Exam 2 History and Systems Psychology

Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916)

-Wrote hundreds of popular magazine articles and almost two dozen books • Interest in applied areas: clinical, industrial, and forensic psychology • Forensic psychology and eyewitness testimony: psychology and the law - Topics: crime prevention, hypnosis to question suspects; mental tests to detect guilty persons; the questionable trustworthiness of eyewitness testimony - APLS

pragmatism (William James)

. Believed that the modern society should rely on guidance on the test of scientific inquiry rather than on inherited ideas and moral principles. He was a key figure in the movement. The doctrine that the validity of idea is measured by their practical consequences - "anything is true if it works"

Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956)

Developed the "Stanford-Binet"intelligence test, which has become the standard in intelligence testing. He also adopted the term "intelligence quotient" (IQ) -- a number denoting a person's intelligence, determined by multiplying mental age by 100 and dividing by chronological age - though the compulation was originally developed by a German psychologist.

Psyche Cattell (1893-1989):

Developed the Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale - Daughter of James McKeen Cattell, who refused to support her college education because he thought she was not smart enough - Got her degree from Harvard, anyway - Became first single woman in US to adopt a child - Extended the age range of the Stanford-Binetdownward with her scale.

What is Animal Psychology?

antecedent to Watson's psychology - Influenced by Romanesand Morgan multidisciplinary field designed to study the behaviors and cognitive processes of non-human animals.

Applied Psychology

any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

Recapitulation theory

children in their personal development repeat the life history of the human race, evolving from infancy to childhood to a rational human being

Clinics for child evaluation: Cases

hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and poor speech and motor development

stream of consciousness

idea that consciousness is a continually flowing process and any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it - We can never experience the same thought or sensation more than once The mind is selective, filters - Emphasized the function and purpose of consciousness - Consciousness has biological utility: Help us adapt by allowing us to choose - Choice vs. habit

Anne Anastasi (1908-2001)

most prominent female psychologist in the English-speaking world Student of Harry Hollingworth - Wrote a popular textbook on psychological testing • Barriers for women in applied psychology - Less opportunity for visible success - No woman was elected president of the American Association of Applied Psychologists - Counseling psychology and other applied areas were belittled as "woman's work"

The Methods of Psychology

observation of sensory/perceptual phenomena

The Three Part-Self: Spiritual

our inner and subjective being

Samuel Butler

proposed that mechanical evolution is the struggle to create new machines and gain some competitive advantage - Obsolete machines disappear - Machines made greater evolutionary strides than animals - Predicted that machines would one day be able to simulate mental processes and intelligence • Older machines were already insufficient for the demands

The Three Part-Self: Social

recognition we get from others; we present different sides of ourselves to others

Jacques Loeb (1859 - 1924)

rejected anthropomorphism in favor of tropism, associative memory, German physiologist and zoologist - Tropism: Loeb's theory of animal behavior based on an involuntary forced movement • Does not require consciousness - Argued that animal consciousness was revealed by associative memory • Animals had learned to react to certain stimuli in a desirable way

What is the Mental age

the age at which children of average ability can perform certain tasks - Binetcoined the phrase and developed several tests to measure mental age

Watson promotes another change which is...

the philosophical tradition of objectivism and mechanism, animal psychology, and functional psychology - Received PhD from Angell -explicitly sought to overthrow structuralism and functionalism • Zeitgeist dominated by the objectivistic, mechanistic, and materialistic influences

Galton's Statistical Methods

Developed his own statistical methods in order to quantify and analyze data • Applied the normal curve to mental characteristics • Proposed that the mean and standard deviation was the most useful for describing data • Used correlation as a tool and graphed the correlation coefficient - Karl Pearson was his student!

Thelma Gwinn Thurstone

Developed the "Primary Mental Abilites" test battery, a group intelligence test.

The Chicago School

In addition to James, there were two other psychologists who (reluctantly) contributed to the "founding" of functionalism - John Dewey - James Rowland Angell - Both featured on covers of Time magazine • James later designated them the "Chicago School"

C. Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936)

Designated by Romanes to be his successor • Recognized the weaknesses in anecdotal and introspection-by analogy methods • Law of parsimony: the notion that animal behavior must not be attributed to a higher mental the process when it can be explained in terms of a lower mental process • Believed animal behavior should not be overestimated to higher mental processes

Ideas from Medicine and Engineering

Psychology uses language of medicine to persuade people that psychology was just as legitimate, scientific, and essential as the more established sciences. - Psychologists describe the people they test not as subjects but as patients.

Functionalism: The Final Form

Defined the subject matter of psychology as mental activity (i.e., memory, perception, feeling, imagination, judgment, and will)

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

"• believed intelligence was purely hereditary• developed a rudimentary intelligence test" Darwin's cousin! • Worked on mental inheritance and individual differences in human capacities • Example of the spirit of evolution on psychology • Similar research by Juan Huarte (1530-1592) - The book entitled: The Examination of Talented Individuals • Example of the influence of Zeitgeist - Wundt & Titchener did not consider the study of individual differences to be a legitimate part of psychology

What are the Three-Part Self

(James) Material, social, spiritual

Criticisms of Functionalism

-Inequality encourages the discovery of talent only for those who can afford to take advantage of the opportunities available to them. -Once people attain high-class standing, they can use their power to maintain their position and promote the interests of their families regardless of their children's talent - Came mostly from structuralism. • Consequences of the shift in emphasis from structure to function: - Research on animal behavior - Incorporated studies of infants, children, and people with mental disabilities - Supplemented the introspective method with data obtained from other methods (i.e., mental tests, questionnaires, and objective descriptions of behavior)

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

-Influenced U.S psychology towards a practical, test- oriented approach; met and influenced by Galton. -1st psychologist to teach statistics in courses and stressed the statistical analysis of results (Francis Galton's Influence) -Wanted society to give incentives to brightest and healthiest people to marry their own kind -Coined mental tests highly influenced by Galton (was his student) -Idea that mental intelligence could be measured in terms of sensory capacities -He became interested in psychology as a result of his experiences with drugs (He tried a variety of substances such as hashish, morphine, opium, caffeine, tobacco, and chocolate and found the results to be of both personal and professional interest. He recorded in a journal the effects of the drugs on his cognitive functioning) -Cattell promoted a practical, test oriented approach to the study of mental processes. His psychology was concerned with human abilities rather than the content of consciousness, and to this respect he comes close to being a functionalist. Cattell chose to conduct experiments on reaction time. Cattell and Francis Galton shared an interest in individual differences and Galton provided him with a scientific goal- the measurement of the psychological differences between people. -Under Galton's influence, Cattell became one of the first American psychologists to stress quantification, ranking, and ratings. He was also interested in Galton's work in eugenics. Cattell introduced the term mental tests in an article published in 1890. The kinds of tests he used differed from the intelligence or cognitive ability tests later developed, which measure more complex tasks. His tests, like Galton's, dealt primarily with elementary sensorimotor measurements, including dynamometer pressure,mate of movement, two point skin sensitivity threshold, just noticeable differences, etc. Cattell's strongest influence on psychology was through his work as an organizer and administrator of psychological science and practice, and as an articulate link between psychology and the greater scientific community. -He was also in favor of eugenics like Galton. He promised his 7 children that he would pay them each $1,000 if they would marry sons or daughters of college professors

Rats, ants, and the animal mind

1900: the rat maze is introduced as a standard method for the study of learning • Charles Henry Turner begins using the word "behavior" - Watson later adopted the term • 1910: eight comparative psychology laboratories had been established • Margaret Floy Washburn & The Animal Mind • The animal mind analogous to the human mind

How do psychologists aid the war effort?

APA president Robert Yerkes - Titchener excused himself - Psychological testing applied to the problem of assessing the level of intelligence of great numbers of recruits • To classify them and assign them suitable tasks - Grouped into Army Alpha and Army Beta (Beta is a is for non-Englishspeaking or illiterate people) - More than one million men were tested - Personality tests used when the army expressed interest in separating out neurotic recruits

Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955)

Advertising and human suggestibility: Scott argued that because consumers often do not act rationally, they can be easily influenced - Believed women were more suggestible than men - Direct commands - Coupons • Employee selection: Scott devised rating scales and group tests to measure the characteristics of people who were already successful in those occupations - Practical application of intelligence - Unconcerned about what test scores indicated about mental elements

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

British, developed a system of philosophy based on the theory of evolution, believed in the primacy of personal freedom and reasoned thinking. Sought to develop a system whereby all human endeavors could be explained rationally and scientifically.

The Impact of the World Wars: World War II

Brought psychologists into war work for testing, screening, and classifying recruits - Weapons of war more complex, requiring more skilled people to operate them • Need to identify people who can learn quickly - Increase in engineering psychology (human engineering, human factors engineering, or ergonomics)

Life of Stanley Hall

Clark University - Emphasized research - Established two more journals! - Brought attention to psychoanalysis in the US - Widespread influence - Readily admitted women as graduate students and junior faculty - Encouraged Japanese students to enroll - Refused to restrict the hiring of Jewish faculty - Encouraged Black students to become graduate students • Francis Cecil Sumner eventually became chair of psychology at Howard University • Also translated several thousand articles

The Effects of the Profession of Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology advanced slowly as a profession - Changed when the United States entered World War II in 1941 - Large numbers of draftees had severe anxieties, depression, antisocial demeanors, uncontrolled anger, and generally unstable psychic presentations - Army established training programs for hundreds of clinical psychologists to treat military personnel

LetaStetter Hollingworth(1886-1939)

Conducted extensive empirical research on the variability hypothesis • Studied with Thorndike • Her data refuted the variability hypothesis and other notions of female inferiority • Example: she found the menstrual cycle was not related to performance deficits • Challenged the concept of an innate instinct for motherhood • Featured in American Men of Science

The theory of emotions

Contradicted current thinking about the nature of emotional states - The arousal of the physical response precedes the appearance of the emotion - Later lead to the "James-Lange theory of emotions"

Hugo Münsterberg: Industrial psychology

Contributed to: vocational guidance, advertising, personnel management, mental testing, employee motivation, and the effects of fatigue and monotony on job performance - Redesign the workplace to reduce talking while on the job

Darwin and Animal Intelligence

Darwin was interested in animal emotions - Saw them as remnants of evolutionary past - Ex: Curling lips when sneering • Even Wundt was influenced by this trend! - Claimed that animals with minimal sensory capabilities must possess powers of judgment and conscious inference - Not LESS, but DIFFERENT, primarily due to training & education - Changed his tune over his career, though.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Dewey's most important work involves the reflex arc - Dewey argues that neither behavior nor conscious experience could be reduced to elements • Considered the "opening shot" against structuralism - Reflex forms a circle rather than an arc because the child's perception of the flame changes, thus serving a different function • Perception and movement (stimulus and response) must be considered as a unit - Behavior should not be treated as an artificial scientific construct - The subject matter of psychology had to be the study of the total organism and its functions in its environment

Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

Dissertation on space perception • Studied under Wundt at Leipzig (and lived next door to Fechner!) - Conducted his own research on the side • Interested in the application of psychology to education - Urged that child psychology be component of the teaching profession.

Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (1874-1947)

Doctoral dissertation was the first experimental test of the Darwinian notion that women were biologically inferior to men • Results showed no sex differences in emotional functioning and only small, insignificant differences in intellectual abilities • Attributed these differences to social and environmental factors (i.e., childrearing)

Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962)

Dynamic psychology (Motivology): Woodworth's system, which was concerned with the influence of causal factors and motivations on feelings and behavior - The stimulus is not the complete cause, the organism, with its varying energies and experiences, also determines the response - Psychology's subject matter must be both consciousness and behavior • Wanted to understand why people behave the way they do with an emphasis on underlying physiology - Introspection an important method - Viewpoint was constructed not out of protest but by extending, elaborating, and synthesizing what he considered to be appropriate features of other approaches

Applied Psychology in the U.S.: A National Mania

End of world wars: applied psychology becomes more respected profession - Academic psychology benefited from success of applied psychology during war years - People believed psychologists could fix and sell anything - Increasing demand to fix real -world problems - More popular than academic psychology

Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)

Engineer Henry Hollerith invents a new way of processing information. Hollerith's system far superior too expensive and timeconsuming hand-counting • System involves punching holes to indicate the demographics of the individual then having a machine count the holes totally census statistics • 1896 - The Tabulating Machine Company - Sold in 1911 The ComputingTabulating-Recording Company - Hollerith's company is today called IBM

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

Established first lab at Johns Hopkins - Psychophysiology lab - John Dewey - James Cattell • Established first American psychology journal, The American Journal of Psychology - Took him 5 years to pay back costs of printing the first issue • An extended tour of Europe before became president of Clark

Galton's Influence

Even though Galton was not a psychologist, his influence on American psychology was profound: - Adaptation - Heredity versus environment - Comparison of species - Child development - The questionnaire method - Statistical techniques - Individual differences - Mental tests.

Toward a Science of Behavior

Evolution of psychology from Wundt to functionalism

Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

First American doctoral degree in psychology - Claimed to be the first American a student in the first year of the first psychology lab (actually 2nd) - Began what is often considered to be the first psychology laboratory in the United States - Began the first American psychology journal - Was the first president of Clark University - One of the first applied psychologists - The first African American to earn Ph.D. in psychology studied with Hall at Clark • Francis Ceil Sumner

Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972)

First to receive I/O psychology PhD - Promoted time-and-motion analysis as a technique to improve efficiency in job performance - Filmed people on job to analyze movements - Discriminated against for being a woman in business and in publishing • L.M. Gilbreth instead of Lillian - Ideas applied to organization of the home • Example: the shelves on the inside of the refrigerator door - Image appeared on U.S. postage stamp - Raised 12 children! • Cheaper by the Dozen

Darwin's influence on psychology

Focus on animal psychology Emphasis on the functions rather than the structure of consciousness Acceptance of methodology and data from many fields Focus on the description and measurement of individual differences

Importance of the experimental method

For psychophysics, analysis of space perception, memory - Did not use it himself

Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955)

Former student of Wundt • The first person to apply psychology to personnel selection, management, and advertising • First professor of applied psychology • First psychologist to receive distinguished service medal from U.S. Army.

George John Romanes (1848-1894)

Friend of Darwin - Chosen by Darwin to carry on this the aspect of his work • Wrote the first book on comparative psychology: Animal Intelligence • Developed the "mental ladder" on which he ordered animals in terms of mental functioning • Method of anecdotal observations, termed introspection through analogy - Inferred mental functions • Credited animals with similar capacities as humans - Especially cats!

The "Founding" of Functionalism

Functionalism was not started intentionally • Began as a protest against the restrictions and limitations of Wundt's version of psychology and of Titchener's structuralism • No single form to functionalism - Several functional psychologies coexisted - A shared goal of studying the functions of consciousness • Emphasis on: - Mental functions: Applied to real -world problems - How people function in and adapt to, different environments • The rapid development of applied psychology in the US is most an important legacy of this movement • Paradoxically, formalized and named by Titchener in an article - gave the movement an identity.

Economic Influences on Applied Psychology

G. Stanley Hall: proposes psychology needs to make its influence felt outside of the university • Applied fields: - Education - Big business/Industry - Psychological testing - Criminal Justice - Mental health clinics

Galton's work on other ideas:

Galton researched the diversity of associations and the reaction time • Unconscious ideas traced back to childhood • Influenced Freud, who subscribed to the journal that published the data - Mental imagery: Galton used survey methods to determine that mental imagery also fits a normal curve • First extensive use of the psychological questionnaire - Arithmetic by smell and other topics: Galton's attempt to count by odors instead of numbers.

James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)

Grandfather was president of Brown University. Took torch of functionalism from Dewey when he left Chicago • Fifteenth president of APA • Gave functionalism focus and the stature of a formal school - But insisted it was not a separate school and did not want it to be exclusively associated with Chicago.

The Three Part-Self and Habit

Habit: influence of physiological influences - All living creatures are "bundles of habits" - Repetitive or habitual actions involve the nervous system and serve to increase the plasticity of neural matter.

Hans the wonder horse

Hans was a celebrity in Germany - Achievements inspired songs, magazine articles, and books - Was used for advertisements • Han's talents - Add and subtract; use fractions and decimals - Read; identify coins; play card games; spell - Recognize a variety of objects - Perform astonishing feats of memory

Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy

Herbert Spencer's idea that knowledge and experience can be explained in terms of evolutionary principles - Darwin respected him but didn't like him

The Psychologist's Fallacy

James' idea that only a psychologist would over think matters to such an extent that he would believe that the content of the mind is not needed to understand it, and that it could be analyzed into basic units. Things observed by a trained observer may be dependent on the observer doing the observing - People see what they want to see -they find what confirms their school of thought • Simple sensation does not exist in consciousness - Process of inference and abstraction

the theory of emotion

James-Lange theory: We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration, dryness of the mouth, etc. This theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of these, rather than being the cause of them.

Introspection must be a basic method

Less-than-perfect - Results could be verified by appropriate checks and by comparing the findings obtained from several observers.

The Impact of the World Wars: World War I

Monumental increase in the scope, popularity, and growth of industrial -organizational psychology - Scott evaluated the job qualifications of three million soldiers - Rating scale for selecting army captains based on Scott's tests of business leaders - Demonstrated psychology's worth

Clinics for child evaluation: Evaluation

Physical evaluation: Emotional and cognitive functioning could be affected by physical problems • Social workers gave a summary of family history: Genetic factors largely responsible for behavioral and cognitive disturbances • Later, Witmer realized that environmental factors were important - Advocated for the need for a variety of sensory experiences, anticipating enrichment programs to come.

What happened after the group testing was fulfilled and established in the US? (After the war)

Psychological testing gained public acceptance - The public education system in the United States was reorganized around the concept of the intelligence quotient - Many psychologists found gainful employment developing and applying psychological tests

Maude Merrill James

Revision of Stanford Binet Wrote with Lewis Terman the 1937 revision of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - Became known as the Terman-Merrill Test

Why did Herbert Spencer developed Social Darwinism and spread knowledge in America?

Social Darwinism is compatible with American values and individualistic spirit • Freedom from government oversight • Free enterprise, laissez-faire economic principles, capitalism • Self-sufficiency & individualism • Independence from government regulation - People of U.S. oriented toward the practical, the useful, and the functional

Metaphors from engineering:

Society = a bridge • Intelligence tests = tool preserving the strength of the bridge by detecting its weakest elements

Hall's single theme: Evolutionary theory

Sometimes called a genetic psychologist bc of interest in human and animal development and adaptation - Believed that the normal growth of the mind involved a series of evolutionary stages - Method: questionnaires • Developed a whopping 194!!! - The Adolescence book became controversial because of focus on sex • Lectures on sex - Senescence, a first large-scale survey of psychological issues of older age

Lightner Witmer(1867-1956)

Student of Cattell, Wundt, and Külpe - Titchenerwas one of his classmates • Began the field of clinical psychology - Started the world's first psychology clinic - Different from modern clinical psychology - Interested in assessing and treating learning and behavioral problems in schoolchildren • School psychology • Detested psychotherapy - Offered the first college course on clinical psychology - Started the first clinical psychology journal

Mary WhitonCalkins (1863-1930)

Student of James • Developed the paired-associate technique used in the study of memory • Became the first woman president of the APA • Contested the variability hypothesis • Was denied PhD by Harvard - Refused to accept PhD from Radcliffe College - Honorary degree from Columbia

racial differences in intelligence

Testing of immigrants at Ellis Island indicated that many were "mentally retarded" - Public wanted physicians to prevent "mentally retarded" people from entering US - Goddard administered English test with use of translator - Later, research showed that the test favored those familiar with English and the American culture • IQ testing showed Black people had a lower IQ than white people - Some thought this meant Black people were inherently less intelligent - Bias? - Later, evidence showed that IQ differences are environmental, not biological -reflect societal discrimination

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Textbook Psychology embodies the functionalist approach - Popular until it was eclipsed by James's Principles • Practical orientation: Applying psychology to educational and philosophical problems - Established laboratories in school - the cornerstone of the progressive education movement - First name parents, nudity at home • Brilliant, but not a good teacher

Social Darwinism

The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. The system of philosophy that brought Herbert Spencer acclaim - Premise: the development of all aspects of the universe is evolutionary, including human character and social institutions - Proposal: allow "survival of the fittest" to operate freely and let the characteristics, institutions, and people who are not fit to survive die out • The state should not interfere - Vastly popular in America

Francis Ceil Sumner

The first African American to earn Ph.D. in psychology studied with Hall at Clark. Francis Cecil Sumner eventually became chair of psychology at Howard University

The Variability Hypothesis

The notion that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women; the abilities of women are seen as more average. Proposed that the mental and physical abilities of women are seen as more average, tended to cluster around average - Espoused by Darwin and many influential scholars of the time - Men believed to be better able to adapt - Idea was supported by phrenologists -claimed that women were intellectually childlike due to smaller brains - Believed that women's brains were limited in their ability to support "higher mental processes" - Seen as an act against God and harmful to educate women in things besides being mothers and taking care of the home

James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)

The province of functional psychology: - Goal of psychology: study how the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment - Directly contrasted functional psychology to structural psychology - Three major themes of functionalist movement: • The psychology of mental operations (not elements) and under what conditions they occur • The psychology of the fundamental utilities of consciousness and how they mediate the needs of the organism • The psychology of psychophysical relations (mind-body relations) and the total relationship of the organism to its environment.

Galton proposes "Eugenics"

The science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics. Developed largely by Francis Galton as a method of improving the human race, it fell into disfavor only after the perversion of its doctrines by the Nazis. foster the improvement of inherited qualities in humans - Proposed the development of intelligence tests - Financial incentives for marrying and reproduction

Galton and mental testing

The term coined by Cattell, a disciple of Galton and student of Wundt • Galton assumed intelligence can be measured with motor capacity • Mental tests: tests of motor skill and sensory capacities (unlike intelligence tests) - Believed Locke's idea that all knowledge comes from sense so those with greatest intelligence would have keenest senses (his whistle) • Invented instruments to measure motor capacity

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Those individuals that are best adapted to the environment will survive and reproduce; those traits that help them, become more common in a species and maladaptive traits die out. This is called natural Selection.

Hugo Münsterberg: Psychotherapy

Treated patients in his lab using suggestion - Believed mental illness was really a behavioral maladjustment problem - Left the country to avoid Freud

Toward a Practical Psychology

Wundt's psychology not suited for American Zeitgeist • Structuralism evolved into functionalism • Study changes to not what the mind is but what it does • Move toward a practical psychology: Applied Psychology

comparative method

a research technique that compares existing official statistics and historical records across groups to test a theory about some social phenomenon. Discover meaningful variation across populations • Noted the major difference between structural and functional psychologies - The functionalist movement would not be restricted to a single method - Eclectic approach

Florence L. Goodenough

developed the Draw-A-Man Test

Alfred Binet(1857-1911)

developed the first truly psychological test of mental ability - Used more complex measures than those selected by Cattell - Disagreed with Galton and Cattell's approach - Believed that assessing cognitive functions would provide a more appropriate measure of intelligence • Found that these better discriminated among different ages - Assessed memory, attention, imagination, and comprehension

The Three Part-Self: Material

everything unique our own (i.e., clothes)

New psychology:

focused on only what could be seen, heard, or touched - Only observable stimulus and response - New emphasis ruled out introspection as a valid method - Rejected mentalisticconcepts such as image, sensation, mind, and (especially) consciousness -Watson claimed they were meaningless for a science of behavior

James McKeen Cattell

founded the psychological corporation in 1921, the first to apply psychology to business and industry, coined term "mental tests" work on mental tests embodied the American functionalist spirit

William James (1842-1910)

theories formed functionalism - mental processes helping individuals adapt to environment. The American precursor to functional psychology - Did not found functional psychology - Presented ideas that was pervading American psychology - Inspired yet did not train other psychologists - Criticized for his interests in mental telepathy, clairvoyance, spiritualism, communication with the dead at séances.

The function of mental activity:

to acquire, fixate, retain, organize, and evaluate experiences and to use these experiences to determine one's actions

individual differences

variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior

E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

§ Law of effect: Behavior will repeated more often if it is followed by good consequences and less often if it is followed by bad consequences research on problems of animal learning reinforced the functionalist trend toward greater objectivity

Darwin's life

•Lived 1809-1882 •Voyage of the *Beagle Island* 1831-1836 •Darwin became an accomplished *naturalist* •*Theory* formulated via *INDUCTION* •After formulating his theory, he spent much time trying to sort out flaws •Published the *Origin of Species* in 1859 (> 150 years ago) •The power and brilliance of Darwin's idea of *natural selection* is often underestimated •The idea was one of the most important, general, and powerful ideas in the history of thought