Exam 2 Infant and child development

How do infants integrate information from different senses?

"mulitmedia events" Nursing mother - visual and taste cues Rattle - visual, hearing, touch cues they can visually recognize an object they have touched before. Can detect relations between information presented visually and auditorily. Link own body to the music perception is easier for babies because they are not specialized yet. intersensory redundancy theory- anything presented with multiple senses will allow the child to understand and learn at a quicker rate.

What changes are observed in scanning and discrimination from the newborn to 12 months of age?

1 month: fixate on particular features; do not scan completely. 3-4 months: more complete scanning, exploration of internal features 4-6 months: increase in visual acuity and more complete scanning.

What are the characteristics of the three types of babies identified by Thomas and Chess?

1.) Easy baby 40% -even tempered, positive mood, open and adaptable to new experiences, habits are regular and predictable. 2.) difficult baby 10% -Active, irregular in daily habits, reacts negatively and vigorously to changes in routines. 3.) slow-to-warm-up baby 15% -inactive; moody, slow to adapt to new situations, responds to change with passive resistance.

What are the long-term consequences of secure and insecure attachment?

1.) predictable, responsive parenting is important. -early responsiveness leads to more secure infants -depression in mothers associated with less secure attachment. 2.) parents' responsiveness -parents responsiveness affect infant's internal working model. (expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness) 3.) babies -- temperamental differences -Difficult infants at greater risk for insecure attachment

What are the four patterns of attachment/insecurity and how are they identified from the Strange Situation? What types of parent-child interactions lead to the 4 different types of attachment?

1.) secure (60-65%) -upset when mother leaves -not consoled by strangers -happy when mother returns 2.) Insecure/Resistant (10-15%) -intensely distressed when mother leaves -distress mixed with rejection on return 3.) Insecure/Avoidant (20%) -Unconerned by mother's absence -showed little interest when she return 4.) Disorganized/Disoriented (5-10%) -shows mixture of other 2 types of insecure attachment behaiors -approach/avoidant conflict when mother returns -may act dazed and confused at mother's return continue slide march 1 slide 23

What differences are found in 6-month-olds' and 9-month-olds' ability to discriminate primate faces? What is the significance of these differences?

6 month olds are able to discriminate primate faces as well as human faces. 9 month olds are not able to discriminate between primate faces but able to discriminate against human faces. During the first year, the face processing system become "tunes to a humane template by 9 months, can no longer discriminate primate faces because of fine tuning as a result of experience and synaptic pruning.

What is ADHD and what is the best treatment for ADHD?

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder = problems with paying attention symptoms: hyperactivity, usually energetic, fidgety, and unable to keep still, inattention skip from one task to the other, and don't pay attention. impulsivity - act before they think. Stimulants- ritalin: stimulates part of the brain that normally inhibit hyperactivity and impulsive behavior, has a calming effect and allows them to focus their attention. best treatment: medication with psychosocial treatment.

Describe the development of achievement-related attributions. What are mastery-oriented attributions and learned helplessness. What is the difference between a growth mindset and a fixed mindset?

Attributions Common explanations of behavior Achievement-related attributions Explanations for success and failure Mindset Established set of attitudes held by someone How one interprets information regarding success and failure with respect to self Fixed or Growth

How accurate is infants' vision? Do infants perceive color?

Babies are able to respond to light and track moving objects. Limited focusing, Vision is blurred until 6 months. Newborns and one month olds see at 20 feet what normal adults see at 200-400 feet but improves very quickly and by age one. First few months, yes able to perceive color by 3 moths able to see full range of colors 3-4 months infants can perceive colors similar to adults.

What are basic emotions and when do they develop? How do basic emotions change with development?

Basic emotions emerge at birth. Those are pleasure and distress. during the 1st year of life, there are 8 basic emotions; joy, interest, surprise, anger, frustration, fear, sadness, disgust. at 2-4 months they learn social smiles 4-6 months they learn anger, sadness, frustration. 6-7 months fear is evident. especially fear of strangers. How do they change with development? Situations that elicit these emotions change due to experience and cognitive development.

How does Maturation theory explain motor development?

Development reflects the natural unfolding of a prearranged biological plan. Later research has shown that practice or lack thereof can speed up or delay the sequence. motor milestones notes by Gesell are used today to track motor development. Culturally and historically limited Ex. 1 month=chin up 1 month= chest up 6-7 month = sit alone 7-8 month = stand with help 12 month = walk alone

What are display rules and how do they develop?

Display rules, culturally specific standards for appropriate expressions of emotion in a particular setting or with a particular person or persons. ex. at a funeral it is appropriate to show sadness and not joy.

What do studies of Romanian orphans who were adopted at different ages tell us about whether there is a critical period for attachment?

Early adopted children more securely attached. Later adopted had ,pre abnormal social interactions, behavior problems. LA children adjusted mediated by parent/family characteristics. Evidence for a sensitive period.

In what ways does the environment contribute to child temperament?

Effects for parenting style. Children with different temperaments may elicit different environmental responses.

What evidence is there for genetic contributions to temperament, i.e., that temperament is biologically rooted?

Evidence for genetic contribution = identical twins more alike in temperament than fraternal twins. -Evidence for environmental influences = effects of parenting style, children with different temperaments may elicit different environmental responses. -Temperament-environment interaction = some children, those with DRD4 gene may be more susceptible to environmental influences due to their temperament.

Which aspects of Bowlby's theory have been supported by research and which have not?

Have -stages of attachment -internal working mnot critical) period -long-term effets Have not -early viewes: emphasized role of mother as provider of nourishment

When are babies able to smell and taste? When can they respond to touch and experience pain?

In the newborn stage- they smell pleasant things over non-pleasant things. Smile or frown. Also recognize to familiar smells like mothers perfume. They also have a highly developed sense of taste, know the difference between salty, sour, bitter, and sweet. Sensitive to changes in breastmilk due to changes in women's diet. They are sensitive to touch and responds reflexively when touched and also experience pain.

How does learning to walk affect social development?

Increased social interaction linked to onset of walking. Consistent with DST, achievement of motor milestones produces system-wide changes across many developing domains. DST = dynamic systems theory.

How well do infants hear? How do they use sounds to understand their world?

Infants are sensitive to sound, but they do not hear as well as adults. Infants can not hear some quiet sounds that adults can hear. Infants hear sounds that have pitches in the range of human speed. Able to differentiate sounds of vowels and sounds of consonants. 4 1/2 months they are able to recognize sound of their name, differentiate musical sounds, respond to much of the information provided by sound by the middle of first year.

How does the ability to recognize other people's emotions develop?

Infants first recognize mothers' emotions then other women and then fathers and other men. Social referencing emerges at 8-12 month. 5-6 year olds understand how to mask emotions with facial expressions. understand of simultaneous and ambivalent emotions emerges around 5-7 years.

Adoph argues that infants are "learning to learn" when developing locomotion skills. What does she mean and how her view different from the maturation view of motor development? Why does Adolph propose that there are 4 learning curves when infants are learning to use depth information?

Learning to sit, crawl, or walk, infants learn how to adapt to current biomechanial constraints. Interpretation of Visual Cliff Experiment -evidence of depth perception, not fear of heights What infants learn in one posture must be relearned in a new posture, taking into consideration the new constraints for the new posture.

What methods have been used to study self concept in infants and pre-verbal children?

Mirror self recognition- shopping cart test-

How does Dynamic Systems theory explain motor development?

Motor development involves many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet the demands of specific tasks. Differentiation - a complex skill must be separated into component parts that are each mastered Integration - combining them in proper sequence into a coherent, working as a whole to meet the demands of the specific tasks. ex. to reach for objects a infant must learn to move the hand to a specific location (visual guide and control arm movement) and coordinate fingers to grasp (taking into account size and shape of the object).

Describe developments in infants' perception of faces.

Newborns prefer faces with normal features instead of faces that are scrambled, they like upright instead of inverted, and attractive over ugly. Also able to imitate facial patterns. 6 weeks-3 months; prefer to look at normal (non scrambled) faces. 3-6 months: general prototype of a human face vs nonhuman face, distinct features on faces, detect emotion. by 9 months, they are using social referencing using another person's emotional reactions to guide one's own behavior. 1st year: fine-tune prototype of a fave so that it reflects faces that are familiar to their environment.

How do infants perceive object segregation?

They use different cues such as movements, color, texture, and edges to show evidence of object segregation. same texture = same object different texture = different object Infants ability to manipulate objects limited up to 4-6 months. When object manipulation was accelerated by the use of velcro mittens, 3- month old infants showed greater attention to objects.

Kelly et al. (2007) argued that the Other Race Effect (ORE) develops during infancy. How did they study this and what did they find?

ORE= difficulty in recognizing faces and reading emotion for members of another race. Discrimination of faces from different racial groups in 3-, 6-, and 9- moth old caucasian infants using habituation paradigm. Results: at 3 months, infants recognized adult faces from a variety of racial groups. by 9 moths, infants only recognized faces from their own racial group. Evidence for ORE at 9 moths.

Bar-Haim et al. (2006) studied infants' preferences for faces from different races. What did they find and how do their results contribute to our understanding of how the ORE develops?

Own-race processing bias found in infancy. Differential experience hypothesis -people tend to have more contact with faces from their own race and therefore develop expertise at recognizing own-race faces Infants from 3 groups with different degrees of contact with other races -caucasian israeli -african ethiopian -african israeli Show pairs of male or female faces including 1 white and 1 black. record infants gaze preferential looking. By training preschool children to recognize other race faces reduces their implicit racial bias.

Explain the role of culture and experience in the achievement of motor milestones. Consider effects of values placed on particular milestones, use of external supports (e.g., slings, walkers), and cultural views on sleep positions for babies.

Some cultures encourage early sitting walking by providing daily practice. Some cultures discourage craping and walking. "Piggyback" style of carrying promotes earlier sitting and walking. Balinese believe for the first 3-7 months, babies are divine and should not ever touch the ground. babies then are carried in a sling or on the hip never to learn to crawl. Babies were tested to see if using a walker helped speed up the walking milestone. Instead it prolonged the walking milestone and gave them a lover mental score. Why? /walkers supported babies' weight...but interfered with the process of "learning how to learn"

What do the results of the study by Johnson et al. (2007) described in lecture tell us about the development of internal working models of attachment?

That insecure children tend to look longer at the photo that represents the responsive parent and vice versa for the secure child. Shows internal working models in infants from 12-16 months.

Describe the development of depth perception in infancy; explain the importance of size constancy, and the visual cliff experiment. Does the visual cliff experiment test for depth perception or fear of heights or both (and why)?

There are a lot of different cues used to estimate depth (distance) Able to perceive depth when they are ready to crawl. young babies are able to detect that there is a difference between a deep side and a shallow side about 7 months they will be afraid of the deep side. babies learn to interpret the depth information, depth perception develops as a result of discrimination of visual cues an experience with locomotion. size constance = an objects actual size remains the same despite changes in the size of its retinal image. visual cliff = is a glass-covered platform, one side a pattern appears directly under the glass but the other appears several feet below. Most babies willingly crawl to their mothers when she stands on the shallow side but refuse to cross the deep side.

How does attention improve as children grow older?

There is a well developed network that is associated with selection at infancy (tells a baby what to respond to and what too ignore (turn head)) Alerting network -keeps an infant aware and ready to respond to stimulus - hear footsteps become aware) executive network which is responsible for monitoring thoughts, feels and responses as well resolving conflicts.

How does experience contribute to the development of the ORE according to the article by Lee et al. (2017)?

They would show infants two people one of their race and one of another and found out with age, infants would take more time looking at their own race (to experience the full aspect of what they see most often to learn the most) and would take less time on the other race face (mainly because they don't see them as often there is no need to study their facial features). With experience, infants process more visual information, make more fine-grained discriminations, and interpret more information. -Perception becomes fine-tunes; infants lose the ability to discriminate all kinds of faces, but get more information from human faces. Fine-tuning due to experience also explains the other race effect.

Describe different methods for studying infant perception.

Visual Preference/Preferential Looking = The baby is presented with 2 stimuli (sweet/sour taste or high/low pitch) if they respond differently between the two then they know the difference and would prefer one more than the other. Habituation = repeated exposure to the same or similar stimuli. Dishabituation = Responding to an old stimulus as if it was new again. Babies will look longer at the stimulus if a new stimulus is presented with the old stimulus and they look at the new one then they were able to differentiate between the two. Operant Conditioning = Infants learn relationships between their own behavior (sucking, urning head) and a reward. Also want to prolong behavior for a desired event. EEG Recording = Recording of the brain activity during perception. Is able to tell when a discrimination is made by activating different areas of the brain.

Explain the goodness-of-fit model of the relationship between temperament and environment. How does this concept apply to research by Stephen Suomi?

Whether or not temperamental patterns persist depends on the goodness of fit between child's temperament and parental childrearing. Relationship between child temperament and parenting in development of anxiety and depression. -studied relationship between child effortful control and parenting style. -3 year longitudinal study beginning when children were 9 years old.

According to Brummelman et al. (2014), how does praise from adults affect children's self esteem?

Why can't we raise children's self-esteem by telling them how incredibly amazing they are? for children with low-esteem, inflated praise. -increases pressure to perform at exceptional levels -decreases challenge seeking

What are complex emotions and when do they develop? How are complex emotions related to the development of self-concept?

about 18-24 months, embarrassment, pride, guilt and shame start to develop. Depend on a concept of self and ability to evaluate self in relation to adult standards. Self conscious emotions displayed after child show awareness of self (mirror recognition test)

When do infants discriminate the visual cues needed for depth perception?

at 1 1/2 months they start to understand the differences but not until they are at 7 months they actually act upon the depth. Kinetic cues- motion is used to estimate depth. (1 month) Visual Expansion-refers to the fact that as an object moves closer, it fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina. (1 month) motion parallax- refers to the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than those at a distance. (1 month) Retinal disparity- is based on the fact that the left and right eyes often see slightly different vresions of the same scene. (4 months). Pictorial Cues- (6-7 months) infants use several sues for depth that depend on the arrangements of objects in the environment.

What are the characteristics of attachment and how does it develop, according to the ethological theory of attachment (Bowlby).

attachment is a life-long emotional bond that begins in infancy and provides the basis relationships. Characteristics -Child enjoys contact with parents -tries to remain close (proximity seeking) -Protests when seperated (spereation anxiety) -may be wary of stranger (stranger anxiety) -comforted by parents' presence (secure base) Growth '-preattachment: birth to 6-8 weeks -attachment in the making:eeks to 6-8 months -True attachment: 6-8 months to 18 months -Reciprocal relationships: 18 months +

How is self concept and self esteem measured in preschool and school-aged children (ages 3-12)?

define self in terms of concrete dimensions: -possessions -physical characteristics -preferences -competencies

What is emotional self-regulation and how does it develop during childhood? Why is this important?

emotional self regulation is a form of self-control influenced by age, cognitive development, temperament. Begins in infancy; infants will look away when they encounter something frightening or confusing. With age, children develop more effective strategies. (mental strategies). Children who don;t regulate their emotions tend to have problems.

Explain ways in which culture affects emotional development.

in many asian countries outwards displays of emotion are discouraged in favor of emotional restraint. Cultures also differ in the events that trigger emotions, particularly complex emotions. Situations that evoke pride in one culture may evoke embarrassment or shame in another. U.s. kids show pride at personal achievement whereas asian children are embarrassed by a public display of individual achievement but show great pride when their entire class is honored for an achievement.

How does self-esteem change with age?

preschool years -inflated sense of self-worth -may reflect desires rather than genuine self-appraisals older elementary -increasingly differentiated, accurate, and relatively stable sense of self -overall sense of self worth includes scholastic, athletic, social and physical senses of self.

Describe the development of self-concept in preschool children and school-age children - what dimensions are evident at different ages?

school age is more social, emotional, academic, and physical. They also compare themselves to peers, social comparison.

What is temperament and how has it been studied (i.e., what dimensions are included) by Thomas and Chess and by Rothbart?

temperament is constitutionally based-individual differences in emotional, motor and attentional reactivity and self regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations as well as relative stability over time. T+C studied 9 behaviors which identified 3 types of infants. (activity level, approach or withdrawal, rhythmicity, adaptability, threshold or responsiveness, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, distractibility, attention span and persistence.) 1.) Easy baby 40% -even tempered, positive mood, open and adaptable to new experiences, habits are regular and predictable. 2.) difficult baby 10% -Active, irregular in daily habits, reacts negatively and vigorously to changes in routines. 3.) slow-to-warm-up baby 15% -inactive; moody, slow to adapt to new situations, responds to change with passive resistance. Rothbart 3 basic demensions. -Surgency/extraversion = extent to which child happy, active, vocal and seeks interesting stimulation. -Negative affect = extent to which child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy -Effortful control = extent to which child can focus attention, is not easily distracted, and can inhibit responses.