EXAM 3
Funder's Second Law
There are no perfect indicators of personality; there are only clues, and clues are always ambiguous.Collect many clues about a person, but be wary because they could be misleading
Theory Behind the empirical method test
What is important is that if you answer like a certain group of people you most likely are like that group of people As times change what it takes to be a certain type a person changes and so it can lead to false results (minister example The basic assumption of the empirical approach, then, is that certain kinds of people answer certain questions on personality inventories in distinctive ways.
Mischel's argument for the Situationist side
correlations between personality and behavior, or between behavior in one situation and behavior in another, seldom exceed .30
Well-adjusted person,
who is adaptable, flexible, resourceful, and interpersonally successful.
Negative Definition of High Self—Monitors
wishy-washy, two-faced, lacking integrity, and slick.
Personality Tests: Projective Tests Disadvantages
Validity evidence is scarce, Expensive and time-consuming; other, less expensive tests work as well or better, Cannot be *sure* about what they mean, more than 1 way to interpret even with guides.
Accurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Openness
Variety of books + music, Distinctive
Inaccurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Conscientiousness
Colorful, inviting, large
Natural B Data Disadvantage
Difficult, Desired contexts may seldom occur
What way doAgreeable people rate other people?
more positively than disagreeable people do
Openness to Experience/Intellect
sometimes called Cultured, People high in openness are viewed by others as creative, imaginative, open minded, and clever. report having artistic interests and being politically liberal, and admit to sometimes having an overactive imagination and "being too smart for my own good, Aesthetics (artistic, appreciative) Actions (wide interests, seek variety) Feelings (receptive to, nuanced)
Where do highly conscientious people live?
southeastern and southwestern states are particularly conscientious, and that
Inaccurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Neuroticism
stale air, gloomy, no decorations
pros of aggression
Allow random influences to cancel each other out Especially important for predicting behavior Spearman-Brown formula aids in test construction
What type of method is the trait approach researched in?
Almost all research within the trait approach relies on correlational designs,
What Does the Rorschach Ink Blot test do?
Also illustrates that the thoughts revealed by the inkblot response might not necessarily be deep, hidden, or mysterious, Does not have a standard way of garding it. Rorschach will be correct about 66 percent of the time (assuming that a random decision would be correct 50 percent of the time).
Potential Benefits of Animal Models
Animal models can help evaluate and further develop personality theories...↑ Experiment Control + range of manipulations, ↑ or easier access to physiological substrates, ↑ opportunities for naturalistic observation, Low in Life span so can see multiple generation in short amount of time
What are the Facets for Neuroticism
Anxiety (tense), Angry-Hostility (irritable), Depression (not content w/life or w/self), Self-Consciousness (shy; self-focused), Vulnerability (to stress, insecurity), Impulsiveness (moody)
The Many-Trait Approach
Beginning with the (implicit) research question, Who does that? Looks at single Behavior and then sees the MANY TRAITS that are associated with Said Behavior. Researchers attack the behavior of interest with long lists of traits intended to cover a wide range. They determine which traits correlate with the specific behavior, and then seek to explain the pattern of correlations.
Truthfulness
Being truthful is important in research because science is based on truth. If you fabricated your results it mess up the whole system because people relay that findings are true to expand knowledge in a subject
Barnum Effect
Believing something because it gives you a vague prediction
What can the Big 5 Predict?
Big Five traits could be used to predict outcomes such as career success and health as well or better than traditional predictors such as socioeconomic status and cognitive ability.
What makes a "good" judge?
High in communion related values, expressive, open, and socially skilled. Relatively agreeable, well-adjusted. Describes others in favorable terms and generally judges others favorably Is attributional complex. Men: Outgoing and confident interpersonal style. Women: Openness and interest in other people
Accurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Agreeableness
High traffic location in office spaces
High Conscientious people have
High value & plays by rules (norms, standards, etc.)(+)healthy behavior,(-) risky behavior (esp. drugs, car accidents, etc.) Less absenteeism, Less procrastination, Longer hours (work, school), Sustained effort, Set goals and monitor progress
Why do people high in conscientiousness get promotions?
Highly conscientious employees seek out opportunities to learn about the company, and to acquire skills and knowledge that go beyond their present job.
What happens if people High in Conscientiousness fail?
Highly conscientious people are prone to feel guilty when they don't live up to expectations, If they become unemployed, their satisfaction with life decreases 120 percent more than less-conscientious people
Do Highly Conscientious people avoid risk?
Highly conscientious people both avoid risks and seek to protect themselves just in case, so they are the ones who drive carefully and carry lots of insurance
Factor Analysis
Identifies groups of things—which can be anything from songs to test items—that seem to have something in common. The property that ties these things together is called a factor Factor analysis has been used not only to construct tests, but also to decide how many fundamental traits exist—how many out of the thousands in the dictionary are truly essential, Big 5
Benefits of the Person-Situation Controversy:
Increased evidence for relative importance of traits; search for basis/mechanisms by which they affect behavior. (2) More Emphasis on "characteristic adaptations" Beliefs, interpretations Goals, Regulatory strategies Sense of identity (3) Models of person + situation effects, "Interactionism" Behavior = f (Personality X Situation) Theory + Models describing how the interactions work. Similar issues are addressed in developmental models!
Accurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Neuroticism
Inspirational Posters
What Type of test do jobs use to measure High Conscientiousness?
Integrity tests, but they typically measure a wide range of qualities, including responsibility, long-term job commitment, consistency, moral reasoning, friendliness, work ethic, dependability, cheerfulness, energy level, and even-temperedness
Behavioral residue
Internal activities, External activities
objective and verifiable(L-data)
L data can be expressed in numeric forms (rare in psychology)
What does heavy shading mean in a Draw-A-Person Test?
Might mean aggressive impulses, and numerous erasures could be a sign of anxiety.
Unfair Literature Review
Mischel did not go through a lot of research. He only found research that supported him and it was bad research
Conscientiousness
More likely to feel guilty, less popular, less creative! Predicts life expectancy! They are more likely to exercise regularly, socially prescribed impulse control
Interactionism examples relevant to Agreeableness
More meaningful, stable, warm social interactions, Fewer interpersonal stressors, More enduring and high quality relationships.
Consensus on Projective Tests
Projective tests are based in a theory that we can/should evoke and measure implicit, possibly less censored aspects of personal motives (e.g. power, intimacy, achievement), concerns, etc. for better understanding & prediction. Validity requires careful scoring based on formal, established rules and is lower than desired. Some argue that this is because the intended targets are more state-like!
Appearance of Objectivity*
Since You (psychologist) take the measurements you can interpret at your will. But subjective judgments must still be made
What do people high in conscientiousness avoid?
Smoking, overeating, or use alcohol to excess. They also avoid violence, risky sex, and drug abuse.
Expectancy Effect
The tendency for someone to become the kind of person others expect him or her to be; also known as a self-fulfilling prophecy and behavioral confirmation.
What are The 4 dimensions of Narcissism
Superiority/Arrogance Self-Absorption/Self-Admiration Leadership/Authority, Exploitative-ness/Entitlement
How was the Rorschach Ink Blot test created?
Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach dropped blots of India ink onto note cards, folded the cards in half, and then unfolded them. The result was a set of complicated-looking blots,
In-group loyalty(Conservative Value)
Taking care of members of one's own group and staying loyal
Low Research Personality Test
The MBTI "types", Tests in magazines, etc
CPI (California Psychology Inventory),
Widely used to test, designed for non disturbed individuals (normal people)
Do people who are in High conscientiousness enjoy their Job?
Yes
What aspect of agreeableness is correlated with being politically liberal and egalitarian?
compassion
Advantages of Being High in Extroversion
higher status, rated as more popular and physically attractive, more positive emotions
Traits can predict
how you are as a persona and career out comes
Letter of recommendation effect
if people have to pick who describes them chance are they will pick someone who favors them
Type I Error
one variable has an effect on, or a relationship with, another variable, when really it does not. All research should be replicated to verify that patterns are unlikely to be due to chance.
What aspect of agreeableness is correlated with being politically conservative and traditional
other aspect of agreeableness that are not compassion, such as politeness, are more likely to be conservative and traditional
The Point of Judging (or measuring) Traits
personality traits predict behavior, Traits can be used to understand behavior
Low Self Monitors Respond to what type of Advertisement
prefer bland advertisement
General arousal theory of criminality
such a person may seek out high-risk activities such as crime, drug use, gambling, and promiscuous sex.
What is an Example of an S-Data Personality Test?
16 PF, Self-monitoring scale, attributional complexity, Scale
Interpersonal Conscientiousness
(+) Family & Dating satisfaction Social/Institutional (+) Performance, success at school, work (+) Conservatism, (-) antisocial, criminal behave
Social/Institutional Agreeableness
(+) Social interests/careers, (+) volunteerism, (+)community leadership, (-)criminality, (-)extrinsic success
How do Agreeable people handle Conflict
(+) Strategies for conflict, Take perspective (theory of mind) Negotiate, Avoidance ("turn the other cheek"), (--may not always work out over long haul) Humor, Regulate emotion to maintain harmony, +Maintenance , Repair attempts Gratitude and warmth Forgiveness, Maintain touch, positive connection
Individual/Personal Neuroticism
(+) anxiety/depression, (-)coping, (-) well-being (-) humor, (-)identity integration
Individual/Personal Openness
(+)Existential concerns, +Forgiveness,+ drug use(-) Identity "foreclosure (+)Majority culture identification (minorities)
Social/Institutional Openness
(+)Investigative, artistic careers & success, (+) Liberalism, (-) prejudice,(-) right-wing authoritarianism
Individual/Personal Conscientiousness
(+)longevity, (-) risky behavior, + religious belief. (+) identity achievement, (+) cultural identification
Interpersonal Neuroticism
(-) Family satisfaction, (-) status for males, (-) rel. satisfaction; (+) conflict, abuse, dissolution Social/Institutional (-) Satisfaction, (-) commitment, (-)financial success, + antisocial behavior
Correlation values range
(-1)to 1, 0 = no relationship at all, |1| = perfect association or correspondence between variables 0 <|r| < 1 harder to compare and interpret magnitude!!
Factor Analysis leads to discovery of the Big Five
(1) Allport & Odbert identified 1800 terms 4500 traits (2) Raymond Cattell: 35 16 essential traits (factors) (allowed them to be correlated; + errors were made) (3) Hans Eysenck: 3 "essential, uncorrelated traits that are biologically based. Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism, Tellegen = Pos. emotion, Neg. emotion, Constraint (4) Eventually, a 5 factor pattern appeared repeatedly! Pre-Existing personality tests and prior trait concepts also tended to fit (be subsumed by) the Big Five groups!
Examples of Psychopathology Scales (B-data) (Typically identified by number)
(1) Hypochondriasis(2) Depression(4) Psychopathic Deviate (6) Trust(7) Anxiety(9) Mania
Questions when judging a person
(1) Is X active and dominant or passive and submissive (can I bully X, or will X try to bully me)? [This question corresponds to extraversion.] (2) Is X agreeable (warm and pleasant) or disagreeable (cold and distant)? [agreeableness] (3) Can I count on X (is X responsible and conscientious or undependable and negligent)? [conscientiousness] (4) Is X crazy (unpredictable) or sane (stable)? [neuroticism] (5) Is X smart or dumb (how easy will it be for me to teach X)? [openness, or intellect] Are these universal questions?
What makes for "good" information?
(1) More info is generally better than less Improves self-other agreement; maybe not consensus! Even limited info very valuable if it's situation-relevant(2) Weak versus strong situations(3) Stressful or emotionally arousing situations(4) Thoughts and feelings versus daily activities(5)Unstructured versus structured situations. Overall best situation: one that brings out the trait you want to judge!
Implication of Ignoring the content
(1)The content never matters in any step, (2)hard to fake, (3)Only as the creator, (4)Problems with the Law
Steps For Empirical Test construction
(1)gather lots of items, (2) sample of participants who have already independently been divided into the groups you are interested in (3)administering your test to your participants (4) compare the answers given by the different groups of participants (5)cross-validate that scale by using it to predict behavior, diagnosis, or category membership in new samples of participants. If the cross—validation succeeds, the scale is deemed ready for use.
Inaccurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Extraverted
(Office space only) Cluttered, full, unconventional
Inaccurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Agreeableness
(most biases!)
p-Level
(probability level) is the probability that a difference of that size (or larger) would be found, if the actual size of the difference were zero. (This possibility is called the null hypothesis.) NOT a direct quantitative statement about the validity of the hypothesis (and related theory) under test or its importance! Should be less than or equal to 5%
Psychological Measurements (B-Data)
- Such as vitals (blood pressure), Pet Scans CT
Experimental Method
A research technique that establishes the causal relationship between an independent variable (x) and dependent variable (y) by randomly assigning participants to experimental groups characterized by differing levels of x, and measuring the average behavior (y) that results in each group.
What are Neurotic in Higher risk of developing?
A serious mental illness
How was the California Q-Set derived?
A team of researchers and clinical practitioners sought to develop a comprehensive set of terms sufficient to describe the people they interacted with every day. After formulating an initial list, the team met regularly to use the items to describe their clients and research participants. When an item proved useless or vague, they revised or eliminated it. The 100 items of the California Q-Set have been used to study topics as diverse as word use, depression, and political orientation.
State
A temporary psychological event, such as an emotion, thought, or perception.
Agreeableness
A tendency to be cooperative, an essential behavior in the small social groups in which humans have lived during most of evolutionary history. Smoke less (for some unknown reason), and women tend to score higher than men. Religious activities, have a good sense of humor, be psychologically well adjusted, and have a healthy heart. They go out of their way to look at pleasant rather than unpleasant things. They enjoy more peer acceptance and dating satisfaction, have a large number of social interests, and are unlikely to engage in criminal behavior.
Some High Profile Questions examined with Animal Models:
Adaptive significance of "personalities" Survival rates in different environments? Effects of prenatal/early life conditions on aspects of physiology & personality? Personality traits & health immune response
The Essential-Trait Approach
Addresses the difficult question, Which traits are the most important? The dictionary includes thousands of traits, and this embarrassment of riches has sometimes led to confusion about which ones really are important enough to be measured and studied.
High Self-Monitors
Adjusts public appearance and behavior to enhance status and self-interests, Have High Extraversion (social skills, can attend to cues)and a lot of Drive for power and personal status. More likely to be ethically, socially pragmatic +Links with counter-productive work behavior! An ethically oriented environment matters! Actors scored high
Why So Many Items in Objective test
Aggregation makes for better results a single answer will tend to be unreliable. But if a group of similar questions is asked, the average of the answers ought to be much more stable, or reliable, because random fluctuations tend to cancel each other out.
Who recovers more quickly from disabling accidents or illnesses?
Agreeable people
Do agreeable people agree to everything?
Agreeable people don't agree to everything.
Stability (Big 2)
Agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism (reversed, often called "emotional stability") resembles ego control
What criteria can be used to assess accuracy? Answer from critical realism
All information that might be helpful
Constructs
An idea about a psychological attribute that goes beyond what might be assessed through any particular method of assessment something that cannot be directly seen or touched, but which affects and helps to explain many different things that are visible. Gravity
What is revealed through Personality assessments
An individual's personality is revealed by The psychological Triad
Low self-monitors
Are largely the same outside as they are inside, and do not vary much from one setting to another, tend to be more consistent regardless of the situation, because their behavior is guided more by their inner personality. As a result, one would expect a low self-monitor to be more judge-able. Low self-monitors are more prone to look within. Guided by inner personality (+ consistent) Less willing/able to manipulate situations.
Positive Definition of High Self—Monitors
Are people who are: adaptable, flexible, popular, sensitive, and able to fit in wherever they go.
How were people who DID NOT used a relatively large number of certainty words described by I-data
As emotionally bland, exploitative, and "repressive" (which means they tend to avoid recognizing unpleasant facts).
The content never matters in any step (Ignoring the Content)
At each step of the process of test development, the actual content of the items is purposely ignored. In fact, empirical test constructors of the old school sometimes prided themselves on never actually reading the items on the tests they developed!
Quality of Data: Enhancing Reliability
Be careful!! Double-check everything. Use a scripted procedure or protocol. Try to engage participants; measure something they care about. Aggregation of multiple measurements.
Why do Young people Believe in Situationism
Because they have yet to have a clear idea on who they are and what they believe in
Why do people high in conscientiousness do well in interviews?
Because they present themselves well,and because they spend more time seeking information and preparing themselves.
Extrovert or Introvert? Which one achieves Higher Status?
Both male and female extraverts achieve high status. Extraverts are consistently rated as more popular
Implications of the Big Five
Can bring order, integration to many research findings!More complex than they seem at first, Labels are oversimplified and have changed w/time!
Moderate Researct Personality Test
Cattell's 16 PF, MMPI (for clinical use), California Psychological Inventory CPI
What Quality do conscientious people look for in a mate?
Conscientiousness
Simple and Easy(S-Data)
Cost Effective, Quick, Anyone can report on themselves
How do you construct a Factor-Analysis Personality test Based on a statistical technique
Create a List of as many questions, that have objective answers, as you can. Make a large group of participants take this list of questions. Then You and Your Computer look for any correlation between each item and every other item. Items that do have a strong correlation can be sorted into categories. Consider what the items that group together have in common and name the factor.
Mixed Types Of Data
Data do not always fit into only one category There is a wide range of possible types of data Each type has advantages and disadvantages
Judgments
Data that derive, in the final analysis, from someone using his or her common sense and observations to rate personality or behavior
Error (I- Data)
Define: refers to mistakes that occur more or less randomly because memory is not perfect. Informants will most likely forget events that are ordinary and there for report instances that are extreme, unusual, or emotionally arousing.This is bad because it can lead to misleading results
Correlational Method
Definition: A number between -1 and +1 that reflects the degree to which one variable, traditionally called y, is a linear function of another, traditionally called x. A negative correlation means that as x goes up, y goes down; a positive correlation means that as x goes up, so does y; a zero correlation means that x and y are unrelated. Scatter plot of data; correlation coefficient Quasi experiment, Natural experiment Uncertain directionality? 3rd variable influences?
B Data (Behavior)
Definition: Behavioral data, or direct observations of another's behavior that are translated directly or nearly directly into numerical form. B data can be gathered in natural or contrived (experimental) settings.
Reliability
Definition: In measurement, the tendency of an instrument to provide the same comparative information on repeated occasions. they are measurements that reflect what you are trying to assess and are not affected by anything else.
L- Data
Definition: Life data, or more-or-less easily verifiable, concrete, real-life outcomes, which are of possible psychological significance. L data can be thought of as the results, or "residue," of personality. They reflect how a person has affected her world, including important life outcomes, health, and the contents of cyberspace. Examples: The number of times someone has been arrested, his income, his marital status, his health status, the number of his Facebook friends Obtained from archival records or self-report
Case Method
Definition: Studying a particular phenomenon or individual in depth both to understand the particular case and in hopes of discovering general lessons or scientific laws.
Validity
Definition: The degree to which a measurement actually reflects what it is intended to measure. A measure that is reliable gives the same answer time after time. If the answer is always changing, how can it be the right answer? But even if a measure is the same time after time, that does not necessarily mean it is correct. Maybe it reliably gives the wrong answer
Objective Tests
Definition: The tests that psychologists call "objective" can be detected at a glance. If a test consists of a list of questions to be answered Yes or No, or True or False, or on a numeric scale, and especially if the test uses a computer-scored answer sheet, then it is an objective test.
Generalizability
Definition:The degree to which a measurement can be found under diverse circumstances, such as time, context, participant population, and so on. In modern psychometrics, this term includes both reliability and validity. How representative is the study group of the world To what else does the measurement or the result generalize?
In a study about depression, People who used a Q-Sort to described girls at 7 said?
Described the girls as shy, reserved, over-socialized, self-punishing, over-controlled. These same girls had depression at 18
Disadvantages(2) (B-data)
Difficult and Expensive,
The Person-Situation Debate Three Issues
Does the personality of an individual transcend the immediate situation and provide a consistent guide to her actions, or is what a person does utterly dependent on the situation she is in at the time? Are common, ordinary intuitions about people fundamentally flawed? Why do psychologists continue to argue about the consistency of personality, year after year, decade after decade?
Advantages (Case Method)
Does the topic of personality justice can be a source of ideas, Not overused
What 4 Conditions must hold true to construct an S-data rational personality Test?
Each item must mean the same thing to the person who takes the test as it did to the psychologist who wrote it. Second, the person who completes the form must be able to make an accurate self-assessment. Must have a good enough understanding of what each item is asking, as well as the ability to observe it in himself. He must not be so ignorant or psychologically disoriented that he cannot report accurately on these psychological symptoms.Third, the person who completes the test must be willing to report his self assessment accurately and without distortion.He must not try to deny his symptoms or to exaggerate them Modern personality tests used for selecting employees encounter this problem. Fourth and finally, all of the items on the test must be valid indicators of what the tester is trying to measure
Personality Assessment:
Formal measurement of relatively stable attributes of people; usually traits.
Positive way people look at Extroverts:
Energetic Entertaining/Funny Spontaneous Friendly Socially competent May explain: high self-esteem and status given by others.
Evocation and Manipulation
Evocation (passive) and Manipulation (active) We intentionally + unintentionally create & re-create situations! Based on how other people perceive us/respond to us, Based on our success at deliberately affecting situations
What Type of Child is more likely to be bullied
Examined children who had "internalizing problems," which meant that other children described them using phrases such as "on the playground, she/he just stands around," "she/he is afraid to do things," "she/he seems unhappy and looks sad often," and "when other kids are playing, she/he watches them but doesn't join in" In general, this pattern described children who tended to be victims of bullying,
The Single-Trait Approach
Examines the link between personality and behavior by asking, What do people like that do? In other words looks at a SINGLE TRAIT and then see what Behaviors are correlated to that SINGLE TRAIT. Some traits have seemed so important that psychologists have devoted a major amount of effort to assessing as many of their implications as possible. For example, extensive research programs have examined self monitoring and narcissism, to name only two.
causal Force(I-Data)
Expectancy Effect, Behavioral Conformation
Laboratory B Data
Experiments can manipulate situations. Make a situation happen and record behavior Examine reactions to situations Represent real-life contexts that are difficult to observe directly, Physiological measures: biological "behavior"
Plasticity (Big 2)
Extraversion and openness, Plasticity resembles ego resilience
How do Extroverts make moral judgements about people's behaviors?
Extraverts are prone to make moral judgments that hold people responsible for the effects of their actions, even if the effects were unintentional.
I- Data is given by
Family members, teachers, friends or acquaintances, co-workers, supervisors, clinical psychologists, etc.Often, no training or expertise needed, Based on observing people in whatever specific context(s) they know them from. Used frequently in daily life; appear as overall judgments.
What do Narcissists crave?
Feelings of power, prestige, success, and glory. Rather than take the slow and difficult route toward enjoying these feelings— such as by working hard or being courageous—they take the shortcut of expressing, feelings of superiority whenever they feel the need, justified or not. The result, as is so often the case with impulsiveness, is short-term gain but long-term loss.
Quality of Data: Factors That Undermine Reliability
First is low precision. Measurements should be taken as exactly as possible, as carefully as possible. the state of the participant might vary for reasons that have nothing to do with what is being studied. the state of the experimenter. how the experimenter reacts with the subjects moods and sleep deprivation The environment Anything can happen
Bias
General bias is also something to watch for (sexism, racism, etc) Definition: refers to something more systematic, such as seeing someone in more positive or negative terms than they really deserve. Also "letter of recommendation effect"
Personality Tests: Projective Tests Advantages
Good for breaking the ice, Some skilled clinicians may be able to use them to get information not captured in other types of tests, May be helpful for some specific outcomes. Projective tests and other measures of implicit processes are appropriate for research and theory development, including re: individual persons.
Why is this a problem? Historically there were many different theoretical approaches based on different paradigms/approaches and with confusing differences in terminology.
Hard to communicate + integrate findings. Made scientific progress difficult and slow. Need a taxonomy specifying relationships
TAT Facts
Has more validity that Rorschach, newer, The purpose is to measure implicit motives, motivations concerning achievement, intimacy, power, and other matters of which the participant might not be aware, measure somewhat different aspects of personality than the more conventional objective tests, It is certainly the case that projective and questionnaire measures of the same attribute—such as "need for achievement"—typically do not correlate highly,
Psychological Relevance (L-data)
Helps groupings of what certain type of people do and this adds to what is personality psychology
Cronbach's alpha formula
If n is the number of items in the test, and p is the average correlation among all of the items, then the reliability (alpha, or a)= (np) / [1+ (p(n—1))]
The Projective Hypothesis
If somebody is asked to describe or interpret a meaningless or ambiguous stimulus—such as an inkblot—her answer cannot come from the stimulus itself, because the stimulus actually does not look like, or mean, anything. The answer must instead come from (be a "projection" of) her needs, feelings, experiences, thought processes, and other hidden aspects of the mind, The answer might even reveal something the person does not know about herself. (Notice that this could never happen with S data.) May argue that the reason these test aren't ideal is maybe because they serve a different purpose
Flaws Of Self Monitoring Test
If the description of high self-monitors sounded better to you than the description of low self-monitors, the odds are very good that you are a high self-monitor. If you preferred the description of the low self-monitor, then probably you are one.
What would make a child not be involved with any aspect of Bullying (Not be a bully nor be Bullied)
If they are agreeable. A friendly and non confrontational outlook can help protect you from abuse—but it won't win you social status.
The Uses of Psychological Research
If you research a controversial topic, you have to be aware that people might use your findings in a cruel way against other.
Ego Control
Impulse controls
efficacy expectations
In Bandura's social learning theory, one's belief that one can perform a given goal-directed behavior.
What Experiment did Ivan Pavlov do to show introverts react more strongly and often more negatively to sensory stimulation than extraverts?
In a famous experiment, he showed that if you squirted lemon juice into their mouths, introverts salivated more than extroverts
Comparing the Experimental and Correlational Methods
In a nutshell, experimental designs are better at showing what can happen, whereas correlational designs are better at showing what does happen. Rather than one method being superior to the other, they are complementary and both are necessary.
What type of Words to Extroverts use?
In daily speech they are more likely to use upbeat words like "adorable" than downbeat words such as "dreadful"
The Power of the Situation
In other words, as the effect of the situation gets stronger, the effect of the person tends to get weaker, and vice versa. But there were exceptions. Both influences were important in determining how much a person talked.
Beyond the Big Five
In other words, the Big Five are types of traits, not of people. Are there types of people, and can their distinct personality structures be characterized? That is the question we shall consider next.
Spearman-Brown Formula
In psychometrics, a mathematical formula that predicts the degree to which the reliability of a test can be improved by adding more items.
What do Conservatives strongly favor that liberals regard as less important?
In-group loyalty, Authority/Respect, and purity (living in a clean, moral way)
Accurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Extraverted
Inviting, cheerful (candy, decorations)
The California Q-Set
Is a set consists of 100 phrases. For example, Item 1 reads, "Is critical, skeptical, not easily impressed"; Item 2 reads, "Is a genuinely dependable and responsible person"; Raters express judgments of personality by sorting the items into nine categories ranging from highly uncharacteristic of the person being described (Category 1) to highly characteristic (Category 9).
The Empirical Method
Is an attempt to allow reality to speak for itself. In its pure form, Not based on theory; ignores item content. Items can seem absurd, lacks face validity.
Typological Approaches to Personality
Is scores on Three components: Well adjusted Maladjusted overcontrolling (internalizing), Maladjusted under-controlling (externalizing)
What does Trait Approach focus on?
It focuses exclusively on individual differences. In still other ways, each individual is unique and cannot be meaningfully compared with anyone else.
Interactionism
It is much more accurate to see personality traits and situations as constantly interacting to produce behavior together. Persons + Situations matter and are not completely independent influences
Purposes of Personality Testing
It's important to know how the test will be used, and to show it is valid for that purpose. Learning about people in general (researchers),Helping people (schools, career counselors, clinicians), Assessment for selection or retention (employers, Central Intelligence Agency)
We can do better
Just because the upper limit is .4 does not mean that it is not related well, it just means that people need to do better research. Examples: Make real life scenarios and base off of that Some people are more consistent than others Focus on general Behavioral trends than single actions. Use common sense and understand that being late might be because of weather and not poor time management.
Advantages(5) of S data
Large Amount of Information, Accesses to thoughts, feeling, and intentions, Definitional Truth,Causal Force, Simple and Easy.
Disadvantages(4) (I- Data)
Limited Behavioral Information, Lacks of Access to Private Experience, Error, Bias
Hostile Attribution Bias
Looking at a face at rest hostile. Can lead to High Trait Anxiety High "Psychoticism"
What are Examples of B-data Personality Test
MMPI, Implicit Association Test (IAT), Intelligence tests, Projective Tests (TAT, PSE, Rorschach), implicit measures (like the IAT) may predict more spontaneous behaviors!
Examples of Personality Tests (many are omnibus inventories)
MMPI, NEO - PI, 16 PF, CPI, SVIB, HPI
Problems with Experiments(v correlation)
Manipulated may be impossible or unethical, Manipulation may require deception (ethical?), Hard to know what was really manipulated, Unrealistic levels of "causal" variable?
Personality Tests: Objective Tests Advantages
Many Objective tests are much more evidence-based (reliable, valid, useful) and cost-effective. Objective tests are highly preferred for when the goal is diagnosis, prediction/career counseling, and/or legal decision making.
common sense(I-data)
Many people have it and therefore is useful (Pg 32)
Self-Monitoring
Mark Snyder, developer of the self-monitoring concept and test. This test helps to show the degree to which inner and outer selves and behaviors are the same or different across. Are you consistent through situations or do you adapt to situations according to how you are interpreting the situation
Disadvantages (3) S-data
Maybe they won't tell you everything, Maybe they cant tell you,too simple too easy
Extensive Research Test
Measures of Big 5: NEO-PI-R, BFI, PRF, etc Measures of pathology: Beck Depression Inventory
Some forms of Interactionism
Mechanistic Interaction (older view), Reciprocal Interaction (dynamic, process oriented)
Ethnic and Cultural diversity
Most research is done on white middle class Now there is a law that minorities need to be in study
What are some examples of patterns of thought?
Motives, intentions, goals, strategies, and subjective representations (the ways in which people perceive and construct their worlds)
What doe the PSE tell you?
Motives: Achievement, Affiliation, Power, may differ from self-attributed motives! Also: defense mechanisms, coping, Unconscious Somewhat unstable (lower test-retest r, Spontaneous, self-selected behavior long term
Disadvantage(1) (L-data)
Multi-determination
NEO Personality Inventory (NPI)
NEO stands for Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness.They later added Agreeableness and Conscientiousness,measures five broad traits along with 30 sub scales or "facets"
How do people high and low in Openness describe each other?
Negatively
Mechanistic Interactionism
Neuroticism explains differences in negative emotion following MINOR stressors, but not MAJOR stressors. Extraversion leads to differences in preference for feeling happy before effortful tasks, but not before easy tasks.
Are Conscientious people Popular?
No, In fact, when they try to work together in a group, their output might not be very creative.
What criteria can be used to assess accuracy? Answer from constructivism
None, because personality is a social construction
Feeling Regulators, Impersonal
Not about personal relationships, experiences, Objects: Posters, Quotes
Advantages(3) (L-Data)
Objective and Verifiable, Psychological Relevance, Intrinsic Importance
Validity of Objective test
Objective is Not really Objective because there are still interpretation to what words mean, Its good that it is not fully objective because that means not everyone will answer the say,
Sample of participants who have already independently been divided into the groups you are interested in (Empirical Test construction)
Occupational groups and diagnostic categories are often used for this purpose. For example, if you wish to measure the aspect of people that makes them good and happy religious ministers, then you need at least two groups of participants—happy, successful ministers and a comparison group. (Ideally, the comparison group would be miserable, incompetent ministers, but typically the researcher will settle for people who are not ministers at all.) Whatever groups you wish to include, their members must be identified before you develop your test.
What Qualities do people who score High in Narcissism have?
Often charming and make a good first impression and put more effort into their hairstyle, clothing, and makeup. This can make them appear "sexy," at least in the short-term
The meaning behind the factor that correlates items together is subjective to the creator (Limitations To Factor Analysis)
Once the computer has identified a cluster of items as being related statistically, a human psychologist must still decide how they are related conceptually. This process is highly subjective, so the seeming mathematical rigor and certainty of factor analysis are, to some extent, an illusion. Sometimes the factors that emerge do not make much sense.
Interpreting Correlations
One I happen to own says that a correlation (positive or negative) of .6 to .8 is "quite strong," one from .3 to .5 is "weaker but still important," and one from .3 to .2 is "rather weak."
Psychometrics
One of five trait domains associated with personality disorders in the DSM-5, it is characterized by a tendency to have bizarre thoughts or experiences, and to exhibit eccentric behavior.
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphaic Personality Inventory)
One of the Most widely used personality test in the world, designed to use in clinical assessment of individuals with psychological difficulties, Has been used to employment screening, Shower Vs. Bath can employ empathy 50 T/F questions grouped statistically to form scales. MOSTLY applicable for thinking about problems, A profile is compared to that of others ("a 2-7-1")
Why Were the Traits from the Big 5 Picked?
One of the original ideas behind these five basic factors is that they are orthogonal, which means that getting a high or low score on any one of them is not supposed to predict whether a person will get a high or low score on any of the others.
Pros os Typology
One recent analysis showed that people classified into a particular type were likely to belong to the same type four years later. But older people were less likely to belong to the under-controlled type, and more likely to belong to the well-adjusted, or (as these investigators called it) "resilient," type than younger people. Summary of standing on several important traits related to adjustment. Important focus on how different traits within one person interact with each other.It doesn't add up to ability to predict outcomes. Maybe it could be useful for understanding?
Accurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Conscientiousness
Organized, Well lit, uncluttered, clean
too simple too easy(S-data)
Overuse on conducting S-Data
Why are Extraverts happier than introverts?
Part of the reason is extraverts are more sociable and their social activity makes them happy. They also spend their money, when they have it, on experiences such as food, travel, rather than on material things—a priority that has been shown to increase happiness.
Limited Behavioral Information ( I-Data)
People Aren't with target all the time so there use is useful for the exclusivity to specific scenarios , but limited
Problems with the P Level
People always mistake this to mean that if the P-Level is .05 that the Hypothesis is true 95% of the time, What it actually does is that it tells you that the Null-Hypothesis is True 5% of the time. Another problem is that there is no real reason why .05 is better than .06. Lastly the more people you have in your study can change your p-level. This is good because you make less error with aggregation.
Lacks of Access to Private Experience (I- Data)
People have fantasies and desires that they don't share so informants are useless in this case because they don't know this specific information in this specific case.
Neurotics and Mate poaching
People high in neuroticism are not especially likely to have people try to "poach" them away from their romantic partners. But if someone does make a move, they are less likely to resist
Theory behind the IAT
People who implicitly, or non-consciously know they have a certain trait will respond faster when the trait is paired with "me". Can examine a split between conscious/non-conscious attitudes!
Shows Versus No-Shows
People who show up have "conventional morality"
What does your room say about you?
Personal spaces make an impression that multiple observers tend to share (consensus), Accuracy of that impression is highest for Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Transactions with physical environment appear to leave several types of valid clues about personality in offices and bedrooms.A mix of valid cue utilization and invalid cue utilization (bias) occurs in these judgments.
What is the New, Shorter form of a TAT test?
Picture Story Exercise PSE implicit
High Self Monitors Examples
Place themselves in central positions in social networks, make more new friends, use more strategies to influence their coworkers, are willing to lie in order to get a date, masturbate more often, Guided by situational cues. (-consistent), Good actors! Good job interview impression!Skilled in social techniques of imaginative play, pretending, and humor (e.g., is good at the game charades), Talkative, Self-dramatizing, histrionic (exaggerates emotion), Initiates humor, Verbally fluent, Expressive in face and gestures,Having social poise and presence
What can High Conscientiousness predict?
Predicts success in college and is correlated with years of schooling. Examined in integrity tests, predicts work success and decreased counterproductive work behavior. Predicts spouse's job success, too! Might explain sustained motivation in general.
Projective test can be used to analyze people from a distance
Psychologists have tried to assess needs and other aspects of personality by analyzing the content of stories, essays, letters, and even political speeches.
What should you expect in a valid test and qualified interpretation?
Published, peer-reviewed research exists. (Data must exist re: reliability and validity), Describe how to detect errors, etc. Norms are available to interpret data. Are they applicable for this use of the test?
Inaccurate Clues for Personality by Looking at a Room Openness
Quantity of books, clutter
Advantages(2) (B-Data)
Range of contexts, Appearance of Objectivity
Natural B Data Advantage
Realistic
Natural B Data
Records based on normal, ongoing life activities: Daily diary, Experience-sampling methods ("beeper"), EAR: electronically activated recorder, Ambulatory assessment: using computer-assisted methods to assess behavior, thoughts, and
Advantages of factor analysis
Reduces the multiple possible reflections of personality into a smaller set of traits, Helps identify whether some items and/or traits matter more than others, Helps create & evaluate assessment devices.
Internal activities (Behavioral residue)
Repeated behaviors in that space
External activities (Behavioral residue)
Repeated behaviors outside of that space
Behavioral Residue
Repeated behaviors, Links w/Traits, Recent and past Goals and projects, Hard to fake
Feeling Regulators, Personal
Relationships mementos, Also identity claims (some types)
What can the Rorschach Ink Blot test do well?
Research also suggests that the Rorschach might be particularly valid—and actually somewhat better than the MMPI—for predicting specific outcomes such as suicide, attendance at treatment sessions, or commitment to a mental hospital
Why It is not uncommon for the same person to score high on an implicit (projective) measure and low on an explicit (questionnaire) measure, or vice versa?
Researchers have proposed that this is because the motives measured by the TAT reflect what people want, whereas traits as measured by questionnaires predict how these motives will be expressed.
In a study about political orientation, People who used a Q-Sort to described children who 20 years later became Liberal said?
Resourceful, independent, self-reliant, and confident. (+ gratification, — cohesion)
S Data (Self)
Response are similar to what other have to say about the subject but this step is important because the biggest expert on the subject is the subject itself. Usually questionnaires or surveys, Most frequent data source , High face validity
Projective Test Examples:
Rorschach Ink Blot test, The Draw-A-Person test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Most Personality Test are what type of Data?
S-Data, S-data measures can sometimes predict consciously controlled behaviors better
We experience different "situations" because of
Selection effects, Perception/Interpretation effects, and Evocation and Manipulation
Identity claims
Self-directed, Other-directed
Extraversion
Sensitive to rewards (esp. social) and positive emotions, May react less to sensory stimuli.
Historically there were many different theoretical approaches based on different paradigms/approaches and with confusing differences in terminology.
Similar terms for different ideas! Different terms for similar ideas!
Funder's Third Law
Something beats nothing, two times out of three.At different times, various psychologists have argued that self-report questionnaires, demographic data, peers' descriptions of personality, projective personality tests, summaries of clinical cases, or certain laboratory assessment procedures should never be used. The reason given? The method might produce misleading results.
Definitional truth(I-Data)
Something is true by definition. Attractiveness is how you attract other, therefore only others can answer and what they say will be true by definition.
What do people mean when they refer to the Big 2?
Stability and Plasticity
Construct validation approach
Start w/definition and a theory of the construct (attribute).
Biological Mechanisms of Extroversion:
Stronger response to potential rewards
What 3 of The 4 dimensions of Narcissism are related to high self-esteem + low depression
Superiority/Arrogance Self-Absorption/Self-Admiration Leadership/Authority
Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)
Tells Employer who is a good candidate for a Job at their company
SVIB (Strong Vocational Interest Blank)
Tells people suitable job for themselves
16PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
Tells people suitable jobs for themselves
Authoritarians
Tend to be uncooperative and inflexible when playing experimental games, and they are relatively likely to obey an authority figure's commands to harm another personae, likely to oppose equal rights for transsexuals, and, if they are Americans, tended to favor the 2003 American military intervention in Iraq. Authoritarians also watch more television. Desire for strong/punitive external authorities who impose structure and punish deviance. Society should involve rigid hierarchy, simple structures. Turn one's will to external authority. Able to avoid making personal choices. Uncooperative and inflexible, likely to obey command to harm others, fewer positive emotions. Predicts overt and implicit prejudice
Neuroticism
Tend to deal ineffectively with problems in their lives and react more negatively to stressful events. stressed, taking things too seriously, being unable to handle criticism, and even feeling oppressed by life, unhappy, to have problems in their family relationships, to be dissatisfied with their jobs, and even to engage in criminal behavior
In a study about political orientation, People who used a Q-Sort to described children who 20 years later became Conservative said?
Tend to feel guilty, as anxious in unpredictable environments, and as unable to handle stress well. (+ structure, - change). Likely to have parents who themselves scored high on authoritarianism. Thus, the later political beliefs of their children might be associated with these early emotional traits, but could also be a direct result of absorbing the outlook of their parents and perhaps even genetic similarity.
One trait inventories
Test that have to do with one trait alone
Cross-Validation
That it can predict correctly
Research that seeks to connect traits with behavior uses four basic methods
The Single-Trait Approach, The Many-Trait Approach, The Essential-Trait Approach, The Typological Approach
Limitations To Factor Analysis
The Test is only as good as the creator, The meaning behind the factor that correlates items together is subjective to the creator.
Situationism
The belief that behavior is largely driven by the situation, and that personality is relatively unimportant.
Four Kinds of Clues (By Henry Murray)
The best way to resolve the ambiguities of S, I, L, and B data is to compare them with each other.
The Binomial Effect Size Display (BESD)
The computational method begins by assuming a correlation of zero, which gives each of the four cells in the table an entry of 50 (i.e., if there is no effect, then 50 participants receiving the drug will live and 50 will die—it does not matter whether they get the treatment or not). Then we take the actual correlation (in the example, .40), remove the decimal to produce a two-digit number (.40 becomes 40), divide by 2 (in this case yielding 20), and add it to the 50 in the upper-lefthand cell (yielding 70). Then we adjust the other three cells by subtraction. Because each row and column must total 100, the four cells, reading clockwise, become 70, 30, 70, and 30.
Measurement Error
The cumulative effect of such extraneous influencesThe variation of a number around its true mean due to uncontrolled, essentially random influences; also called error variance.
Face Validity
The degree to which an assessment instrument, such as a questionnaire, on its face appears to measure what it is intended to measure. For example, a face valid measure of sociability might ask about attendance at parties.
Disadvantages (Case Method)
The degree to which its findings can be generalized is unknown. Each case contains numerous, and perhaps literally thousands, of specific facts and variables.
What is the Controversy of Openness?
The difficulty arises in part because some researchers view the trait it as reflecting a person's approach to intellectual matters or even her basic level of intelligence, while others see it as a result of the degree to which one has been taught to value cultural matters such as literature, art, and music. It has the spottiest record of replication across different samples and different cultures. People argue that people can score high on openness to experience without necessarily being "cultured" in their education and background, and even without being particularly intelligent. Being open minded does not make you right, and can sometimes imply the reverse.
The Typological Approach
The doubt is whether it is really valid to compare people with each other quantitatively on the same trait dimensions. Perhaps they are so qualitatively different. Why would you judge an orange on an appleness scale. This evaluates Qualities on there own. So, no Introvert and Extrovert on one scale, but Each quality on its own. Does not help anymore than the other Approaches
Research
The exploration of the unknown, emphasizes thinking over memorizing, gathering of data (New Knowledge)
Experiments
The idea of B data is that participants are found, or put, in some sort of a situation, sometimes referred to as a testing situation, Ideal would be to fallow someone around undetected,
Where to get your objective question for Factor-Analysis tests
The items can come from anyplace; the test writer's own imagination is one common source. A more sophisticated strategy is to develop a theory about what you want to measure, in hopes that the theory might suggest items to include. Another, surprisingly common way to get items for new tests is simply to get them from old tests.
Self Verification
The process by which people try to bring others to treat them in a manner that confirms their self-conceptions.
self-verification
The process by which people try to bring others to treat them in a manner that confirms their self-conceptions.For example, if you think you are a friendly person, or intelligent, or ethical, you might make an extra effort to have other people see you that way too.
The Test is only as good as the creator (Limitations To Factor Analysis)
The quality of the information you get from a factor analysis will be limited by the quality of the items you put into it in the first place, In theory, a factor analysis requires an initial set of items that are fairly representative of the set of all possible items.
What does the Q-Sort for Men and Depression imply?
The risk factor is under-control; unless they can control their emotions and behavior, they may get into trouble constantly and have difficulty finding a useful or comfortable niche in life.
Behavioral Confirmation
The self-fulfilling prophecy tendency for a person to become the kind of person others expect him or her to be; also called the expectancy effect.
Construct Validation
The strategy of establishing the validity of a measure by comparing it with a wide range of other measures. The process of testing the assumptions behind a construct such as intelligence or sociability is called
The Rational Method
The strategy of this approach is to come up with items that seem directly, obviously, and rationally related to what the test developer wishes to measure. The data gathered are S data, or direct and undisguised self reports, and therefore have face validity. Buzz Feed quiz-made in this form. Doesn't have to fit requirements in order to be used, it just will be in reliable and not valid
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The task is to make up stories about a series of pictures like these. Themes in the stories are interpreted as indicating "implicit motives" of which the person might not himself be aware, (TAT) asks clients to tell stories about a set of drawings of people and ambiguous events, has a system of scoring
Con for Trait approach
The trait approach, by its very nature, is prone to neglect aspects of psychology common to all people, as well as the ways in which each person is unique.
From Assessment to Understanding
The usefulness of personality assessment goes beyond its ability to predict behavior, performance, and life outcomes. When we learn which personality traits are associated with certain behaviors, we can learn about why people do what they do. We have seen how personality assessment can shed light on how people use language, why some people use drugs or are depressed, and how personality is associated with outcomes ranging from political beliefs to occupational success. This kind of increased understanding is the most important goal of science.
The Situationist Argument
There is an upper limit to how well one can predict what a person will do based on any measurement of that person's personality. This upper limit is a low upper limit. Therefore, situations are more important than personality traits in determining behavior.Therefore, not only is the professional practice of personality assessment mostly a waste of time, but also, everyday intuitions about people are fundamentally flawed. The trait words used to describe people are not legitimately descriptive, because people generally tend to see others as being more consistent across situations than they really are. Indeed, people who believe personality is important commit the "fundamental attribution error"
Explain the Study that looked at Certainty Words (A Many—Trait Approach Study)
There was a study where participants underwent a 1-hour life-history interview, with questions that ranged over past experiences, current activities, and future prospects. The interview was recorded, and then the questions were deleted, leaving just the participants' answers. Then with LIWC (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count) The program calculates the number of words that appear in each of a long list of categories . Then they also gathered personality ratings of each participant from people who knew them well using the 100-item Q-sort described above.
Why are Extroverts more physically attractive that Introverts?
They also exercise more. This may be why they attend more parties, where they drink more alcohol But they had better be careful, because research also shows that extraverts are more likely to be on the receiving end of attempts to steal them away from their steady romantic partners (Schmitt & Buss, 2001). Some of these attempts at "mate poaching" (as the researchers call it) occur at parties, where drinking is involved.
What are people high in openness prone to do?
They are more prone than most people to be politically liberal, to use drugs, and to play a musical instrument. They appreciate nature more, which makes them more active in environmental causes
Why do adults Believe in Personality
They are more stable and have had time to find their consist Identity
What are Neurotics particularly sensitive to?
They are particularly sensitive to social threats, such as indications that other people do not accept or support them. Ineffective problem solving, coping
The maladjusted under-controlling person
They are too impulsive, prone to be involved in activities such as crime and unsafe sex, and tends to wreak general havoc on other people and herself. This is an interesting typology because it suggests that there is one way to be well adjusted, but two ways to have psychological problems.
What impression do Narcissist have over time?
They come to be described as manipulative, overbearing, entitled, vain, arrogant, and exhibitionistic. that The charm of narcissists tends to wear off over time—they are the kind of people who, the longer you know them, the less you may like them.
What is a cause of aggression for Narcissist?
They may become aggressive when their positive view of themselves is threatened and when other people reject them they may take out their frustration on innocent individuals who weren't even involved.
Methods of Objective Test Construction
Three basic methods are commonly used for constructing objective personality tests: the rational method, the factor analytic method, and the empirical method.
Effect Size
They move on to calculate a number that will reflect the magnitude, as opposed to the likelihood, of their result. More meaningful than a significance level. Effect size measures help show "importance" or magnitude—not p-value Many measures of effect size have been developed, including standardized regression weights (beta coefficients), odds ratios, relative risk ratios, and a statistic called Cohen's d (the difference in means divided by the standard deviation). The most commonly used and my personal favorite is the correlation coefficient.
High Self Monitors Respond to what type of Advertisement
They respond to add's that are creative like for energy Drink that says "Fast Track"
What type of things do Agreeable people say?
They say nice things more often than mean things
In an Experiment, people looked at women's faces and the participants thought they could hear their own heartbeat,but in really the heartbeat was just a recording, How did high self monitors know they found a women attractive?
They thought they were attracted to the women whose pictures they saw when they thought their hearts had sped up.
How were people who used a relatively large number of certainty words described by I-data
They were described by their acquaintances as (among other attributes) intelligent, orally fluent, the kind of person who is turned to for advice, ambitious, and generous. It does seem like people who use such words are not simply covering up their own insecurity. Overall, they appear to be smart and well functioning. But not quite all of the traits are consistent with this pattern
Pro for Trait Approach
This focus on comparisons is one of the great strengths of the trait approach. It is important to understand and to assess how people differ.
What is The California F scale (F meaning "fascism")?
This scale aimed to measure the basic antidemocratic psychological orientation that these researchers believed to be the common foundation of anti-Semitism, racial prejudice, and political pseudo-conservatism—which they viewed as a pathological mutation of true (and non pathological) political conservatism.
Cons of Typology
Three replicable types have been identified in longitudinal research, but typological classification fails to be more useful than using quantitative (trait) scores for predicting behavior.
Combination of Methods
To be worth its salt, any personality scale must show that it can predict what people do, how they are seen by others, and how they fare in life.The best way to select items for a personality scale is not haphazardly, but with the intent to sample a particular domain of interest (the rational approach). Factor analysis should then be used to confirm that items that seem similar to each other actually elicit similar responses from real participants (Briggs & Cheek, 1986). Finally, any personality measure is only as good as the other things with which it correlates or that it can predict (the empirical approach).
How to prevent General arousal theory of criminality
To prevent these people from becoming dangerous, according to another psychologist, perhaps they should be encouraged to enter stimulating but harmless professions such as stunt person, explorer, skydiving, exhibitionist, or radio talk-show host.
0.4 is not small
Two kinds of standard are possible absolute According to the BESD .40 is 70% right of the time
Beyond the Big Five (criticisms)
Traits were left out of the factor analysis: honesty, humility Other less trait-like psychological attributes. Even advocates have acknowledged that the list may not encompass attributes such as sensuality, frugality, humor, and cunning so we can look forward to years of debate as to whether the Big Five has to be expanded to a Big Six. Actually, the proposed label is not Big Six, but rather HEXACO, which stands for honesty-humility (H), emotionality (E), extraversion (X), agreeableness (A), conscientiousness (C), and openness (O)
Qualities of an agreeable person
Trust (not suspicious), Straightforward (not deceitful/manipulative) Altruism (not self-centered, competitive) Friendly, Compliance (not stubborn, inflexible) Modesty (not prideful, arrogant) Tender-Mindedness (not aloof or antagonistic)
Ethical Issues
Truthfulness, Use of Psychological research, Deception
College students higher in openness to experience are more likely to believe in...
UFOs, astrology, and the existence of ghosts
The Response to The Situationist Argument
Unfair Literature Review, We can do better, 0.4 is not small
How many Psychologist use the Rorschach Ink Blot test
Used by 82% of clinical psychologists. Keep in mind everyone is old
Individual/Personal Agreeableness
Virtues: (+)Gratitude, (+) forgiveness, (+) humor,(+) religious beliefs/behavior, (+) cultural identification, Health: (+) longevity, (-) heart disease, (+) mental health, recover faster from illness Interpersonal, (+)Peer acceptance & friendship (children) ((-)bullying relations), (+)Dating satisfaction, (+)Sensitive parenting, positivity!
Facets of Extroversion
Warmth, Gregarious, Assertive, Active, Excitement-Seeking, Positive Emotion
Multi-determination
We see a result in L data but the cause of the result can come from anywhere so this may lead to misleading results about targets personality. example: I have a messy room right now, i could have been robed.
Evidence for the Universality of the Big Five
When translated to other languages, four or five of the factors appear. When starting with other languages: some overlap but not one-to-one correspondence Scores vary by geographic region
Commonality
Which consists of items that are answered in the same way by at least 95 percent of all people. (crated by Harrison Gough inventor of CPI)
Hard to fake (Ignoring the Content)
With a personality test of the straightforward, S-data variety, you can describe yourself the way you want to be seen, and that is indeed the score you will get. But because the items on empirically derived scales sometimes seem backward or absurd, it is difficult to know how to answer in such a way as to guarantee the score you want. This is often held up as one of the great advantages of the empirical approach
When will timorous conservatives of either gender feel more comfortable and safe?
With already structured and predictable—therefore traditional— environments; they will tend to be resistant to change toward what might be self-threatening and forsaking of established modes of behavior; they will be attracted by and will tend to support decisive
What does the Q-Sort for Women and Depression imply?
Women may be at risk for depression when they are over-controlled and never venture outside of the limits society traditionally sets for them.
Large amount of information(S-Data)
You are with You all the time and So you can say what others don't know about you
Intrinsic Importance(L-data)
You can measure if you really are helping people The goal of every applied psychologist is to predict, and even have a positive effect on, real-life outcomes such as criminal behavior, employment status, success in school, accident-proneness, or the health of her clients.
In a study about depression, People who used a Q-Sort to described boys at 7 said?
Young men who experienced depression at age 18 had been identified at age 7, and in some cases as early as age 3, as "unsocialized, aggressive, and under-controlled
Advantages(5) (I- Data)
a Large amount of information, real world basis, common sense, definitional truth, causal Force
Psychoticism
a blend of aggressiveness, creativity, and impulsiveness (Neuroticism)
Agreeable people and mate poaching
agreeable people who are married or in committed relationships are approached by somebody attempting to entice them into an affair, they are more likely to tell him or her to get lost
Accesses to thoughts(S-Data)
all of your inner mental life is visible to you, and only you. You know your own fantasies, hopes, dreams, and fears; you directly experience your emotions.unique access to your own intentions.
Construct:
an idea about a psychological attribute that goes beyond what might be assessed through any particular method of measurement.
What is used instead of stalking?
are diaries and Natural b data such as ambulatory assessment—using computer-assisted methods to assess behaviors, thoughts, and feelings during participants' normal daily activities—is progressing rapidly Pro: Very Informative Con: Very time consuming
Where do highly agreeable people live?
are more likely to be found in the eastern half of the country than in the western half
Where do people high in openness to experience live?
areas near New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami
Attributional complexity, Scale
asks about the level of complexity in your thinking about the causes of behavior.
Self-monitoring scale
asks how closely you watch other people for cues as to how to behave.,
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
attempts to answer the question, "What are the chances I would have found this result if nothing were really going on?". Opposite of Hypothesis, what you think is related is not.
Gender Bias
before 1960 research was done on men only Women are more likely to volunteer to be a= in a study then men are
Ego Resilience
can adjust their level of control from high to low and back again as circumstances warrant.
Negative Definition of Low Self—Monitors
described as insensitive, inflexible, and stubborn. Distrustful • Perfectionist • Touchy and irritable • Anxious • Introspective • Independent, Feeling cheated and victimized by life, the low self-monitor probably doesn't care.
Scientists-in-training,
do much less memorization; instead, they are taught to question what is already known and to learn methods to find out more.
Causal Force (S-Data)
efficacy expectations, self verification
What 1 of The 4 dimensions of Narcissism is not related to high self-esteem + low depression
entitlement/exploitative-ness," which is basically the obnoxious, arrogant element.
Only as the creator (Ignoring the Content)
even more than tests derived through other methods, empirically derived tests are only as good as the criteria by which they are developed or against which they are cross-validated.
Personality
everyone is unique, their can be a more constant understanding of oneself
Problems with the Law (Ignoring the Content)
explaining to a person why certain questions are being asked can be difficult.As the social and legal climate has changed over time, however, developers of empirical tests have been forced, to some degree against their will, to acknowledge that item content does matter after all. Regardless of how their responses are used, individuals completing any kind of personality test are revealing things about themselves.
Maybe they cant tell you(S-data)
fish do not notice they are wet Fish-and-water effect Active distortion of memory Lack of self-insight
Authority/Respect(Conservative Value)
following the orders of legitimate leaders
Compare the answers given by the different groups of participants (Empirical Test construction)
if successful ministers answer some items in a distinctive way, these items might be combined into a "minister" scale. New participants who score high on this scale, because they answer the way successful ministers do, might be guided to become ministers themselves. (The SVIB was constructed this way.)After the items are selected based on the responses of people in the initial groups,
People Describe people High in Openness as
imaginative, intelligent, original, curious, artistic, inventive, and witty, and they are unlikely to be viewed as simple, shallow, or unintelligent.
a Large amount of information(I-data)
informants are with the target most likely a lot so they can give data based on many recollections with the target. the average of several judgments is much more reliable than the ratings of any single judge, and this fact gives I data a powerful advantage
Deception, why it should exist
informed consent', the lie does no harm, some topics need deception, Exner's Comprehensive System
Medical education
is technical rather than scientific, it focuses on learning what is known and how to use it.
Lexical Hypothesis
is that the important aspects of human life will be labeled, and that if something is truly important and universal, many words for it will exist in all languages.
What is Q-sorting
is the process of turning a Q-set into a Q-sort. In practice, however, these terminological distinctions tend to get lost.The most important advantage of Q-sorting is that it forces the judge to compare all of the items directly against each-other within one individual, rather than making a relative comparison across individuals.
The maladjusted over-controlling person
is too uptight for his own good, denying themselves pleasure needlessly, and being difficult to deal with at an interpersonal level.
Significance Testing
it is a result that would be unlikely to appear if everything were due only to chance. We evaluate statistical significance of results. Were these patterns in the sample data likely just due to chance
The Spearman-Brown formula
just mentioned, predicts the increase in reliability you get when you add equivalent items to a test.If k= n1/n2, the fraction by which the number of items is increased, then the reliability of the longer test is estimated by αlonger test = (kαShorter Test1) / [1+ (k—1)αShorter Test1]
Range of Contexts (B- Data)
laboratory B data is that the psychologist does not have to sit around waiting for a situation like this to happen; if people can be enticed into an experiment, the psychologist can make it happen. The variety of B data that can be gathered is limited only by the psychologist's resources, imagination, and ethics. Example (Zimbardos Prison Study)
Purity(Conservative Value)
living in a clean, moral way
Under-controlled individuals
low in ego control are more prone to act on them immediately.
Disadvantage of Being High in Extroversion
mate poaching, argumentative, need to be in control, poor time management
Implicit Association Test (IAT),
measures how quickly participants respond to instructions to discriminate between terms that apply to "me" or to "others," and between terms that are relevant, or not, to the trait being measured
Who Scores High for Low Self Monitoring
mentally ill, but that does not mean that all who score low on self monitoring are mentally iil
What do Large eyes mean in a Draw-A-Person Test?
might be taken to indicate suspiciousness or paranoia,
What do Introverts react more strongly to?
more strongly and often more negatively to sensory stimulation, introverts react more quickly and more strongly to loud, bright, or exciting stimuli—or, even, sour tastes
What does a normal result for the Q-Set look like?
most items are placed near the center and only a few (just 5 of the 100) can be placed on each end. symmetrical, and normal distribution 25
In general, what do women score higher than men on?
neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, these differences tend to be larger in wealthier, more developed nations. 10 additional factors, including seductiveness, manipulativeness, integrity, and religiosity
Narcissism
refers to excessive self-love, which can be so extreme as to be classified as a personality disorder. High self-confidence, charisma, power and its rewards. A combination of high extraversion, low conscientiousness, low openness, and low agreeableness, but that summary seems to miss the essence of the construct.
Positive Definition of Low Self—Monitors
regarded as being self-directed, having integrity, and being consistent and honest.
The Draw-A-Person test
requires the client to draw (you guessed it) a person, and the drawing is interpreted according to what kind of person is drawn (e.g., a man or a woman), which body parts are exaggerated or omitted, and so forth.
Richard Nissbet argument for the Situationist side
said the correlation does not go above .40
scientific training
teaches one to explore the unknown.
Technical training
teaches one to use what is already known;
Negative way People Look at Extroverts
tend to be argumentative, to need to be in control too much, and to not manage their time effectively, People find you annoying and you can become over weight.
Type II Error
that one variable does not have an effect on, or relationship with, another variable, when it really does. Sample size matters: larger helps detect effects!
Final Understanding of the Person situation debate
that people are psychologically different from one another, that personality traits exist, that people's impressions of each other's personalities are based on reality more than cognitive error, and that personality traits affect important life outcomes.Situational variables are relevant to how people will act under specific circumstances. Personality traits are better for describing how people act in general
Aggregation
the combining together of different measurements, such as by averaging them, Makes For less error
Content Validity
the content of the test matches the content of what it is trying to predict. A lack of content validity not only can lead to skeptical reactions among the people who take the test, but also can raise legal issues that have become increasingly troublesome in recent years.
Validity of these projective tests
the degree to which they actually measure what they are supposed to measure—is more scarce than you might expect
Persons, Situations, and Values interact in three major ways
the effect of a personality variable may depend on the situation, or vice versa. Certain types of people go to or find themselves in different types of situations.The process by which people change situations, and then react to those changes, can accelerate quickly.
real world basis(I-data)
the information given by the informants is based on real world experiences This is unique because much of psychology gets information not in this way, More likely to be relevant to important outcomes
Definitional Truth(S-Data)
they are themselves aspects of the self-view. If you think you have high self-esteem, for example, then you do—it doesn't matter what anyone else thinks.
When authoritarians feel their standard of living is declining, that crime is getting worse, and that environmental quality is declining
they become six times as likely to favor restrictions on welfare and eight times as likely to support laws to ban abortions. Authoritarians become particularly likely to support "strong" candidates for office who make them feel secure, regardless of the candidate's party
Omnibus inventories-Personality Tests
they measure a wide range of personality traits. Must be thousands of such tests, and new ones appear every day. A profile is generated and compared to norms.
How do Narcissist handle life?
they seek to defend an unrealistically inflated self-concept through means, such as bragging, that are ultimately unsuccessful, general failure to control impulses and delay gratification. Defend artificially inflated self-concept. Failure to control impulses and delay gratification
Over-controlled people
those high in the ego-control dimension tend to inhibit these impulses.
situationist
we are all the same and environment influences us we are not blame for anything
In an Experiment, people looked at women's faces and the participants thought they could hear their own heartbeat,but in really the heartbeat was just a recording, How did high self monitors know they found a women attractive?
were less likely to be influenced by the bogus heart-rate feedback.
Extraversion has a powerful influence on behavior and it actually takes effort for an extravert to act any other way
when forced to act like an introvert, extraverts get tired and revert, when allowed, to acting even more extraverted