Exam 3 - Adolescent Development
Discuss the research looking at adolescents' adjustment in divorced families (Look specifically at Hetherington's research. )
-25% of children from divorced families had emotional problems but that decreased to 20% in emerging adulthood. -Characterized by impulsive, irresponsible, antisocial behavior, or were depressed. Toward the end of emerging adulthood, this troubled group was having problems at work and difficulties in romantic relationships. -Adolescents and emerging adults in divorced families are more likely than adolescents from non-divorced families to have academic problems, to show externalized problems (acting out and delinquency), and internalized problems( anxiety and depression), to be less socially responsible, to have less competent intimate relationships, to drop out of school, to become sexually active at an earlier age, to take drugs, to associate with antisocial peers, to have lower self esteem
Describe the research on negative peer relations
-A recent study revealed that of the various types of negative interpersonal event encountered by adolescents, including those involving parents, teacher, and peers, negative peer events were more likely to account for maintaining depressive symptoms across a two-year period in early adolescence. -Another recent study found that college students with risky social networks (friends who drink, for example) were ten times more likely to engage in heavy drinking -.One study also revealed that having friends who engage in delinquent behavior is associated with early onset and more persistent delinquency.
Why does authoritative parenting result in the most socially competent adolescents?
-Adolescents are self-reliant and socially responsible -They establish an appropriate balance between control and autonomy = gives adolescents independence while providing standards and guidance -Authoritative parents are more likely to engage adolescents in verbal give-and-take and allow adolescents to express their own views. This type of family discussion is likely to help adolescents to understand social relationships and the requirements for being a socially competent person -The warmth and parental involvement provided by authoritative parents make the adolescent more receptive to parental influence.
Give an example of Albert Banduras social cognitive theory of moral development
-Competence: adolescents capabilities, what they know, thoughts, skills and awareness of morality and their cognitive ability to construct moral behaviors. -Moral performance: usually determined by the amount of motivation or incentive they have to act morally. balance of rewards they receive.
Direct and indirect effects of reciprocal socialization
-Direct effects: The influence of the parent's behavior on the adolescent -Indirect effects: How the relationship between the spouses mediates the way a parent acts toward the adolescent.
Kohlbergs level 2: Conventional Reasoning (stages 3 and 4)
-Intermediate internalization -Stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity -Stage 4: Social system morality---Moral judgements are based on understanding and the social order, law, justice, and duty.
How do psychologically healthy and unhealthy families vary in their responses to autonomy demands as adolescents get older?
-Psychologically healthy families adjust to adolescents' push for independence by treating the adolescents in more adult ways and including them more often in family decision making. -Psychologically unhealthy families often remain locked into power-oriented parental control, and parents move even more heavily toward and authoritarian posture in their relationships with their adolescents. -Battle between adolescent wanting autonomy and parents taking further control -Parents become frustrated because they expect adolescents to follow their advice
Describe Sullivan's ideas about intimacy in friend relationships. Are his ideas withstanding the test of time (explain)?
1) Argues that the need for intimacy intensifies during early adolescence, motivating teenagers to seek out close friends. If adolescents fail to forge such close friendships, they experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth. 2) Ideas have withstood time.Ex: adolescents report disclosing intimate and personal information to their friends more often than do younger children. Adolescents also say they depend more on friends than on parents to satisfy their needs for companionship, reassurance of worth, and intimacy.
Explain how religion has been shown to have positive influences in adolescent's lives.
1). A recent study revealed that a higher level of church engagement was related to higher grades for male adolescents. 2) Churchgoing may benefit students because religious communities encourage socially acceptable behavior, which include doing well in school. Churchgoing also may benefit students because churches often offer positive role models for students. 3) Religion plays a role in adolescents' health and whether they engage in problem behaviors. In a study, 11-18 year olds, those who were higher in religiosity were less likely to smoke, drink alcohol, use marijuana, be truant from school, engage in delinquent activities, and be depressed than were their low religiosity.
the three different styles of insecure attachment and what it looks like when an adolescent has each style.
1. Dismissing/avoidant attachment- Is an insecure category in which individuals deemphasized the importance of attachment. This category is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregiver. One possible outcome of dismissing/avoidant attachment is that parents and adolescents mutually distance themselves from each other, a state that lessons parents' influence 2. Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment-Is an insecure category in which adolescents are hyperattuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to mainly occur because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent. This state can result in a high degree of attachment-seeking behavior, mixed with angry feelings. Conflict between parents and adolescents in this type of attachment classification can be too high for healthy development. 3. Unresolved/disorganized attachment-Is an insecure category in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and might be disoriented. This can result from traumatic experiences such as a parent's death or abuse by parents.
Kohlbergs three levels of moral reasoning
1. Preconventional moral reasoning 2. Conventional moral reasoning 3. Postconventional moral reasoning
Explain the three stages of the development of heterosexual romantic relationships
1.) Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age 2.) Exploring romantic relationships at 14 to 16 years of age 3.) Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds 17-19 years of age
Explain two or three of the ethnic variations in families across different cultures, as described in the textbook.
1.) Large and extended families are more common among ethnic minority groups than among non-Latino White Americans. 2.)Single parent families are more common among African Americans and Latinos than among non-Latino White Americans. 3.) A sense of family duty and obligation also varies across ethnic groups.
Several criticisms of Kohlberg's theory (at least 5)
1.) Moral thought and behavior : placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior. Researchers find that less advanced moral reasoning in adolescence is related to antisocial behavior and delinquency. Another study said that moral reasoning is related to self reported altruism. 2.) Moral thinking : conscious/deliberative versus unconscious/automatic. Haidt argues that his theory incorrectly says that moral thinking is deliberative and that individuals go around all the time contemplating and reasoning about morality 3.)The role of emotion Kohlberg says emotion has negative effects on moral reasoning. Evidence shows the emotions play an important role in moral thinking. Researches found that people who have damage in a certain part of the brain lose the integration of emotion into moral judgment. Losing their emotion they have a lessened ability to make moral decisions. Other research says moral deacons are linked to the intensity and activation of emotions In the same part of the brain. 4.) Culture and moral development Some critics say his stages are culturally based and not universal like he claims. Both may be partially correct. One study across 27 cultures found it was universal. Other studies have shown differences in delayed moral judgement of delinquent adolescents 5.)Families and moral development: Most researchers claim that parents play a larger role in adolescents development than Kohlberg argued. He said they play little role and peers are more significant. Parents discipline, communication and other parts influence a Childs moral development. peers are also important 6) GENDER AND THE CARE PERSPECTIVE: Gilligan says his work reflects a gender bias. His theory is based on male norm and puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others. She says that he claims individuals stand alone and make moral decisions independently. Gilligan argues for a care perspective than a justice perspective. View peoples connectedness, and relationships and concerns for others. Most of Kohlbergs research was with males. Research shows girls will make moral decisions based on human relationships and observing others. 7) ASSESSMENT OF MORAL REASONING: more attention should be put towards the way moral development is assessed. alternative methods should be used instead of just one. kohl bergs responses are also very hard to score. Rest developed his own measure of moral development.
Cheating
Academic cheating can take many forms including plagiarism, using "cheat sheets" during an exam, copying from a neighbor during a test, purchasing papers, ad falsifying lab results. Students may cheat with the pressure to get high grades, time pressures, poor teaching, and lack of interest.
Describe the research on peer pressure
Adolescents are more likely to conform to peers when they are uncertain about their social identity, which can appear in the form of low self-esteem and high social anxiety, are most likely to conform to peers. This uncertainty often increases during times of transition at a new school or at home. Also, adolescents are more likely to conform when they are in the presence of someone they perceive to have higher status than they do.
Discuss Huffman's conclusions regarding effectiveness of each type of parental discipline. What does research say about this?
Any discipline produces emotional arousal in the child. -Hoffman says to use induction. Research found induction to be most effective. works best for adolescents and older children(can understand better). and better with middle Socioeconomic status (society moral standards are more common). Another study found that adolescents reported induction and disappointment to be most effective. also linked to higher moral identity.
A sense of family duty and obligation also varies across ethnic groups
Asian American and Latino families place a greater emphasis on family duty and obligation than do non-Latino White families. Researchers have found that more Asian American and Latino adolescents believe that they should spend time taking care of their siblings, helping around the house, assisting their parents at work, and being with their families than do adolescents with a European heritage.
Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age
At the end of the high school years, more serious romantic relationships develop. This stage is characterized by strong emotional bonds more closely resembling those in adult romantic relationships. These Bonds often are more stable and enduring than earlier bonds, typically lasting one year or more.
Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age
At this point in adolescence, casual dating and dating in groups- two types of romantic involvement-- occur. Casual dating emerges between individuals who are mutually attracted. These dating experiences are often short-lived, last a few months at best, and usually endure for only a few weeks. Dating in groups is common and reflects embedded ness in the peer context. A friend often acts as a third-party facilitator of a potential dating relationship by communicating their friend's romantic interest and determining whether this attracting is reciprocated.
Emotional quality of relationship
Both intensely positive and intensely negative emotions are often expressed by siblings toward each other. Many children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward siblings.
Explain several ways gender influences friendships (Interaction in same-sex group)
Boys are more often likely than girls to engage in competition, conflict, ego displays, and risk taking and to seek dominance. By contrast, girls are more likely to engage in "collaborative discourse" in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner
How are friendships developmental advantages? Give examples.
Companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, intimacy/affection
Describe the social cognitive theory of moral development. Give an example.
Constructed by Albert Bandura. The social cognitive theory of moral development emphasizes a distinction between adolescents moral competence (the ability to produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (the enactment of those behaviors in specific situations).
Character education
Direct moral education approach that involves teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior or doing to themselves or others. Every school should have an explicit moral code that is clearly communicated to students. Any violations of the code should be met with sanctions. Instruction in specified moral concepts, such as cheating, can take the form of example and definition, class discussions and role playing, or rewarding students for proper behavior.
How does Frued's divisions of superego affect moral feelings?
Ego ideal rewards the individual by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the individual acts according to the moral standards. Conscience punishes the individual for acting immorally by making the individual feel guilty and worthless.
Explain three important characteristics of sibling relationships.
Emotional quality of relationship, familiarity and intimacy of the relationship, variation in sibling relationships
Authoritative parenting style
Encourage independence but sets limits and appropiate controls; verbal give and take, warm and nurturing. Adolescents are more self reliant, socially responsible, and socially competent.
Large and extended families are more common among ethnic minority groups than among non-Latino White Americans.
For example, more than 30 percent of Latino families consist of five or more individuals, African Americans and Latino children interact more with grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant relatives than do non-Latino White American children
How are friendships developmental advantages (Companionship)
Friendship provides adolescents with a familiar partner, someone who is willing to spend time with them and join in collaborative activities
How are friendships developmental advantages (intimacy/affection)
Friendship provides adolescents with a warm, close, trusting relationship with another individual, a relationship that involves self-disclosure
How are friendships developmental advantages (Stimulation)
Friendship provides adolescents with interesting information, excitement, and amusement
How are friendships developmental advantages (social comparison)
Friendship provides information about where adolescents stand and whether adolescents are doing okay
How are friendships developmental advantages (Physical support)
Friendship provides resources and assistance
How are friendships developmental advantages (ego support)
Friendship provides the expectations of support, encouragement, and feedback that helps adolescents to maintain an impression of themselves as competent, attractive, and worthwhile individuals
Explain several ways gender influences friendships (Group size)
From about 5 years of age forward, boys are more likely than girls to associate in larger clusters. Boys are more likely to participate in organized games and sports than girls are.
Kohlbergs Level 3: Post-conventional Reasoning (stages 5 and 6)
Full internalization -Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights. Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. -Stage 6: Universal ethical principles. The person has developed moral judgements that are based on universal humans rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal individualized conscience is followed.
Explain several ways gender influences friendships.
Group size, interaction in same sex group, girls friendships are more likely to focus on intimacy,
Values Clarification
Helping individuals to clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. Unlike character education, which tells students what their values should be, values clarification encourages students to define their own values and understand the values of others.
How do psychologically healthy and unhealthy families vary in their responses to autonomy demands during the transition to college
High school to college transition involves increased autonomy for most individuals. For some, homesickness sets in; for others, sampling the privileges of life without parents hovering around feel marvelous. For the growing number of students whose families have been torn apart by separation or divorce, though, moving away can be especially painful. 1. Some adolescence feel they have the role of comforter, confidant, and even caretaker of their parent as well as their siblings. 2. For other students the independence of being a college freshman is somewhat stressful but not too difficult to manage. 3. Leaving for college is sometimes difficult for an adolescent due to lacking skills such as balancing ones own checkbook, making own plane reservations, doing laundry, and even waking up in the morning. These things usually were taken care of by parent.
Single parent families are more common among African Americans and Latinos than among non-Latino White Americans.
In comparison with two-parent households, single-parent households often have more limited resources of time, money, and energy. This shortage of resources can prompt parents to encourage autonomy among their adolescents prematurely.
What is sociometric status and how is it measured?
Is used to describe the extent to which children and adolescents are liked or dislike by their peer group. Sociometric status is typically assessed by asking children to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates. Alternatively, it may be assessed by asking children and adolescents to nominate the peers they like the most and those they like the least.
Describe the main findings and main points of each of the readings (Jones& Cassidy; Xia et al.; and Benner et al.) for this section of the course. You can count on these being part of the exam.
Jones, Cassidy-Research has been accumulated over the years that involves adult attachment theory styles. There were no significant links between parents self reported attachment styles and their observed secure base provision to their adolescent children Studies provided the first evidence for a link between parental attachment styles and observed adolescent secure base use. The results suggest that this link may be better conceptualized as indirect, rather than direct. Through parent-reported hostile behavior and adolescents perceptions of their mother (but not father). Main points:Attachment theory and how we understand parent and child relationships. How parents self reported attachment styles relate to parental secure base provision and adolescent. Benner: Transition for adolescents vary in everything from dating to school.High school transition often disrupts students well-being as they learn to navigate larger physical spaces that bring together new groups of teachers and peers. Understanding key buffers of this transition is critical to designing intervention efforts that can best support students as they move from middle to high school and ensure students remain in school until graduation and beyond.Primary focus is centered on power of supportive relationships to buffer the potential negative effects of school transitions. All the support processes, school belonging appeared to play the most prominent buffering role, influencing positive transition experiences in relation to students depressive symptoms, loneliness, and school engagement as well as grades in the sensitivity analyses. Social support on students' socioemotional well being as they moved from middle to high school, we observed fewer effects of support on adolescents academic across the transition. Many adolescents struggle academically and/or socioemotionally as they transition from middle to high school, and whether certain students are potentially more vulnerable to this transition has not been well explored in the extent transition literature.
Three types of parental discipline
Love withdrawal, power assertion, induction
The Hidden Curriculum
Moral atmosphere that is a part of every school. Created by school and classroom rules, the moral orientations of teachers and school administrators, and text materials. Teachers serve as models of ethical or unethical behavior. Classroom rules and peer relations at school transmit attitudes about cheating, lying, stealing, and consideration for others. School administration infuses the school with a value system.
What does research show about neglected and rejected children?
Neglected children engage in low rates of interaction with their peers and are often described as shy by peers. -Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected. -Rejected boys are more impulsive and have problems sustaining attention. As a result, they are more likely to be disruptive of ongoing activities in the classroom and in focused group play -Rejected aggressive boys are more emotionally reactive. They are aroused to anger more easily and probably have more difficulty calming down once aroused. Because of this they are more prone to become angry at peers and attack them verbally and physically. -Rejected children have fewer social skills in making friends and maintaining relationships with peer
Kohlbergs Level 1: Pre-conventional Reasoning (stages 1 and 2)
No internalization and morals are completely external.- Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation. Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment. -Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange. Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves an equal exchange.
Example of reciprocal socialization
One child may be obedient when you tell them not to run in the street, your other child might not. you need to adjust parenting style to discipline each child differently. Yell/spank them or run over cardboard box to show them.
Describe what we know from research about the links within families (including attachment and divorce) that are associated with later romantic relationships.
Parents may influence their children's peer relations in many ways, both direct and indirect. Parents affect their adolescents' peer relation through their interactions with them, how they manage their lives, and the opportunities they provide them. Some researchers found that parents and adolescents perceive that parents have little authority over adolescents' choices in some areas but more authority over their choices in other areas. Adolescents do show a strong motivation to be with their peers and become independent. However, it is not accurate to assume that movement toward peer involvement and autonomy is unrelated to parent-adolescent relationships. Researchers have provided persuasive evidence that adolescents live in a connected world with parents and peers, not one in which parents and peers are disconnected from each other. What are some of the ways that the worlds of parents and peers are connected? Parents' choices of neighborhoods, churches, schools, and their own friends influence the pool from which their adolescents select possible friends. For example, parents can choose to live in a neighborhood with playgrounds, parks, and youth organizations or in a neighborhood where houses are far apart, few adolescents live and youth organizations are not well developed. Attachment:One of the most consistent outcomes of attachment research is the finding that secure attachment to parents is linked to positive peer relations. A recent media-analysis found that the link between mother attachment and peer attachment was stronger than the relationship between father attachment and peer attachment. Although adolescent-parent attachment are correlated with adolescent outcomes, the correlations are moderate, and indication that the success or failure of parent-adolescent attachments does not not necessarily guarantee success or failure in peer relationships. Clearly, secure attachment with parents can be an asset for the adolescent, fostering the trust to engage in close friendships with others and providing a foundation for developing interpersonal skills. Notheless, a significant minority of adolescents from strong, supportive families struggle with peer relations for a variety of reasons, such as being physically unattractive, maturing late, and experiencing cultural and socioeconomic-status (SES) discrepancies. On the other hand, some adolescents from troubled families find a positive, fresh start with peer relations that can compensate for their problematic family backgrounds.
What skills and social outcomes are associated with popularity?
Popular children have a number of social skills that contribute to their being well liked.Researchers have found that popular children give out reinforcements, listen carefully, maintain open lines of communication with peers, are happy, control their negative emotions, show enthusiasm and concern for others, and are self-confident without being conceited A recent study of 13-23-year-olds revealed that early adolescent's pseudomature behavior (trying to appear mature or be "cool" among peers, such as in minor delinquency or precocious romantic involvement) was associated with a desire to be popular with peers.This study, early adolescent psudomature behavior was linked to long-term problems in close relationships, substance abuse, and a higher level of criminal behavior
Describe the research on positive peer relations
Positive relations: Adolescents explore the principles of fairness and justice by working through disagreements with peers. Adolescents also learn to be skilled and sensitive partners in intimate relationships by forging close friendships with selected peers. They carry these intimacy skills forward to help form the foundation of later dating and marital relationships.
Research findings on Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory of moral development
Research findings are mixed. one study found that college students with high principled moral reasoning and high ego strengths were less likely to cheat than their counterparts
Discuss the research looking at adolescents' adjustment in divorced families.
Research: Most researchers agree that children, adolescents, and emerging adults from divorced families show poor adjustment than their counterparts in nondivorced familites.
What are secure and insecure attachment?
Secure attachment- In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, secure attachment usually involves an emotional bond between a child and a caregiver that benefits the child's exploration of the environment and further development. Insecure attachment- Infants, children, and adolescents either avoid the caregiver or show considerable resistance or ambivalence toward the caregiver. Insecure attachment is theorized to be related to difficulties in relationships and problems in later development.
Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship
Siblings typically know each other very well, and this intimacy suggests that they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation.
Variation in sibling relationships
Some siblings describe their relationships more positively than do others. Thus, there is considerable variation in sibling relationships. We've seen that many siblings have mixed feelings about each other, but some adolescents mainly describe their siblings in warm, affectionate ways, whereas others primarily talk about how irritating and mean a sibling is.
Describe several ways that schools can influence moral development.
The hidden curriculum. character education, values clarification, cheating
Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age
This initial stage is triggered by puberty. From 11 to 13 years old, adolescents become intensely interested in romance, and it dominates many conversations with same-sex friends. Developing a crush on someone is common, and the crush often is shared with a same-sex friend. Young adolescents may or may not interact with the individual who is the object of their infatuation. When dating occurs, it usually takes place in a group setting.
According to Freud, what are the divisions of the superego
Two main components: the ego ideal and the conscience. 1) Ego ideal: Component of the superego that involves ideal standards approved by parents. 2) Conscience: Component of the superego that involves behaviors not approved of by the parents
Neglectful parenting style
Uninvolved. Could be a result of poverty (often is). Adolescents have increased likelihood ** to be socially incompetent, poor self control, cant handle independence well, and lack of parental monitoring (associated wit lower grades, higher sexual activity, and high depression).
Power Assertion
a parent attempts to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescents rescues. Examples include spanking, threatening or removing privileges. evoke high emotional arousal and power assertion considerable hostility. Dont listen to parents as well. presents parents as having weak self control during stress. kids might imitate the parents poor self control.
Induction
a parent uses reason ad explanation of the consequences for others of the adolescents actions. Examples include, "don't hit him. h e was only trying to help" or "why are you yelling at her, she didn't mean to hurt your feelings?" moderate level of arousal that permits them to attend to the cognitive rationales parents offer.
Two dimensions of parenting
acceptance/responsiveness and demandingness/control
Four styles of parenting
authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, indulgent
Explain several ways gender influences friendships (Girls' friendships are more likely to focus on intimacy)
boys' friendships tend to emphasize power and excitement. Boy may discourage one another from openly disclosing their problems because they perceive that self-disclosure is not masculine
Love withdrawal
fear of punishment and of losing parental love. A parent will withhold attention or love from the adolescent. Example: parent will refuse to talk to the the child or site they dislike the adolescent. evoke high emotional arousal and considerable anxiety. dont listen to parents as well
Indulgent parenting style
highly involved with few demands or restrictions. Often intentional; parents fear that attempts to control their adolescent will damage them. Adolescents are more likely to expect things to go their own way or have poorer self control. They also tend be socially less competent.
Stages occur ____ than Kohlberg expected and the higher stages were very elusive (few people got to them throughout the profession of life). Kohlberg contributed to the idea that as our cognitive abilities ____, our ability to make ____ changes. Exposure to ___ experiences changes our morals as well. Advanced moral reasoning is associated with real conversations that are ____ & ____
later, increase, moral judgements, social, challenging, conflicting
Authoritarian parenting style
restrictive and punitive. High amount of control and low amounts of warmth. Adolescents cannot reason through why certain rules are the way they are, doesn't teach them to make moral decisions themselves when the parent isn't around. Doesn't encourage them to figure things out for themselves. Makes them socially incompetent. They will be more afraid and feel anxious about social comparison, fail to initiate activities, and have poor communications skills.
Most adolescents are at _____. By early adulthood, very few are ____. Vast majority never get out of stage __. A 20 year longitudinal research investigation must be done in order to determine if this is a stage theory
stage 3, post conventional, 4
reciprocal socialization
the process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them. Parent teach child how to behave but the child teaches the parent how to parent. The father and the adolescent represents one dyadic subsystem, the mother and the father another, and the mother-father-adolescent represent one polyadic subsystem, the mother and two siblings another. When the behavior of one family member changes, it can influence the behavior of other family members.
