Exam #2
6.3 Leonie J. Archer - "In Thy Blood Live": Gender and Ritual in the Judeo-Chrsitian Tradition
Blood holds significant symbolic and ritualistic importance in the Jewish belief system. Blood was used for sacrificial rituals, (male animals were used for important rituals and female animal sacrifices were used for less important peace offerings). In certain ceremonies, blood or sacrificial practices involving blood were used to purify individuals or objects that were considered impure. These rituals were aimed at restoring spiritual and ritual purity. It is believed that through circumcision, Jewish males are marked as part of the chosen people and are bound to follow the commandments and obligations set forth by God.
8.1 Walter B. Cannon - "Voodoo" Death
Cannon explores the phenomenon of psychosomatic illness and death, particularly in the context of cultural beliefs and practices. He argues that intense fear, anxiety, and cultural beliefs can have a profound impact on an individual's health and can even lead to fatal outcomes, and he discusses the neurophysiological mechanisms behind these phenomena. Cannon's work sheds light on the intricate interplay between mind, body, and culture in the realm of psychosomatic illnesses. "Voodoo Death" refers to a phenomenon where intense fear, anxiety, and cultural beliefs can lead to a rapid and fatal deterioration in a person's health.
6.1 Napoleon A. Chagnon - My Adventure with Ebene: A "Religious Experience"
Christian missionaries pursue to convert indigenous people to Christianity. Chagnon witnessed a culture in danger of being washed away. A particular Protestant Missionary moved in the village and maintained a 'field station" and the Protestant leader of the missionary tried horrible tactics to wash away the indigenous culture and convert them into Christians. He would try to scare them and forbade shamans from doing their rituals. Catholic Missions were focused on "cleaning" the "savage" ways by focusing their indoctrination on children. By doing that they built boarding schools for the indigenous children. It went as far as kidnapping the children from the villages. It caused a disruption in the community and the people were lost, it was either give in or suffer the consequences.
Chapter 9: Gender & Sexuality
- Gender roles in religion - Sexuality and fertility - Beyond the binary
Chapter 8: Death
Death is a human universal, we know that death is inevitable. Individual death is usually the ultimate misfortune. Hertz proposed that death should be regarded as a construct made by society, because death was open to different definitions in different societies. Society cannot literally restore life to the corpse, but it can so symbolically by performing rituals.
7.2 E. E. Evans-Pritchard - Men Bewitch Others When They Hate Them
Evans-Pritchard documented the Azande belief in witchcraft and how they attribute misfortune, illness, and death to the actions of witches. He emphasized that the Azande do not necessarily view witchcraft as malevolent by nature. Instead, they believe that individuals can unknowingly possess witchcraft powers and use them unintentionally. However, when someone bears ill will or hatred toward another person, they might consciously or unconsciously use their witchcraft powers to harm that person. This is where the statement, "Men bewitch others when they hate them," might come from.
7.1 James G. Frazer - Sympathetic Magic
Frazer discussed the concept of sympathetic magic, which can be summarized in two main types: sympathetic magic based on similarity (similarity magic) and sympathetic magic based on contact or contagion (contagious magic). Homeopathic Magic (Law of Similarity): - This form of sympathetic magic is built on the principle that like produces like. It involves the belief that by imitating or mimicking a desired outcome, a person can influence the real event. Frazer suggested that this type of magic was rooted in the idea that the universe operated under certain laws of similarity, and by manipulating these similarities, people could control natural forces. Contagious Magic (Law of Contact) - Contagious magic is based on the idea that things that have once been in contact continue to exert influence on each other even after they are separated. This belief underlies practices such as voodoo dolls and the use of personal items, like hair or fingernails, for magical purposes. If you wanted to harm someone, you might use a part of their body to create a connection and then manipulate that connection to harm them. Frazer argues that these practices are a fundamental part of human cultural evolution, and they reveal the development of religious and magical thought. In his opinion, magic has a lot more in common with science then with religion. Magicians, like scientists, attempt to manipulate the laws of nature to achieve his ends.
7.3 George Gmelch - Baseball Magic
Gmelch explores the mystical rituals and superstitions in the world of baseball. He explores the beliefs and practices that players, coaches, and fans adhere to in their quest to win a game. Gmelch draws parallels between the superstitions of baseball players and the rituals of the Trobrianders, highlighting the universal human tendency to seek comfort and control through symbolic actions, whether on a tribal island or a baseball diamond. - Superstitions and Rituals: Gmelch reveals that baseball players, like many athletes, engage in a wide range of superstitions and rituals. These can include wearing lucky charms, following specific routines, and repeating certain actions to ensure success. - Magical Thinking: He highlights the prevalence of magical thinking in baseball. Players often believe that their actions, thoughts, or objects can have a direct impact on their performance. For example, stepping on the foul line when entering or exiting the field is considered bad luck, and many players avoid it. - Team Cohesion: Rituals and superstitions can also serve to bond teammates and create a sense of unity. Shared rituals and beliefs can help build team cohesion and camaraderie. - Psychological Comfort: Gmelch discusses how these rituals provide psychological comfort to players in a highly uncertain and pressure-filled environment. By performing these actions, players feel a sense of control over the game's outcome, even though they may have little influence on the actual outcome. - Adaptation to Stress: This suggests that baseball magic serves as a coping mechanism for dealing with the stress and unpredictability of the sport. Players engage in these rituals to reduce anxiety and gain a sense of predictability.
8.3 David Hicks - Making the King Divine: A Case Study in Ritual Regicide from Timor
Hicks highlights the importance of sacred kingship and the role of rulers in Timorese society, where they are believed to be divine figures with significant authority. In Timor, sacred kings were believed to have a divine connection, and their rule was seen as essential for the well-being of the community. However, their divinity was also believed to be precarious and required various rituals to maintain. - Regicide Rituals: The killing of a sacred king. These rituals were carried out to ensure that the ruler's divine essence would be transferred to his successor, thereby maintaining the order in the society. Timorese society believed in the immortality of the sacred king. This belief in the king's transcendence was tied to the need for a continuous divine ruler to maintain harmony in the community. The killing of a sacred king was seen as a transformative event that reshaped the understanding of kingship in Timorese society. The regicide rituals marked the transition from one ruler to the next, continuing the divine lineage. These rituals were not acts of rebellion but rather deeply rooted practices that maintained the order and balance in the society. - Regicide Process: - Preparation: Ritual specialists, priests, and other members of the community would prepare for the event by collecting necessary materials, conducting divination, and coordinating the activities. - Selection of the Successor: The community would identify and select a successor who would take over as the new sacred king after the current ruler's death. - Final Audience with the King: The outgoing king would have a final audience with his subjects, including family members, advisors, and community members. - Sacrifice Ritual: The actual killing of the sacred king. The ritual specialists would typically perform the act, and the king's death was seen as a sacrificial offering. - Transference of Divine Essence: Following the death of the king, the ritual specialists would perform ceremonies to transfer the ruler's divine essence to the designated successor. - Rituals for the Departed King: After the king's death, there were typically rituals and ceremonies to honor the deceased ruler. These rituals might involve offerings
Chapter 7: Magic & Witchcraft
Magic is believed to be a contrast to religion and an individual phenomenon according to Durkheim. Magic tends to be more ritualistic than ideological. Frazer dismissed magic as nothing more than a failed science. Magic had psychological functions and its rituals served as a way to communicate. Good Magic works for the improvement of society, like rituals to insure safety. Bad Magic, which is sometimes known as sorcery, strives to bring harm to society, like causing an innocent person to become ill. However, Death-dealing is not necessarily bad because the execution of a "killer witch" is regarded as morally justified. Magicians do not rely upon ritual alone to bring about the desired ends, they include practical activities that bring the result, according to Tylor. Witchcraft operates more as psychologically satisfying response to the mishaps of life rather than offering a set of dogmas seeking to interpret the human experience. But can also function as a force for social control, like accusing deviant behavior to be witchcraft.
8.2 Peter Metcalf & Richard Huntington - Symbolic Associations of Death
Metcalf and Huntington emphasize that the symbolism of death varies significantly from one culture to another. While death is a universal human experience, its meaning and the symbols associated with it differ widely across societies. They argue that the symbolism of death is influenced by a society's values, beliefs, and social structures. They illustrate how different societies symbolically represent death, like rituals, ceremonies, funerary practices, and artistic expressions associated with death. They discuss the diverse symbolic associations of death, such as the idea of a journey to the afterlife, the concept of rebirth or reincarnation, and the imagery of death as a passage or a rite of passage. They explore how the symbolic associations of death serve various social and psychological functions within cultures. These functions can include providing comfort, offering explanations for the unknown, reinforcing social norms, and helping individuals cope with the existential mysteries of life and death. They emphasize that the symbolic associations of death often highlight the interconnectedness of life and death, illustrating that one's existence is part of a broader cosmic or something mystical. This shows the importance of recognizing the rich tapestry of meanings associated with death across different cultures.
9.2 Serena Nanda - The Hijras of India: Cultural and Individual Dimensions of an Institutionalized Third Gender Role
Nanda explores the concept of hijras in India, a distinct cultural category of individuals who do not fit into the traditional binary gender roles of male or female. The hijras represent a "third gender" in India and have unique cultural and social roles. Nanda introduces the concept of hijras as individuals who are biologically male but do not identify as men or women and are recognized as a third gender category. Hijras have a long history in Indian society, often linked to religious and cultural practices. Traditionally, hijras have been associated with blessings and curses, and they often perform at birth and marriage ceremonies. They also have roles in certain religious practices. Despite their cultural significance, hijras often face social marginalization and discrimination in contemporary Indian society. They are often excluded from mainstream employment and educational opportunities. Nanda emphasizes the importance of understanding hijras from both cultural and individual perspectives.
Chapter 6: Body & Mind
Societies exploit the body as the basis for symbolization. Examples: - Left Hand and Right Hand symbolizing oppositions such as moral notions, (bad/good). - Blood used in rituals and symbolizing pollution, death or fertility. - Human Sacrifice being an offering to the gods.
9.3 Stanislav Andresky - The Syphilitic Shock
The Great Witch Craze, which occurred primarily in Europe during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, represents a dark and fascinating chapter in history. This period was marked by widespread paranoia and persecution of individuals, mostly women, who were accused of practicing witchcraft. Stanislav Andresky had two theories to this "craze" happening, one being that more females were accused of being witches and the other being the rise of syphilis from the continent of America. The rapid spread of the disease led to lots of anxiety and uncertainty during a time when superstitions and fear of the unknown were prevalent. As syphilis cases increased, some people may have thought the disease to be a supernatural cause, believing that it was a punishment from the devil or a result of witchcraft.
9.1 Eric R. Wolf - The Virgin of Guadalupe: A Mexican National Symbol
The Virgin of Guadalupe is a central figure in Mexican Catholicism and plays a crucial role in the country's cultural identity. According to Catholic tradition, the Virgin Mary appeared to Juan Diego, an indigenous Mexican, in 1531. This event is considered a cornerstone of Mexican Catholicism. She is an example of indigenous cultures and the Catholic faith merging, as her appearance and iconography incorporate elements that resonate with indigenous beliefs. She is considered both a religious and a patriotic figure, and her image has been central to the development of a Mexican national identity. Additionally, gender plays a significant role in the Virgin of Guadalupe's story. Her story highlights the importance of the indigenous woman and their place in society. She is seen as a maternal figure, emphasizing the nurturing and caring aspects of femininity, and showing inclusive gender roles.
6.2 Beth A. Conklin - "Thus Are Our Bodies, Thus Was Our Custom": Mortuary Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society
The Wari' Society practiced mortuary cannibalism, which is the practice of consuming the remains of deceased individuals. They believed that by consuming the remains of the deceased, they could absorb the spiritual essence and qualities of the departed individuals. This act of ingestion was seen as a way to maintain a spiritual connection with their ancestors, ensuring their continued presence within the community. They also believed that if the body of a deceased person was not consumed, their spirit might become vengeful and harm the living.
