exam 2 dev
smell and taste perception
- young infants (12 - 18 days) can distinguish their mothers on the basis of smell alone - infants have an innate sweet tooth
avoidant attachment
do not seek proximity to the mother and, after she has left, they typically do not seem distressed. Furthermore, they seem to avoid her when she returns. It is as if they are indifferent to her behavior.
the power of play
during the preoperational stage, children exhibit growing cognitive skills in their styles of play - play detaches from the real-life conditions associated with it - play becomes less self-centered - play includes more complex combinations of schemes
temperament
encompasses patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual
other developmental changes
expanding knowledge base and increased organization - procedural memory - semantic memory - episodic memory metacognitive and executive functioning abilities - awareness and understanding of aspects of memory and thought - cognitive self-regulation
egocentrism
failure to distinguish others' view from one's own - do not understand that others have different perspectives from their own - takes 2 forms: the lack of awareness that others see things from a different physical perspective + the failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings and points of view that differ from theirs
responding to touch
- 32 weeks after conception: the entire body is sensitive to touch - several of the basic reflexes present at birth require touch sensitivity to operate
Sub stage 3: secondary circular reactions
- 4 to 8 months - Development of habits. "Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results - Secondary circular reactions are schemas regarding repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence. The major difference between primary circular reactions and secondary circular reactions is whether the infant's activity is focused on the infant and his or her own body (primary circular reactions), or involves actions relating to the world outside (secondary circular reactions)
measuring attachment
- Ainsworth's strange situation paradigm consists of a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother. The "strange situation" follows this general eight-step pattern: (1) The mother and baby enter an unfamiliar room; (2) the mother sits down, leaving the baby free to explore; (3) an adult stranger enters the room and converses first with the mother and then with the baby; (4) the mother exits the room, leaving the baby alone with the stranger; (5) the mother returns, greeting and comforting the baby, and the stranger leaves; (6) the mother departs again, leaving the baby alone; (7) the stranger returns; and (8) the mother returns and the stranger leaves
factors influencing attachment development
- Consistency of caregivers - Quality of caregiving (sensitive & warm) - Family circumstances - Parents' internal working models - Infant characteristics
gross motor development
- Head control (+ 6 weeks) - Rolling - Sitting - Crawling (+ 7 months) - Creeping - Hitching - Standing - Walking - Running - Climbing - Jumping (with two feet, + 24 months)
influences on early physical growth
- Infants' sensory experiences affect both the size of individual neurons and the structure of their interconnections --> compared with those brought up in more enriched environments, infants raised in severely restricted settings are likely to show differences in brain structure and weight
introduction to language development and components of language (lecture)
- Language development does not occur in a vacuum; it is inextricably linked to social interactions. - Language is "shared knowledge" of a cultural community dictated by conventions agreed upon (how to use, what, when).
stability and cultural variations in attachment
- Secure attachment is related to positive social, cognitive and emotional outcomes in preschool and middle childhood years. - Continuity of caregiving across childhood years might mediate the relation between infant attachment and later developmental outcomes.
types of attachment
- Securely attached (65-70%) - Anxious/avoidant (15-20%) - Anxious/resistant (10-15%) - Disorganized/disoriented (5-10%)
development of self: categorizing the self
- Social referencing is the intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. - theory of mind = knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it influences behavior. Theories of mind are the explanations that children use to explain how others think. - by the end of infancy, children have developed the rudiments of their own personal theory of mind. It helps them understand the actions of others, and it affects their own behavior
the social context of early cognitive development (zone of proximal development)
- Vygotsky's social constructivist approach: 1. Cognition arises from social interaction with more skilled members of society. 2. Any developing higher cognitive skill appears on two psychological planes: the interpsychological and intrapsychological. 3. Development is a process of internalization and decontextualization. 4. Language is a mediator of development. - ZPD = you will learn exponentially faster if you're learning with a group of kids that are at a more advanced level than you
visual perception
- a newborn's vision ranges from 20/200 to 20/600 and reaches 20/20 by 6 months - binocular vision is achieved by 14 months - depth perception is developed by 6 months - infants show clear visual preferences
Sub stage 6: beginnings of thought
- age: 18 months to 2 years - the major achievement of sub stage 6 is the capacity for mental representation [an internal image of a past event or object] or symbolic thought. Piaget argued that only at this stage can infants imagine where objects that they cannot see might be - permits the ability to pretend using the skill deferred imitation
Sub stage 2: first habits and primary circular reactions
- age: from 1 to 4 months - at this age infants begin to coordinate what were separate actions into single, integrated activities - primary circular reactions are schemas reflecting an infant's repetition of interesting or enjoyable actions, just for the purpose of doing them
Sub stage 5: tertiary circular reactions
- age: from 12 - 18 months - at this age, infants develop the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences - Rather than just repeating enjoyable activities, infants appear to carry out miniature experiments to observe the consequences (trial and error)
Sub stage 4: coordination of secondary circular reactions
- age: from 8 - 12 months - in this stage, infants begin to use more calculated approaches to producing events, coordinating several schemas to generate a single act - achieve object permanence = the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen - infants begin to employ goal-directed behavior = several schemas are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem
development of attachment
- attachment = the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular special individual, - stranger anxiety = the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person; typically appears in the second half of the first year. - separation anxiety = the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs. Separation anxiety, which is also universal across cultures, usually begins at about 7 or 8 months. It peaks around 14 months and then decreases
information processing: general information processing models
- basic-store model = flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) - working memory model = the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the episodic buffer
zone of proximal development
- being in the zone fosters learning what puts children in "the zone?" 1. interacting with more skilled members of society 2. engaging in certain contexts such as play and schooling
temperament as predictor
- children with a low activity level and low irritability may do particularly well in an environment in which they are left to explore on their own and are allowed largely to direct their own behavior. In contrast, high-activity-level, highly irritable children may do best with greater direction, which permits them to channel their energy in particular directions - difficult children, in general, are more likely to show behavior problems by school age than those classified in infancy as easy children. But not all difficult children experience problems. The key determinant seems to be the way parents react to their infants' difficult behavior. If they react by showing anger and inconsistency—responses that their child's difficult, demanding behavior readily evokes—then the child is ultimately more likely to experience behavior problems. In contrast, parents who display more warmth and consistency in their responses are more likely to have children who avoid later problems
learning capacities
- classical conditioning = an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response - operant conditioning = a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with positive or negative consequences - habituation = the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus - deferred imitation = in which a person who is no longer present is imitated later, children are able to pretend they are driving a car, feeding a doll or cooking dinner long after they've witnessed such scenes played out in reality
early language production
- cooing - 3 months - babbling - 6 months - proto-imperative and declaratives - 9 months (early pragmatics) - one word - 12 months (early lexicon) - two-word combinations [telegraphic speech] - 18 months (early grammar)
Thomas & Chess
- developed a list of 9 dimensions through parental reports and observations = ACTIVITY LEVEL, RHYTHMICITY, DISTRACTIBILITY, APPROACH/ WITHDRAWAL, ADAPTABILITY, ATTENTION SPAN AND PERSISTENCE, INTENSITY OF REACTION, RESPONSIVENESS, QUALITY OF MOOD - temperament patterns = EASY CHILD (40%), DIFFICULT CHILD (10%), SLOW-TO-WARM-UP (15%) - goodness-of-fit = the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between a child's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they're being raised
motor development
- dynamic systems approach - gross motor development - fine motor development
nativist theory
- emphasis on grammar - all children have Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - an innate system that contains universal grammar rules - childhood is a sensitive period for language acquisition criticism - researchers argue that certain primates are able to learn at least the basics of language, an ability that calls into question the uniqueness of the human linguistic capacity - infants' use of general cognitive abilities underlies their language learning - although humans may be genetically primed to use language, they still must have significant social experience in order to use language effectively
main processes that develop that lead to increased efficiency
- encoding and representation - memory strategies - executive functioning automatization and generalization
information processing gains
- encoding and representation - working memory and strategy use - automatization - generalization - executive function (the mental processes that individuals use to engage in goal-directed thought and action) = inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, planning, organization
fine motor development
- eye-hand coordination (reaching) 1. pre-reaching (0-3 months) 2. visually directed reaching (3 - 5 months) - object manipulation (grasping) = grasp reflex --> ulnar grasp --> neat pincer grasp
major gains in symbolic thinking in early childhood
- increases in mental representation activity (language use, drawings, make-believe-play, symbol-world relations, perspective taking) - categorization (perceptual and conceptual categories)
sensitivity to pain
- infants are born with the capacity to experience pain - developmental progression in reactions to pain: a newborn infant takes several seconds to show pain response; whereas a few months later, the same procedure brings a much more immediate response [delayed reaction in infants is produced by the relatively slower transmission of information within the newborn's less-developed nervous system] - exposure to pain in infancy may lead to a permanent rewiring of the nervous system resulting in greater sensitivity to pain during adulthood
memory capabilities in infants
- infants can distinguish new stimuli from old stimuli, which implies that some memory of the old must be present - infants' memory capabilities increase as they get older - infantile amnesia = the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age - memories from infancy may be enduring, however memories are susceptible to interference from other newer information, which may displace or block out the older information, preventing its recall
information processing: evaluation of information processing findings
- information processing looks at quantitative change; sees cognitive growth as gradual, step-by-step growth - able to use more precise measures of cognitive ability eg. processing speed and memory recall - the precision of skills makes it harder to get an overall sense of the nature of cognitive development - information-processing approaches focus more on the individual pieces of the puzzles of cognitive development, while Piaget focuses on the whole puzzle - both Piagetian and info-processing approaches are critical in providing an account of cognitive development in infancy
attention gains
- inhibition: control dominant responses, irrelevant stimuli - attentional flexibility: refocus attention to relevant stimuli = leads to more sustained and focused attention, as well as adaptable use of attention
ways of measuring temperament
- newer ways of measuring that include physiological markers, in addition to observation and parent report
stability of temperament
- overall moderate to low stability - best stability is attained if temperament characteristics are measured after age 3 - certain characteristics subsumed under temperament are associated with later cognitive and social functioning (eg. effortful control)
measuring executive functions
- preschool self-regulation assessment - the knock tap task - at the preschool age (3-5), might be best defined as a unitary skill of attention control
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: evaluation
- represent a consistent theoretical system and help explain a growing body of research attesting to the importance of social interaction in promoting cognitive development - consistent with a growing body of multicultural and cross-cultural research, which finds evidence that cognitive development is shaped, in part, by cultural factors - conceptualization of cognitive growth can be criticized for its lack of precision - such broad concepts as the zone of proximal development are not terribly precise, and they do not always lend themselves to experimental tests - silent on how basic cognitive processes such as attention and memory develop and how children's natural cognitive capabilities unfold. Because of his emphasis on broad cultural influences, he did not focus on how individual bits of information are processed and synthesized
cognitive skills in early childhood
- symbolic thinking = the ability to use a mental symbol, a word, or an object to stand for or represent something that is not physically present. - executive function (inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility) - memory strategies - theory of mind
brain development
- synaptic pruning - neurons increase in size, growth of dendrites, axons become coated with myelin - neurons move into the cerebral cortex or subcortical levels - synapses and myelination experience a growth spurt at 3/4 months in the auditory and visual cortex - rapid increase in auditory and visual areas of the cerebral cortex --> language areas --> frontal lobe of cerebral cortex
genetic and environmental influences
- temperamental characteristics are seen as inherited traits that are fairly stable during childhood and across the entire lifespan - biological basis underlies inhibition to the unfamiliar (shyness) - high reactivity in amygdala when reviewing unfamiliar faces --> thicker anterior prefrontal cortex
auditory perception
- the ability to hear begins prenatally - infants are born with preferences for particular sound combinations (prenatal exposure to mother's voice) - infants have a slight handicap in sound localization - infants as young as 6 months can detect the change of a single note in a six-tone melody. They also react to changes in musical key and rhythm - young infants are able to discriminate one language from another - By the age of 4½ months, infants are able to discriminate their own names from other, similar-sounding words - By the age of 5 months, they can distinguish the difference between English and Spanish passages
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: sensorimotor stage
- the initial major stage of cognitive development, which can be broken down into 6 sub stages
neurological basis of memory
- there are 2 separate systems involved with long-term memory: explicit memory and implicit memory (retain different sorts of information) - explicit memory = memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally - implicit memory = consists of memories of which we are not consciously aware but that affect performance and behavior
body growth (developmental trends)
1. average newborn weighs just over 7 pounds and its length is 20 inches 2. by 5 months, the infant's weight has doubled to 15 pounds 3. by the 1st birthday, the baby's weight has tripled to 22 lbs 4. by the end of the second year, the child's weighs around four times as much as they did at birth
principles that govern growth
1. cephalocaudal principle = growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds to the rest of the body. based on the Greek an Latin roots meaning "head to tail" 2. proximodistal principle = development proceeds from the center of the body outward. Based on the Latin words for "near" and "far" 3. principle of hierarchal integration = simple skills typically develop separately and independently. later they are integrated into more complex skills 4. principle of the independence of systems = different body systems grow at different systems
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: basic ideas
1. cognition arises from social interaction with more skilled members of society 2. any developing higher cognitive skill appears on two psychological planes: interpsychological and intrapsyhcological 3. development is a process of internalization and decontextualization 4. language is a mediator of development
art
1. scribbling stage 2. shape stage 3y/o 3. design stage 4. pictorial stage 4-5 y/o
significant gross motor skills in early childhood
3 year olds - cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly - jump a distance of 15 to 24 - ascend a stairway unaided, alternating the feet - can hop, using an irregular series of jumps with some variations added 4 year olds - have more effective control of stopping, starting and turning - jump a distance of 24 to 33 inches - descend a long stairway alternating the feet, if supported - hope 4 - 6 steps on one foot 5 year olds - start, turn and stop effectively in games - make a running jump of 28 to 26 inches - descend a long stairway alternating the feet - easily hop a distance of 16 feet
fine motor skills in early childhood
3 year olds - cuts paper - pastes using finger - builds bridge with three blocks - draws 0 and 1 - draws doll - pours liquid from pitcher without spilling - completes simple jigsaw puzzle 4 year olds - folds paper intro triangles - prints name - strings beads - copies X - builds bridge with 5 blocks - pours from various containers - opens and positions clothespins 5 year olds - folds paper into halves and quarters - draws triangle, rectangle, circle - uses crayons effectively - creates clay object - copies letters - copies two short words
dynamic systems theory
= a theory of how motor skills develop and are coordinated and assembled - each skill advances in the context of other motor abilities - emphasis on a child's own motivation in advancing important aspects of motor development
autobiographical memory
= memory of particular events from one's own life, achieves little accuracy until after 3 years of age. accuracy then increases gradually and slowly throughout the preschool years - recollections of events are usually accurate - accuracy determined by how soon the memories are accessed - memories are affected by cultural factors - preschoolers autobiographical memories not only fade, but what is remembered may not be wholly accurate - memories of familiar events are often organized in terms of scripts = broad representations in memory of events and the order in which they occur - difficulty describing certain kinds of information, such as complex causal relationships, they may oversimplify recollections
storage
= placement of material into memory - success in using the material in the future depends on retrieval processes
information processing: view of the human mind
= seek to identify the way that individuals take in, use and store information. According to this approach, the quantitative changes in infants' abilities to organize and manipulate information represent the hallmarks of cognitive development - cognitive growth is characterized by increasing sophistication, speed and capacity in processing information - focus on the types of mental programs that people use when they seek to solve problems - Development occurs in a continuous fashion influenced by both the environment and brain development
syntax
= the combining of words and phrases to form meaningful phrases
automatization
= the degree to which an activity requires attention - the processes that require relatively little attention are automatic; processes that require relatively large amounts of attention are controlled
encoding
= the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory - we are exposed to extensive amounts of information and stimuli so we encode information selectively, choosing which to pay attention to
retrieval
= the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness and used
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Basic concepts
Action = Knowledge - Four universal stages in fixed order from birth through adolescence [ sensorimotor 0 - 2, preoperational 2- 7, concrete operational 7 - 11, formal operational 11 - on] 1. schemas 2. adaptation and organization - adaptation = assimilation ( the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking) + accommodation (when we change our existing ways of thinking, understanding or behaving in response to encounters with new stimuli or events) 1. invariant sequence 2. culturally universal 3. general properties of thought 4. qualitative changes - equilibrium = an ongoing process that refines and transforms mental structures, constituting the basis of cognitive development [during times of rapid cognitive development, children are in a state of disequilibrium]
Piaget's Preoperational Stage
Ages 2 to 7 abilities: - increases in mental representation activity + make believe play --> more detached from real life, less self-centered and more complex + symbol-real world relations (mastered around age 3) - categorization (perceptual and conceptual) limitations: - children's thinking is unidimensional, unsystematic, illogical, and perception-bound - unable to decenter (using an objective, psychologically distant perspective to analyze one's thoughts, feelings, and emotions) - cannot operate on mental representations
why does attachment develop?
Attachment is necessary for survival and emotional adjustment
substage 1: simple reflexes
During this period, the various reflexes that determine the infant's interactions with the world are at the center of the infant's cognitive life. - age: first month of life
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: comparison between Piaget and Vygotsky on the relation between thought and language
Piaget: language is a result of higher cognitive abilities - cognition --> mental representation (24 months) --> language Vygotsky: language aids the development of higher cognitive abilities - cognition = tool use + language = communicative use --> mental representation (24 months); use language as a tool
language and cognition
Piaget: language is a result of higher cognitive abilities Vygotsky: language aids the development of higher cognitive abilities
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: follow up research and evaluation
Support - empirical support of Piaget's view that children learn much about the world by acting on objects in their environment - outlines sketched out by Piaget regarding cognitive development are generally accurate Criticism - stage conception that forms the basis of Piaget was called into question; critics contend that development proceeds in a much more continuous fashion (proceeds not in stages but in waves) - critics dispute Piaget's notion that cognitive development is grounded in toro activities - Piaget overlooked the importance of the sensory and perceptual systems - children seem to have developed an understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget posited - other abilities such as the ability of neonates to imitate basic facial expressions also emerge earlier than Piaget stated - low generalizability - Piaget's work described children from developed western countries better than those in non-western cultures = Piaget has provided a masterful description of the broad outlines of cognitive development during infancy; his failings seem to be in underestimating the capabilities of younger infants
development of self: self awareness
The roots of self-awareness, knowledge of oneself, begin to grow at around the age of 12 months. It is also around this age that children begin to show awareness of their own capabilities
ambivalent attachment
a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers. Initially, ambivalent children are in such close contact with the mother that they hardly explore their environment. They appear anxious even before the mother leaves, and when she does leave, they show great distress. But upon her return, they show ambivalent reactions, seeking to be close to her but also hitting and kicking, apparently in anger.
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - shows that crawling and avoidance of drop-offs are linked
animistic thinking
belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
hierarchal classification in the preoperational stage
children confuse classes with subclasses as they're still not capable of operations: organized, formal, logical mental processes
disorganized-disoriented attachment
inconsistent, contradictory, and confused behavior. They may run to the mother when she returns but not look at her, or seem initially calm and then suddenly break into angry weeping. Their confusion suggests that they may be the least securely attached children of all
key conditions of social interaction
intersubjectivity = the interchange of thoughts and feelings, both conscious and unconscious, between two persons or "subjects," as facilitated by empathy scaffolding = the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth
Harlow's Monkeys
monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother than the one with the food - Harlow's work illustrates that food alone is not the basis for attachment.
theoretical approaches
nativist = the theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development (Noam Chomsky)- universal grammar = all the world's language share a similar underlying structure- human brain is wired with a neural system - language-acquisition device - that permits the understanding of language structure and provides a set of strategies for learning the particular characteristics of language interactionist = the view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language - innate factors are reinforced by societal response
Lorenz
observed newborn goslings, which have an innate tendency to follow their mother—the first moving object to which they typically are exposed after birth. Lorenz found that goslings whose eggs were raised in an incubator and who viewed him just after hatching would follow his every movement, as if he were their mother. As we discussed in Chapter 4, he labeled this process imprinting: behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed. Lorenz's findings suggested that attachment was based on biologically determined factors
information processing: numbers
preschoolers demonstrate surprisingly sophisticated understanding of numbers - by age 4, most are able to carry out simple addition and subtraction problems by counting and are able to compare different quantities
development of intuitive thought in the preoperational stage
preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world - from ages 4 - 7, curiosity blossoms
private speech
speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves, performs an important function
memory strategies
storing strategies - rehearsal (repeating information to oneself) - organization (grouping related items together) - elaboration (creating a relation between pieces of information) retrieval strategies - recognition (noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced) - recall (generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus) - reconstruction (reproducing stored information)
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: method for studying children (ch 2)
suggested the teacher's role involved providing appropriate learning experiences and materials that stimulate students to advance their thinking.
grammar
system of rules in a given language that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
foundation of socio-emotional skills
temperament - stable behavioral and emotional reactions to the environment (biology-based) - foundation of personality attachment - emotional bond that leads to secure feelings of allowing adequate exploration of the environment - foundation of social relationships self-awareness - understanding of the self as distinct from others - foundation of self-concept and identity
theory of mind
the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, understanding that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.
invisible displacement
the ability to track the movement of a hidden object after seeing that object placed in, under, or behind an occluder and moved into or behind a second occluder
perceptual development
the gradual development of the senses and the interpretation of sensory information - multimodal perception = considers how information that is collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated
interactionist theory
the information processing perspective - children make sense of their language development by applying powerful, yet cognitive skills the social interaction perspective - children's social competencies and language experiences influence language development
conservation
the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects - the tendency towards centration prevents them from focusing on the relevant features of the situation
language theories
the nativist perspective - Chomsky = language development is governed by genetics and an innate mechanism the interactionist perspective = language development is informed by children's inner capacities and communicative experiences
handedness
the preference of using one hand over another - By age 5, most children display a clear tendency to use one hand over the other, with 90 percent being right-handed and 10 percent being left-handed. More boys than girls are left-handed.
transformation
the process by which one state is changed into another - children in the preoperational stage are unable to envision or recall the successive transformations that the objects followed in order to move from one position to another
centration
the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects
Erikson's theory of infant and toddler personality
trust vs mistrust - the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving autonomy vs shame and doubt - the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices
attention
two skills are attained 1. cognitive inhibition 2. effectiveness of attentional strategies how does attention change through time? - more focused and sustained (increased selectivity) - more flexibility (adaptability) to requirements of situations - more planfulness
secure attachment
use the mother as the home base that Bowlby described. These children seem at ease in the Strange Situation as long as their mothers are present. They explore independently, returning to her occasionally. Although they may or may not appear upset when she leaves, securely attached children immediately go to her when she returns and seek contact.
how does attachment develop?
• Development occurs in 4 stages 1. Pre-attachment 2. Attachment-in-the making 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 to 18-24 mo): Human children begin to display actual attachment behaviors (i.e., separation anxiety & stranger anxiety). 4. Reciprocal Relationship