solidity) Secondary - Internal to perceiver (e. g., color)
Problems of functionalism
Not a basic science but a technology because of its emphasis on practical applications Did not have a clear position on mind-body problem- Carr, at University of Chicago, avoided the issue by arguing that it was too metaphysical for psychology
John Mill
Not a compound but rather an interaction The whole is greater than the sum of the parts
Ernst Mach
Observed that some mental experiences are the same even though they are stimulated by a wide range of sensory events. The experiencing of geometric forms (space forms) and melodies (times forms) are examples.
Romanes, George John (1848 -1894)
One of the first to follow Darwin's lead and study animal behavior. Romanes's research was very subjective, however, and relied heavily on anecdotal evidence.
Instrumental conditioning
Operant conditioning- type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences
Pure phenomenology
Originated by Husserl, the scientific study of immediate experience without regard to intention; the goal is to understand the essence of the experience.
Tridimensional theory of feeling
Other than issues with introspection, what else did Titchener reject of Wundts?
Clark Hull
Performance = Drive x Habit; will do what has worked in the past to satisfy drive
Edward Tolman
Performance = Expectation x Value; expectancy-value theory; goals they expect they can meet and how important goal is
Edward Thorndike
Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Position often misunderstood - he was not saying external world does not exist, but that what we perceive is not necessarily what exists
The contention that science should study only that which can be directly experienced. For Comte, that was publicly observed events or overt behavior. For Mach, it was the sensations of the scientist.
Positivism
Simple ideas are of 2 kinds: according to Locke
Primary - based on object and external to perceiver (e.g., form - solidity) Secondary - internal to perceiver (e.g., color)
According to J. S. Mill, the general laws that determine the overall behavior of events within a system.
Primary Law
Mental chronometry
Process invented by Donders in 1868. Before, people assumed neurons worked at the speed of light. Donders helped show that each step of mental processes required reaction time. Measure each using subtractive method.
Mach, Ernst (1838 -1916)
Proposed a brand of positivism based on the phenomenological experiences of scientists. Because scientists, or anyone else, never experience the physical world directly, the scientist 's job is to precisely describe the relationships among mental phenomena, and to do so without the aid of metaphysical speculation
Stumpf, Carl (1848-1936)
Psychologist who was primarily interested in musical perception and who insisted that psychology study intact, meaningful mental experiences instead of searching for meaningless mental elements.
Applied psychology
Psychology that is useful in solv- ing practical problems. The structuralists opposed such practicality, but Münsterberg and, later, the functionalists emphasized it.
McDougall, William (1871 -1938)
Pursued a type of behaviorism very different from Watson's. his behaviorism emphasized purposive and instinctive behavior. (See also Hormic psychology.)
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Qualities of experience not based on objects - they are subjective (color is not in the object perceived but in the perceiver) This problem divided many empiricists
Disinhibition
Recovery of an extinguished response by an extraneous stimulus. - The inhibition of an inhibitory process. Disinhibition is demonstrated when, after extinction, a loud noise causes the conditioned response to reappear.
Introspection
Reflection on one's subjective experi- ence, whether such reflection is directed toward the detection of the presence or absence of a sensation (as in the case of Wundt and Titchener) or toward the detec- tion of complex thought processes (as in the cases of Brentano, Stumpf, Külpe, Husserl, and others).
Physicalism
Related to the mind-body problem. The physicalist says that even our mental states are physical states. We have no separate soul or mind.
Important principles of association according to Hobbes
Repetition and "coherence" (contiguity?) Did not develop these ideas much (Ebbinghaus, 3 centuries later, established these ideas experimentally)
Cattell, James McKeen (1860-1944)
Represented functionalistic psychology at Columbia University. He did much to promote applied psychology.
Luria, Alexander Romanovich (1902 -1977)
Russian psychologist noted for many diverse contributions, including conflict, traumatic brain injury, and memory.
Berkeley, George (1685 -1753)
Said that the only thing we experience directly is our own perceptions, or secondary qualities. ____________ offered an empirical explanation of the perception of distance, saying that we learn to associate the sensations caused by the convergence and divergence of the eyes with different distances. __________ denied materialism, saying instead that reality exists because God perceives it. We can trust our senses to reflect God's perceptions because God would not create a sensory system that would deceive us.
Gassendi, Pierre (1592 -1655)
Saw humans as nothing but complex, physical machines, and he saw no need to assume a nonphysical mind. ________ had much in common with Hobbes.
A group of scientists who share common assumptions, goals, problems, and methods.
School
The almost religious belief that science can answer all questions and solve all problems
Scientism
Alexander Bain
Scottich psychologists, Law of effect anticipating developments that took place later on with skinner, behaviorism, reinforcement, conditioning
A basic mental experience that is triggered by an environmental stimulus.
Sensation
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Sensations create simple experiences, which combine to generate complex ideas: everything is reduced to senses
Introspection
Sensations that could be defined on 4 dimensions 1. Mode (visual, auditory, etc.) 2. Quality (colors and shapes of sensations) 3. Intensity 4. Duration
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849 -1936)
Shared Sechenov's goal of creating a totally objective psychology. ______ focused his study on the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli that control behavior and on the physiological processes that they initiate. For __________ all human behavior is reflexive.
Schachter singer
Similar to james. But said have stimulus- general arousal state- cognitive assessment-subj feelin
Functional analysis
Skinner 's approach to research that involves studying the systematic relationship between behavioral and environmental events. Such study focuses on the relationship between reinforce- ment contingencies and response rate or response probability.
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Solipsism (only self can be known to exist)
According to Bain, behavior that is simply emitted by an organism rather than being elicited by external stimulation.
Spontaneous activity
Wundt
Started a new journal dedicated exclusively to psychological research but called Philosophical Studies
James Mill (1773-1836)
Started in the clergy, switched to business Wrote Analysis of the Phenomena of the Mind
Letting past experience influence an introspective report.
Stimulus error
James described the mind as consisting of an ever-changing stream of interrelated, pur- posive thoughts rather than static elements that could be isolated from one another, as the structuralists had suggested.
Stream of consciousness
Münsterberg, Hugo (1863-1916)
Stressed the application of psychological principles in such areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. In so doing, _____________ created applied psychology.
The school of psychology founded by Titchener, the goal of which was to describe the structure of the mind.
Structuralism
Oswald Kulpe
Student of Wundt first true cognitive laboratory in history used introspection BUT HE SAID YOU CAN STUDY THE PROCESS OF THINKING
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Switched from diplomacy to philosophy and psychology. Knew Descartes, but completely rejected Cartesian interactionism and rationalism/nativism
Physiologists at that time had devised two techniques to study reaction time:
The Complication Experiment and the Subtractive Procedure
Forensic psychology
The application of psychological principles to legal matters. Münsterberg is considered the first forensic psychologist.
Robert Woodworth
The author of the O inserted between S and R (the role of the organism in the S-R process) , drive theory. We are motivated to get rid of our hunger
Tropism
The automatic orienting response that Loeb studied in plants and animals.
Feelings
The basic elements of emotion that accom- pany each sensation. Wundt believed that emotions consist of various combinations of elemental feelings. (See also Tridimensional theory of feeling.)
Operationism
The belief that all abstract scientific concepts should be operationally defined.
Positivism
The belief that science should study only those objects or events that can be experienced directly. That is, all speculation about abstract entities should be avoided.
Utilitarianism
The belief that the best society or gov- ernment is one that provides the greatest good (happi- ness) for the greatest number of individuals. Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill were all utilitarians.
It was assumed that the time for the nervous impulse to travel the sensory and motor nerves should remain relatively constant
The complication experiment (wundt)
Savings
The difference between the time it originally takes to learn something and the time it takes to relearn it.
Sechenov, Ivan M. (1829 -1905)
The father of Russian objective psychology. ________ sought to explain all human behavior in terms of stimuli and physiological mechanisms without recourse to metaphysical speculation of any type.
Bain, Alexander (1818 -1903)
The first to attempt to relate known physiological facts to psychological phenomena. He also wrote the first psychology texts, and he founded psychology's first journal (1876). Bain explained voluntary behavior in much the same way that modern learning theorists later explained trial-and-error behavior. Finally, ______ added the law of compound association and the law of constructive association to the older, tradi- tional laws of association.
Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1850 -1909)
The first to study learning and memory experimentally.
Watson, John Broadus (1878 -1958)
The founder of behaviorism who established psychology's goal as the prediction and control of behavior. In his final position, he denied the existence of mental events and concluded that instincts play no role in human behavior. On the mind-body problem, he finally became a physical monist, believing that thought is nothing but implicit muscle movement.
Wundt, Wilhelm Maximilian (1832-1920)
The founder of experimental psychology as a sparate discipline and of the school of voluntarism
Comte, Auguste (1798 -1857)
The founder of positivism and coiner of the term sociology. He felt that cultures passed through three stages in the way they explained phenomena: the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific.
Morgan's canon
The insistence that explanations of animal behavior be kept as simple as possible. One should never attribute higher mental activities to an animal if lower mental activities are adequate to explain its behavior.
Mental chronometry
The measurement of the time required to perform various mental acts., measuring how long a cognitive process takes, called reaction time.
James Mill
The mind IS a machine, passive entity reacting to external stimuli, no free will, sensations and ideas are the only mental elements, no creativity Monism , Materialist; mind is composed of matter
Major Structuralist Assumptions
The mind is the sum total of all conscious states Wundt: Experimental psychology studies immediate experience (conscious thought) Wundt: Experimental psychology searches for the elements (structure) of experience
Act psychology
The name given to Brentano 's brand of psychology because it focused on mental operations or functions. Act psychology dealt with the interaction between mental processes and physical event
Hormic psychology
The name given to McDougall's version of psychology because of its emphasis on pur- posive or goal-directed behavior.
Voluntarism
The name given to Wundt's school of psychology because of his belief that, through the process of apperception, individuals could direct their attention toward whatever they wished
Logical positivism
The philosophy of science according to which theoretical concepts are admissible if they are tied to the observable world through operational definitions.
Mental chemistry
The process by which individual sensations can combine to form a new sensation that is different from any of the individual sensations that con- stitute it.
Inhibition
The reduction or cessation of activity caused by stimulation, such as when extinction causes a condi- tioned stimulus to inhibit a conditioned response. It was Sechenov's discovery of inhibitory mechanisms in the brain that led him to believe that all human behavior could be explained in terms of brain physiology.
Morgan's canon
The rule that the simplest possible interpretation for a behavioral observation should be given precedence
Völkerpsychologie
The study of higher mental processes through naturalistic observation of people in culture. ,
Second-signal system
The symbols of objects or events that signal the occurrence of biologically significant events. Seeing fire and withdrawing from it would exemplify the first-signal system, but escaping in response to hearing the word fire exemplifies the second-signal
Reflexology
The term Bechterev used to describe his approach to studying humans. Because he emphasized the study of the relationship between environmental events and overt behavior, he can be considered one of the earliest behaviorists, if not the earliest.
Connectionism
The term often used to describe Thorndike's theory of learning because of its concern with the neural bonds or connections that associate sense impressions and impulses to action.
James Lange
The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli.
General impression
The thought a person has in mind before he or she chooses the words to express it.
Performance
The translation of learning into behavior.
Purposive behaviorism
The type of behaviorism Tolman pursued, which emphasizes molar rather than molecular behavior.
Instrumental conditioning
The type of conditioning studied by Thorndike, wherein an organism learns to make a response that is instrumental in producing reinforcement.
Phenomenological methods
The type of introspective analysis that focuses on intact mental phenomena rather than on isolated mental elements.
S -R psychology
The type of psychology insisting that environmental stimuli elicit most, if not all, behavior. The Russian physiologists and Watson were S-R psychologists.
Behavior therapy
The use of learning principles in treating behavioral or emotional problems.
Pragmatism
The value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems. The pragmatists thus embraced the provisional, uncertain nature of experimental knowledge. Among the most well-known purveyors of pragmatism were John Dewey, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and William James.
Methodological behaviorism
The version of behaviorism that accepts the contention that overt behavior should be psychology 's subject matter but is willing to speculate about internal causes of behavior, such as various mental and physiological states.
Radical behaviorism
The version of behaviorism that claims only directly observable events, such as stimuli and responses, should constitute the subject matter of psychology. Explanations of behavior in terms of unobserved mental events can be, and should be, avoided. - B.F. Skinner-distinction between public and private events
Wittgenstein
The word "tree" has no necessary connection with a real tree.
James Lange
Theory of emotions
Philosophical investigations
Theory. Meaning does not exist, only use. Language games used to act out/learn language
Alexander Bain
There is nothing I wish more than to unite psychology and physiology that physiologists may be made to appreciate the true ends and drift of their researches into the nervous system.
Alexander Bain
This British empiricist added two more to the traditional laws of association: compount association and constructive association. Like Skinner a century later, he explained how spontaneous behavior (Skinner's
James Mill
This British empiricist incorporated Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism/hedonism as a major part of his theory. This theorist also made great efforts to provide evidence for associationism, which many felt had the effect of exposing associationism as an absurdity.
James Mill (1773-1836)
This notion was called mental compounding Based on the assumption that everything is reducible to something else, until we get to sensory experience Problem: there may be more to an experience than a collection of sense impressions For example: A "floor" is not just a collection of wood and nails or of tiles put together Creative thought is more than a rearrangement of previous ideas
Advocated materialist/monistic position
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Mind arises from sense experience
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
completely rejected Cartesian interactionism and rationalism/nativism
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
The greatest contributors:
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume
These thinkers rejected Cartesian ideas of innate knowledge and proposed that the mind is knowledge accumulated through experience and held together by association (Aristotelian influence)
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume
Puzzle box
Thorndike's box through which cats escaped by trial-and-error at first and then the law of effecty
Law of exercise
Thorndike's law that repetition strengthens learning or... "Practice makes perfect". weakened when practice is discontinued
Experimental Findings in Wϋrzburg
Thought can be nonsensory ("imageless thought") Karl Marbe: Comparative judgments of pairs of weights; respondents did not know how answers (lighter or heavier) came to mind - up to that time it was assumed that images of the two objects were consciously compared Wϋrzburg experiments showed that certain conscious states were present when thinking, but they were not images,sensations or feelings - rather, they were hesitation, doubt, confidence, searching, etc.
Context theory of meaning
Titchener's contention that a sensation is given meaning by the images it elicits. That is, for Tirchener, meaning is determined by the law of contiguity
Context theory of meaning
Titchener, meaning depends on context or the association of a stimulus with other relevant surrounding stimuli
Vicarious trial and error
Tolman: behavioral vacillation at a "choice point" prior to choosing
Wittgenstein
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Austrian philosopher who wrote Essay on logical Philosophy which argued that only philosophy was clarification of thoughts and therefore the study of language; great philosophical issues of the age (God, freedom, morality) are senseless because they can't be tested by science or math; logical empiricism
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
Tree falling in forest - does it make a sound if no one is there?
An innate response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US) that is nat- urally associated with it.
Unconditioned response (UR)
Functionalism
Under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment.
Donders, Franciscus Cornelius (1818-1889)
Used reaction time to measure the time it took to perform various mental acts.
A nonexperimental branch of psychology proposed by Wundt that dealt with the communal and cultural products of huiman nature such as religions, mythologies, customs and languages using historical and comparitive analysis
Völkerpsychologie
James, William (1842 -1910)
Was instrumental in the founding of functionalistic psychology. James emphasized the function of both consciousness and behavior. For him the only valid criterion for evaluating a theory, thought, or act is whether it works. In keeping with his pragmatism, he claimed that psychology needs to employ both scientific and nonscientific procedures. Similarly, on the individual level, sometimes one must believe in free will and at other times in determinism.
Law of recency
Watson's observation The last response an organism makes in a learning situation will be the first one it makes when it reencounters that situation.
David Hume (1711-1776)
We assume cause-effect, but all that is there is habit
Association reflex
What Pavlov called "conditioned reflexes," Bechterev called "_______ _____".
Alexander Bain
Who was the last of the empiricists and was also considered the first psychologist? What was his goal? (HINT: think about psychology and another rising field of study)
"Man does not sing because he is happy; he is happy because he sings"
William James
Did not have a clear position on mind-body problem - Carr, at University of Chicago, avoided the issue by arguing that it was too metaphysical for psychology
William James (1842-1910)
Later in life abandoned psychology ("nasty little science") Wrote "varieties of religious experience") In Principles of Psychology developed a theory of (the labeling of) emotions, which was independently developed by Carl Lange (a Danish psychologist, 1834-1900),
William James (1842-1910)
Who critisisized Wund and Structuralism and was interestd more so in process?
William James (1842-1910)
Dynamic psychology
Woodworth suggested the subject matter for psychology must be both consciousness and behavior. He accepted introspection, along with observational and experimental methods. ___________ _______ is concerned with motivation, which he called motivology. DEF: System of psychology which was concerned with the influence of causal factors and motivations on feelings and behavior, forces that drive or motivate human beings.
Also worked with Mϋller in Berlin and decided on a career in research physiology In his life he published 500 articles and books (more than 60,000 printed pages!)
Wundt
In 1874 he was appointed in Philosophy at Zurich, and the following year an appointment in "scientific philosophy" at Leipzig - taught psychology
Wundt
In 1879 __________ started the first experimental laboratory in psychology (another lab in the US had been set up mainly for demonstration purposes)
Wundt
Using technique of introspection while listening to a metronome,
Wundt was able to develop a theory of the structure of feelings
Tridimensional theory of feeling
Wundt's contention that feelings vary along three dimensions: pleasantness-unpleasantness, excitement-calm, and strain-relaxation.
Principle of the heterogony of ends
Wundt's principle that it is impossible to predict psychological events--something unexpected almost always happens that changes one's entire motivational pattern.
3 dimensions: (1) pleasant-unpleasant, (2) tense-relaxed (tension experienced before the beat), and (3) active-passive (calming vs. exciting patterns)
Wundt's theory of feelings
confirmed in experimental research (e.g., Schlosberg, 1954; Osgood)
Wundt's theory of feelings
In 1894 Kϋlpe became professor at
Wϋrzburg and two years later established a lab that attracted many students
Wundt
You can't study the process of thinking only the structure Only components of thought
Hypothetico-deductive theory
a formal-operations problem solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions
Dewey, John (1859-1952)
a key person in the development of functionalism. Some mark the formal beginning of the school of functionalism with the 1896 publication of ________ article "The Reflex arc Concept in Psychology." learning by doing
Unconditioned reflex
a reflex that occurs naturally, without any prior learning
Vibratiuncles
according to Hartley, neural vibrations that form the material bases of ideas
Empirical self
according to William James, the self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own. The empirical self consists of the material self (all of one's material possessions), the social self (one's self as known by others), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious).
Clark, Kenneth Bancroft (1914 -2005)
along with his colleagues, conducted research that demonstrated the negative effects of segregation of children. a portion of this research was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court decision that ended the legal basis for segregated education in the United States. Clark went on to become the first african american president of the aPa in 1970.
Calkins, Mary Whiton (1863 -1930)
although satisfying all the requirements for a PhD at Harvard, she was denied the degree because she was a woman. In spite of such restrictions, Calkins made significant contributions to the study of verbal learning and memory and to self-psychology. Her many honors included being elected the first female president of the american Psychological association in 1905.
Morgan, Conwy Lloyd (1852-1936)
an early comparative psychologist who believed that there is a gradation of consciousness among animal species. To infer the cognitive processes used by various animals, he observed their naturally occurring behavior.
Alexander Bain (1818-1903)
argued that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain transformed reflexes to voluntary action Thus, behaviors with positive consequences more likely to be repeated and associated than those with negative outcomes Anticipated "Connectionism" (Edward Thorndike, 1874-1949) and the "law of effect" Thus, his associationism had some similarity to behaviorism, by emphasizing associations between stimulus situation and response
Angell, James Rowland (1869 -1949)
as president of the american Psychological association and as chairman of the psychology department at the University of Chicago for 25 years, did much to promote functionalism.
Bain's associationism had some similarity to behaviorism, by emphasizing
associations between stimulus situation and response
Behaviorism was attractive to people
because you could easily observe and measure it
Hartley argued that
brain underlies mental events Associationism
Adaptive act
carr's term for unit of behavior with NEED environmental SETTING and RESPONSE , behaviour is a continuous integrated process.
Vladmir Bechterev
classical conditioning on avoidance
Argued that many elemental ideas are summed together (through contiguity) to produce more
complex ideas, which cam become so consolidated that they appear as single ideas (James Mill (1773-1836)) Compound Modeling
Leonard Hull
connectionist reduction theorist
Hartley argued that vibrations in the physical world
create vibrations (sensations) in the brain
cumulative recorder
creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time , a devise that automatically draws cumulative records that show the rate of response in real time
Clever Hans phenomenon
cuing of an animal's response by unconscious human behavior
Oswald Kulpe
developed Würzburg school, whose major method was systematic experimental introspection (perform task involving higher mental processes and report mental experiences during task)
Harvey Carr
developed functionalism with Dewey and James Rowland Angell, Kerplunk experiment with Watson (rats turn voluntary motor responses into conditioned response)
Thorndike, Edward Lee (1874-1949)
developed the law of effect, where rewards determine behavior being repeated, also believed intelligence to be determined as specific
Oswald Kulpe
disagreed with Wundt on imageless though , Applied systematic, experimental introspection to the study of problems solving perimental introspection to the study of problem solving and found that some mental operations are imageless
Stimulus error
error of introspection in which the observer reported seeing an object (e.g., a table) rather than the elements that made up the experience (e.g., color pattern)
British thinkers thus began to rely on
experience, rather than reason, to explain physical and psychological phenomena
Logical Postivism
foucuses on empirical truths
Kϋlpe studied with Wundt,
had strong interests in philosophy and history, along with experimental psychology Wrote a structuralist book while an assistant to Wundt
Vicarious trial and error
hesitation at a choice point in a learning situation where it looks "as if" the animal is weighing all of its alternatives TOLMAN
Karl Marbe: Comparative judgments of pairs of weights; respondents did not know
how answers (lighter or heavier) came to mind - up to that time it was assumed that images of the two objects were consciously compared
Wundt found that a person's reaction time was 1/10 of a second longer if
if his attention were focused on an expected stimulus
William James (1842-1910)
influenced development of functionalism Was interested in process [function] (criticism of Wundt and structuralism) Used introspection to investigate stream of experience (Heraclitus) All his original work appeared in a book - a classic - that took many years to write: Principles of Psychology (1890)
Hume
inspired Kant to launch his counterattack against empiricism
Hull'shabit strength and Tolman's cognitive map are examples of .
intervening variables
James Angell
investigates mental operations, not mental elements, goal is to identify how consciousness is adaptive, emphasized mind-body relationship for adaptation
Problem with the definition of reinforcement
it seems to be circular, with theoretical construct we want to say that it can be rejected or falsified, it is defined as something that happens that increases the likelihood of behavior, there is no way you can reject it
Imageless thoughts
kulpe pure mental acts without images
Social constructionsim
language theorists who believe that persons-in-conversation co-construct their own social realities and are simultaneously shaped by the worlds they create. Beauty is socially constructed. words we use to describe construct our thoughts about that object.
Punishment does not lead to
learning
Theoretical terms
logical positivism, labels for abstract concepts that are verifiable through empirical observation.
Wundt's Experiments on Mental Chronometry
measured reaction time sensory nerve to brain, new impulse to motor nerve for muscular responses
Paired-associate technique
method of investigating verbal learning invented by Calkins. pairs of stimulus material are first presented to subjects and then, after several exposures, only one member of the pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second. Still used
Primary reinforcement
not learned, they are intrinsic food, sex
James -Lange theory of emotion
people first respond and then have an emotional expe- rience. For example, we run first, and then we are frightened. An implication of the theory is that we should act according to the way we want to feel.
John Mill
philosopher and economist, led the ut utilitarian movement in the 1800's
Popper
philosophical problems transcend language
Ernst Mach
physicist, philosopher: "Analysis of Sensations" 1886, influenced by British Philosophers of 18th century (Locke, Hume, Berkely) - exploring ways we perceive visual impulses. Theory: the self is nothing but just a bunch of sensory impulses. Mind has its source of imperical experience, e.g. mind is not an entity in itself - all we have is sensations.
Wϋrzburg experiments showed that certain conscious states were
present when thinking, but they were not images,sensations or feelings - rather, they were hesitation, doubt, confidence, searching, etc.
William McDougall
proposed that humans were motivated by a variety of instincts
Mediate experiences
provides info about something other that the elements of that experience (i have a toothache)
According to Locke, that aspect of a physical object that has the power to produce an idea.
quality
Although skinnerest do no mind the weak definition of
reinforcement, they care about measurable behavior
Thomas Hobbes
rejected cartesian interactionism and rationalism/nativism Advocated materialist/monistic position sensations create simple experiences, which combine to generate complex ideas: everything is reduced to senses This problem divided many empiricist
Conway Morgan
rejects aniamals are machine
Bain argued that behaviors with possible consequences are more likely to be
repeated and associated than those with negative outcomes
Neobehaviorism
resulted when behaviorism was combined with logical positivism
Wundt Worked with Bunsen and published his first scientific article on
salt diet and concentration of salt in urine
The rudimentary mental experience that results from the stimulation of one or more sense receptors.
sensations
The alternative hypothesis of James-Lange theory
several different emotions can correspond to the same physiological state (many-to-one correspondence)
The mental remnants of sensations
simple ideas
Thomas Hobbes
state of nature" for man is war/survival, creates a chaotic and dangerous condition USER
Wundt's emphasis on structure meant that
structuralists did not investigate the process of thinking
From a scientific point of idea the definition of Reinforcement
sucks, needs to be falsified
American inspired school of thought
that was influenced by John Dewey, Functionalism
Industrial psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces -Münsterberg is usually considered the first industrial psychologist.
The complication experiment
the differences in individual reaction times should be due to brain processes More complicated tasks should take more time Thus, as tasks got more complicated, if you subtracted simpler reaction times from more complicated ones, you could measure time required for complex processes
Mental chemistry
the focus on the combination of individual elements as they are synthesized into the whole unit
Logical Positivism
the form of empiricism that bases all knowledge on perceptual experience (not on intuition or revelation)
Singer two factor Theory
the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal
Logical positivism
the methodology and precision of mathematics introduced into the study of philosophy as a whole; rejected ambiguities of language and used traditional speculation on morals and values, turning away from non-demonstrable, i.e. "God, death, what is higher"
Berkley; all knowledge depends on
the perceiver
Oswald Kulpe
the process of thinking can be studies experimentally , Student of Wundt, founder of an early psychological laboratory and school of thought, experiments on imageless thought challenged the simplistic characteristics of other early systems.
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
In other words, respondents were faster if
they were thinking about what to do, rather than on what was coming ( wundt, complication experiment)
Identical elements theory of transfer
thorndike says the extent to which learning transfers from one situation to another is determined by similarity of the two situations
Bain argued that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain
transformed reflexes to voluntary action
Schachter singer
two factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be 1. physiological arousal and 2. cognitive interpretation or explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion
Philosophical investigations
written by Vitgenshitein, when he decided Logical Positivism doesn't work and games is more accurate for language
If you are going to postulate constructs
you need to do in such a way you can rejects it
