Exam 2

Problem-focused coping

refers to behaviors and cognitions intended to manage the stressful situations itself

Cognitive coping

refers to the thoughts that are involved in trying to deal with a stressful situation

Emotion-focused coping

refers to the various ways in which people manage their own emotional reactions to stressful demands

Stressors

the demands that cause people to experience stress

Strains

the negative consequences that occur when demands tax or exceed a person's capacity or resources

Goal Setting Theory

views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort -The theory argues that assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or "do-your-best" goals

Secondary Appraisal

when people determine how to cope with the various stressors they face

Disposition Based Trust

your personality traits include a general propensity to trust others -Has less to do with a particular authority and more to do with the trustor -Some trustors are high in trust propensity -Disposition based trust guides us in cases when we dont yet have data about a particular authority

Equity distress

· According to equity theory, any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distress- an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios

Job Characteristics Theory

- describes the central characteristics of intrinsically satisfying jobs, attempts to answer this question (What kinds of task create these psychological states?). Deals with satisfaction of the work itself. 2. Job characteristics theory argues that 5 core job characteristics result in high levels of the 3 psychological states, making work more satisfying

Supervision satisfaction

- employees' feelings about their boss, including whether the boss is competent, polite, and a good communication (rather than lazy, annoying, and too distant) a) Most employees ask two questions about their supervisors: i. Can they help me attain the things that I value? § Depends on whether supervisors provide rewards for good performance, help employees obtain necessary resources, and protect employees from unnecessary distraction ii. Are they generally likable? · Depends on whether supervisors have good personalities, as well as values and beliefs similar to the employees' philosophies

Pay satisfaction

- employees' feelings about their pay, including whether it's a s much as they deserve, secure, and adequate for both normal expenses and luxury items a) Similar to other facets, pay satisfaction is based on a comparison of the pay that employees want and the pay they receive b) Most employees base their desired pay on a careful examination of their job duties and the pay given to comparable colleagues

Transactional Theory of Stress

- explains how stressors are perceived and appraised, as well as how people respond to those perceptions and appraisals

Motivation

- set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence a) Motivation is a critical consideration because effective job performance often requires high levels of both ability and motivation b) The first part of our motivation definition illustrates that motivation is not one thing but rather a set of distinct forces. i. Some of those forces are internal to the employee, such as a sense of purpose or confidence, whereas others are external to the employee, such as the goals or incentives an employee is given c) The next part of that definition illustrates that motivation determines a number of facets of an employee's work effort i. Motivation determines what employees do at a given moment—the direction in which their effort is channeled ii. Once the direction of effort has been decided, motivation goes on to determine how hard an employee's works—the intensity of effort -and for how long the persistence of effort

Self confidence & parts

- the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success. (Self-confidence) · When employees consider efficacy levels for a given task, they consider: o First, their past accomplishments- the degree to which they have succeeded or failed in similar sorts of tasks in the past o They also consider vicarious experience by taking into account their observations and discussions with others who have performed such tasks o Self-efficacy is also dictated by verbal persuasion because friends, coworkers and leaders can persuade employees that they can "get the job done" Finally, it is dictated by emotional cues in that feelings of fear or anxiety can create doubts about tasks accomplishment, whereas pride and enthusiasm can bolster confidence levels

Benevolence

- the belief that the authority wants to do good for the trustor, apart from any selfish or profit-centered motives o When authorities are perceived as benevolent, it means that they care for employees, are concerned about their well-being, and feel a sense of loyalty to them

3 dimensions that we gauge the track record of an authority (Dimensions of trustworthiness)

-Ability -Benevolence -Integrity

Categories of coping

-Behavioral -Cognitive -Problem focused -Emotion-focused

3 factors trust is rooted in

-Disposition based -Cognition-based -Affect-based

4 Dimensions of Justice

-Distributive -Procedural -Interpersonal -Informational

Possibilities that can result from this cognitive calculus (Equity Theory)

-Equity i. The first possibility is that the ratio of outcomes to inputs is balanced between you and your comparison other In this case, you feel a sense of equity, and you're likely to maintain the intensity and persistence of your effort -Under-reward i. your ratio of outcomes to input is less than your comparison other's ratio -Over reward your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than your comparison other's ratio

Parts of Expectancy Theory

-Expectancy -Valence -Instrumentality

3 Theories of Motivation

-Expectancy Theory -Goal Setting Theory -Equity Theory

Transactional Theory of Stress: Types of Stressors

-Hindrance stressors -Nonwork Hindrance stressors -Challenge stressors -Nonwork Challenge stressors

Facets of Job Satisfaction

-Pay satisfaction -Promotion Satisfaction -Coworker Satisfaction -Supervision Satisfaction -Satisfaction with the work itself

Types of strains

-Physiological-occur in at least four systems of the human body (high blood pressure, backaches, stomaches, etc.) -Psychological include depression, anxiety, anger, hostility, etc. Burnout -Behavioral are unhealthy behaviors such as grinding one's teeth at night, being overly critical & bossy, overuse of alcohol, etc.

5 core job characteristics that make work more satisfying (Job Characteristics Theory)

-Variety -Identity -Significance -Autonomy -Feedback

Equity Theory

-acknowledges that motivation doesn't just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people a) Equity theory suggests that employees create a "mental ledger" of the outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties b) It further suggests that employees create a mental ledger of the inputs (or contributions and investments) they put into their job duties

Value-Percept Theory

-argues that job satisfaction depends on whether you perceive that your job supplies the things that you value. -Suggests that people evaluate job satisfaction according to specific "facets" of the job

Expectancy theory

-cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses a) Expectancy theory argues that employee behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain or, more generally, toward pleasure and away from pain or, more generally, toward certain outcomes and away from others b) The theory suggests that our choices depend on 3 specific beliefs that are based in our past learning and experience:

Autonomy

-degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual performing the work -Comes in many forms, like the freedom to control the timing, scheduling, and sequencing of work activities, as well as the procedures & methods used to complete work tasks

Variety

-degree to which the job requires a number of different activities that involve a number of different skills and talents i. When variety is high, almost every workday is different in some way, and job holders rarely feel a sense of monotony or repetition

Identity

-degree to which the job requires completing a whole, identifiable, piece of work from beginning to end with a visible outcome -The transformation from inputs to finished products is very visible, and the employee feels a distinct sense of beginning and closure

Affect-based trust

-depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment i. Isn't actually rooted in reason ii. Is more emotional than rational iii. With affect-based, we trust b/c we have feelings for the person in question; we really like them and have a fondness for them

Coworker satisfaction

-employees' feelings about their fellow employees, including whether coworkers are smart, responsible, helpful, fun, and interesting as opposed to lazy, gossipy, unpleasant, and boring a) Employees ask the same kinds of questions about their coworkers that they do about their supervisors i. Can they help me do my job? § Critical question because most of us rely on our coworkers when performing job tasks ii. Do I enjoy being around them? § We spend just as much time with coworkers as we do with members of our own family

Job Satisfaction

-is a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or experiences -It represents how you feel about your job and what you think about your job. · Job satisfaction is one of the several individual mechanisms that directly affects job performance and organizational commitment. · If employees are very satisfied with their jobs and experience positive emotions while working, they may perform their jobs better and choose to remain with the company for a longer period of time

Justice

-reflects the perceived fairness of an authority's decision making 1. When employees perceive high levels of justice, they believe that decision outcomes are fair and that decision-making processes are designed & implemented in a fair manner 2. Employees can judge the fairness of an authority's decision making along 4 dimensions

Distributive Justice

-reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making outcomes i. In most business situations, the proper norm is equity, with more outcomes allocated to those who contribute more inputs · The equity norm is typically judged to be the fairest choice in situations in which the goal is to maximize the productivity of individual employees ii. The equality norm is typically used in student project groups, in which all group members receive exactly the same grade on a project, regardless of their individual productivity levels. iii. In cases in which the welfare of a particular employee is the critical concern, a need norm may be judged fairer

Procedural Justice

-reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making processes · One of those rules is voice, or giving employees a chance to express their opinions and views during the course of decision making · Correctability provides employees with a chance to request an appeal when a procedure seems to have worked ineffectively · The consistency, bias suppression, and accuracy rules help ensure that procedures are neutral and objective, as opposed to biased and discriminatory

Informational Justice

-reflects the perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities The justification rule mandates that authorities explain decision-making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner, and the truthfulness rule requires that those communications be honest and candid

Interpersonal Justice

-reflects the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities i. The respect rule pertains to whether authorities treat employees in a dignified and sincere manner, and the propriety rule reflects whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks

Hindrance Stressors

-stressful demands that people tend to perceive as hindering their progress toward personal accomplishments or goal attainment · Hindrance stressors most often trigger negative emotions such as anxiety and anger

SMART Goals

-summarizes many beneficial goal characteristics, standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-Based, and Time Sensitive. -To combat trends of employees who are working under goals that were either not specific enough or not measurable enough to offer feedback, managers are now trained to ID five to seven

Feedback

-the degree to which carrying out the activities required by the job provides employees with clear info about how well they're performing Reflects feedback obtained DIRECTLY FROM THE JOB as opposed to feedback from coworkers or supervisors

Types of Nonwork Challenge Stressors

1) Family time demands- the time that a person commits to participate in an array of family activities and responsibilities 2) Personal development- activities include participation in formal education programs, music lessons, sports-related training, hobby-related self-education, participation in local government, or volunteer work. a. Participation in activities outside of work that foster growth and learning 3) Positive life events- are sources of nonwork challenge stressors. Events such as marriage or the birth of a child that tend to be appraised as a challenge

Types of Hindrance stressors

1) Role conflict- when others have conflicting expectations of what an individual needs to do 2) Role ambiguity- lack of information about what needs to be done in a role, as well as unpredictability regarding the consequences of performance in that role 3) Role overload- occurs when the number of demanding roles a person holds is so high that the person simply cannot perform some or all of the roles effectively 4) Daily hassles- refers to the relatively minor day-to-day demands that get in the way of accomplishing the things that we really want to accomplish

Types of Challenge Stressors

1) Time pressure- strong sense that the amount of time you have to do a task is not quite enough 2) Work complexity- refers to the degree to which the requirements of the work—in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities—tax or exceed the capabilities of the person who is responsible for performing the work 3) Work responsibility- refers to the nature of the obligations that a person has toward others

Types of Nonwork Hindrance Stressors

1) Work-family conflict- special form of role conflict in which the demands of a work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands of a family role (or vice versa) 2) Negative life events- events such as a divorce or death of a family member that tend to be appraised as a hindrance 3) Financial uncertainty- uncertainties with regard to the potential for loss of livelihood, savings, or the ability to pay expenses

Promotion satisfaction

1) employees' feelings about the company's promotion policies and their execution, including whether promotion is frequent, fair, and based on ability

Satisfaction with the work itself

1) reflects employees' feeling about their actual works tasks, including whether those tasks are challenging, interesting, respected, and make use of key skills rather than being dull, repetitive, and uncomfortable a) This facet focuses on what employees actually DO b) Is the single strongest driver of overall job satisfaction

Explain how values affect job satisfaction

1. Employees are satisfied when their job provides the things that they value 2. Values- those things that people consciously or subconsciously want to seek or attain 3. Values play a key role in explaining job satisfaction. 4. Value-percept theory argues that job satisfaction depends on whether you perceive that your job supplies the things that you value

Identify ways to increase employee perceptions of trust and justice***

1. Have procedures that are fair; follow best practice, transparent, people know about it 2. Address the different types of justice a) Are people getting timely info b) Is it fair and honest 3. Focus the organization's attention on corporate social responsibility, a perspective that acknowledges that the responsibilities of a business encompass the economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society a) to improve the quality of life in the communities in which they work

Understand and explain the necessity of trust and justice within the workplace***

1. One reason company care about ethical issues is that a firm's reputation is one of its most prized possessions 2. Reputations depend on many things, but one of the most important factors is trust 3. When employees perceive high levels of justice, they believe that decision outcomes are fair and that decision-making processes are designed and implemented in a fair manner 4. Justice concepts can be used to explain why employees judge some authorities to be more trustworthy that others 5. Trust is moderately correlated with task performance 6. Trust influences citizenship behavior and counterproductive behavior 7. Trust affects organizational commitment

Determine steps organizations can take to increase employee motivation.***

1. The most important area in which motivation concepts are applied in organizations is in the design of compensation systems 2. One way of judging the motivational impact of compensation plan elements provide difficult and specific goals for channeling work effort 3. Reward should match individual/unit /organization based 4. Apply to 3 theories and weaknesses and how to fix those areas a) Goal setting theory i. Setting specific and difficult goals a. Make sure it is not TOO difficult ii. Expectancy theory a. How do we have demotivating components of organization?

Explain how trust is related to justice

1. What employees need when it is often difficult to assess the ability, benevolence, and integrity of authorities, is some sort of behavioral evidence that an authority might be trustworthy 2. Justice provides that sort of behavioral evidence b/c authorities who treat employees more fairly are usually judged to be more trustworthy 3. When an authority adheres to the justice rules, those actions provide behavioral data that the authority might be trustworthy 4. Studies show that 4 justice forms have strong correlations with employee trust levels 5. All else being equal, employees trust authorities who allocate outcomes fairly; make decisions in a consistent, unbiased, and accurate way; and communicate decisions making details in a respectful, comprehensive, and honest manner 6. When employees perceive high levels of justice, they believe that decision outcomes are fair and that decision-making processes are designed and implemented in a fair manner 7. Justice concepts can be used to explain why employees judge some authorities to be more trustworthy than others

How challenge stressors affects organizational commitment

Challenge stressors have a moderate positive relationship with organizational commitment People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of Affective & normative commitment Although challenge stressors result in strains, which detract from performance and commitment, they also tend to trigger the type of positive emotions and problem-focused coping strategies that are characteristic of employees who are highly engaged in their jobs o The net benefits of these positive emotions, problem-focused coping strategies, and engagement outweigh the costs of the added strain, meaning that challenge stressors tend to be beneficial to employee performance and commitment when both the positives and negatives are considered

How challenge stressors affect job performance

Challenge stressors have a weak positive relationship with job performance People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of task performance Although challenge stressors result in strains, which detract from performance and commitment, they also tend to trigger the type of positive emotions and problem-focused coping strategies that are characteristic of employees who are highly engaged in their jobs o The net benefits of these positive emotions, problem-focused coping strategies, and engagement outweigh the costs of the added strain, meaning that challenge stressors tend to be beneficial to employee performance and commitment when both the positives and negatives are considered

How is job satisfaction related to organizational commitment?

Job satisfaction is strongly correlate with affective commitment, so satisfied employees are more likely to want to stay with the organization b) Another reason is that job satisfaction is strongly correlated with normative commitment i. Satisfied employees are more likely to feel an obligation to remain with their firm and a need to "repay" the organization for whatever it is that makes them so satisfied, whether good pay, interesting job tasks, or effective supervision c) Job satisfaction is uncorrelated with continuance commitment, because satisfaction does not create a cost-based need to remain with the organization d) In many cases, dissatisfied employees are the opens who sit daydreaming at their desks, come in late, are frequently absent, and eventually decide to quit their jobs

Motivation's effect on organizational commitment

Less is known about the effects of Motivation on Organizational Commitment 1. Research on equity and organizational commitment offers the clearest insights into the motivation-commitment relationship a) Employees who feel a sense of equity are more emotionally attached to their firms and feel a stronger sense of obligation to remain b) People who experience higher levels of equity tend to feel higher levels of Affective Commitment and higher levels of Normative Commitment

Motivation's effect on job performance

Motivation has a strong positive effect on Job Performance a) Thousands of studies support the relationships between the various motivating forces and task performance b) The motivating force with the strongest performance effect is self-efficacy/competence, b/c people who feel a sense of internal self-confidence tend to outperform those who doubt their capabilities c) Difficult goals are the second most powerful motivating force; people who receive such goals outperform the recipient of easy goals. d) The motivational force created by high levels of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy is the next most powerful motivational variable for task performance e) Employees who engage in more work-related effort would seem more likely to perform "extra mile" sorts of actions b/c those actions themselves require extra effort f) Employees who feel a sense of equity on the job are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors, particularly when those behaviors aid the organization i. The same employees are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors

One of the most critical factors that shape our expectancy for a particular task is:

Self-efficacy

How hindrance stressors affect job performance

a) Job Performance i. Reveals that hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship performance · Hindrance stressors result in strains and negative emotions that reduce the overall level of physical, cognitive, and emotional energy that people could otherwise bring to their job duties · Physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains in the form of illnesses, exhaustion, and drunkenness would detract from employee effectiveness in almost any job context o Additionally, these strains may be associated with negative emotions and thoughts that trigger counterproductive work behavior

How is job satisfaction related to job performance?

a) One reason is that job satisfaction is moderately correlated with task performance i. Satisfied employees do a better job of fulfilling the duties described in their job descriptions and evidence suggests that positive feelings foster creativity, improve problem solving and decision making, and enhance memory & recall of certain kinds of information ii. Positive feelings also improve task persistence & attract more help & support from colleagues iii. Positive feelings when working on job tasks can pull attention away from those distractions and channel people's attention to task accomplishment. When such concentration occurs, an employee is more focused on work at a given point in time b) Job satisfaction is also correlate moderately with citizenship behavior i. Satisfied employees engage in more frequent "extra mile" behaviors to help their coworkers and their organization ii. Positive feelings increase their desire to interact with others and often result in spontaneous acts of helping and other instances of good citizenship

Significance

degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, particularly people in the world at large

Primary Appraisal

evaluation of whether a demand is stressful and, if it is, the implications of the stressor in terms of personal goals and well-being -Is this stressful?

Trust propensity

general expectation that the words, promises and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon -Trust propensity is a product of both nature and nurture -The nation in which we live also affects our trust propensity

How hindrance stressors affects organizational commitment

i. Hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with organizational commitment · Hindrance stressors evoke strains, which are generally dissatisfying to people and satisfaction has a strong impact on the degree to which people feel committed to their organization · People who work at jobs that they know are causing them to feel constantly sick and exhausted will likely be dissatisfied with their jobs and feel less desire to stay with the organization and more desire to consider alternatives

Moderators of Goal Setting Theory

i. Moderators affect the strength of the relationships between variables · One moderator is feedback, which consists of updates on employee's progress toward goal attainment · Another moderator is task complexity, which reflects how complicated the information and actions involved in a task are, as well as how much the task changes · The final moderator is goal commitment, defined as the degree to which a person accepts a goal and is determined to try to reach it

Behavioral coping

involves the set of physical activities that are used to deal with a stressful situation

Cognition based trust

its rooted in a rational assessment of the authority's trustworthiness -Cognition based trust is driven by the authority's "track record"

Stress

psychological response to demands that possess certain stakes for the person and that tax or exceed the person's capacity or resources

Expectancy

represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task

Challenge Stressors

stressful demands that people tend to perceive as opportunities for learning, growth, and achievement

Ability

the skills, competencies, and areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area

Trust

the willingness to be vulnerable to a trustee based on positive expectations about the trustee's actions and intentions 1. Reputation depends on many things, but one of the most important factors is trust 2. Trust in authorities depends on two related concepts: justice & ethics

Why do specific & difficult goals have such positive effects

· First, the assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes peoples own self-set goals- the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress · Goals have another effect; they trigger the creation of task strategies- learning plans and problem-solving approaches used to achieve successful performance

Understand the bases for making a determination of trustworthiness; to be able to apply this to explain individual trustworthiness ***

· Packback on 3 types of workers · How we base our trust on affective, cognition, disposition trust. o We also judge cognition on integrity, benevolence, and ability.

Integrity

· the perception that the authority adheres to a set of values and principles that the trustor finds acceptable o When authorities have integrity, they are of sound character—they have good intentions and strong moral discipline o Integrity also conveys an alignment between words and deeds